Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology

Wall distance effect on heat transfer at high flow velocity

Marcin Kurowski, Ryszard Szwaba, Janusz Telega, Pawel Flaszynski, Fernando Tejero, Piotr Doerffer,
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Marcin Kurowski, Ryszard Szwaba, Janusz Telega, Pawel Flaszynski, Fernando Tejero, Piotr Doerffer, (2018) "Wall distance
effect on heat transfer at high flow velocity", Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, https://doi.org/10.1108/
AEAT-01-2018-0022
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 Wall distance effect on heat transfer
at high flow velocity
Marcin Kurowski, Ryszard Szwaba and Janusz Telega
Department of Experimental Aerodynamics, IMP PAN, Gdansk, Poland, and
Pawel Flaszynski, Fernando Tejero and Piotr Doerffer
Department of Aerodynamics, IMP PAN, Gdansk, Poland

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to present the results of experimental and numerical research on heat transfer distribution under the impinging jets at
various distances from the wall and high jet velocity. This work is a part of the INNOLOT Program financed by National Centre for Research and
Development.
Design/methodology/approach – The air jets flow out from the common pipe and impinge on a surface which is cooled by them, and in this way,
all together create a model of external cooling system of low-pressure gas turbine casing. Measurements were carried out for the arrangement of 26
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in-line jets with orifice diameter of 0.9 mm. Heat transfer distribution was investigated for various Reynolds and Mach numbers. The cooled wall,
made of transparent PMMA, was covered with a heater foil on which a layer of self-adhesive liquid crystal foil was placed. The jet-to-wall distance
was set to h = from 4.5 to 6 d.
Findings – The influence of various Reynolds and Mach numbers on cooled flat plate and jet-to-wall distance in terms of heat transfer effectiveness
is presented. Experimental results used for the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model development, validation and comparison with numerical
results are presented.
Practical implications – Impinging air jets is a commonly used technique to cool advanced turbines elements, as it produces large convection
enhancing the local heat transfer, which is a critical issue in the development of aircraft engines.
Originality/value – The achieved results present experimental investigations carried out to study the heat transfer distribution between the
orthogonally impinging jets from long round pipe and flat plate. Reynolds number based on the jet orifice exit conditions was varied between 2,500
and 4,000; meanwhile, for such Re, the flow velocity in jets was particularly very high, changing from M = 0.56 to M = 0.77. Such flow conditions
combination, i.e. the low Reynolds number and very high flow velocity cannot be found in the existing literature.
Keywords Heat transfer, Cooling, Impinging jet, Turbine casing
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Heat transfer is a critical issue in the development of aircraft
engines. The external cooling systems of low-pressure (LP)
blades in modern aero engines are very complex and essentially
rely on a series of circumferential feeding pipes. They have to be
designed for high efficiency, long life cycles and safe operation
in spite of being exposed to high aerothermal loadings of the
engine. In such systems, impinging jets are directed towards
the external turbine casing with the final aim of keeping the
clearance between the blade tip and the casing as constant as
possible under different engine operating conditions. The
optimization of a LP turbine performance needs to minimize
the clearances between static and rotating parts to avoid by-
pass flows around turbine blades and vanes. A typical method
for controlling such clearances is to actively control the engine
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case temperature, and then the static parts radial displacement,
during different flight conditions.
Impinging air jets is a commonly used technique to cool
advanced turbines elements, as it produces large convection
enhancing the local heat transfer. Impinging is a complex
phenomenon depending on many parameters, namely,
Reynolds number, flow velocity, nozzle-to-plate spacing and
radial position from the stagnation point. Therefore, many
experimental studies have been carried out to evaluate the heat
transfer characteristics on the surface under impinging jets.
Several literature reviews on impingement heat transfer were
published in the previous century, and they underline the main
results of studies concerning the topic of interest (Livingood
and Hrycak, 1973; Martin, 1977; Downs and James, 1987;
Jambunathan et al., 1992). These studies on impingement heat
transfer take into account the influence of the Reynolds
number. They usually do not take into consideration the flow
velocity effect. In fact, such approach brings in large that jet
diameters at the Reynolds number similarity conservation are
relatively high compared to those effectively used in a turbojet
engine casing cooling system. Nevertheless, keeping the

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology Received 12 January 2018

© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 1748-8842] Revised 5 July 2018
[DOI 10.1108/AEAT-01-2018-0022] Accepted 6 August 2018
 Wall distance effect Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Marcin Kurowski et al.

Reynolds number constant and increasing the jet diameter Figure 1 View of the test stand
leads to an important reduction of the cooling jet Mach number
in the experimental apparatus. As the Mach number can reach
nowadays values as high as 0.4 to 0.5 in modern turbojet
turbines, this approach seems to be insufficient.
In the recent decade (Brevet et al., 2001), experimental studies
which deal with this subject have been performed. It is found that
additional phenomena start to play an important role in the heat
transfer when the high velocity jet impinges the plate, i.e. only a
portion of the total temperature is recovered by the test plate.
Moreover, when the jet velocity is high, the jet static temperature
becomes noticeably lower than the ambient temperature because
the flow acceleration and entrainment effects lead to an increase in
the total temperature between the jet exit and the impinged plate,
which can happen when the impingement distance is large
enough. Recovery and entrainment effects appear especially when
the jet Mach number exceeds a certain value, which is not well
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characterized at the present state of knowledge. The jet total

temperature is equal to the ambient temperature at the nozzle
6 d. The outlet pressure corresponded to the aircraft cruise
exit, it increases through mixing in the shear layer region as the
condition and was set to Pin = 0.21 bar of the absolute value.
“cold” jet develops, and as “hot” fluid from the surroundings is
The mass flow was controlled to obtain two different Reynolds
entrained into the jet.
numbers (based on the jet diameter), namely, Re = 2,500 and
Experimental studies of Brevet et al. (2001) were conducted
4,000. Such flow conditions imply that the isentropic Mach
for high Mach numbers (up to 0.7) and small jet diameters
number at the jets exit was equal to M = 0.56 and 0.77.
down to 3 mm what implies the Reynolds number in the range
The flow path through the test section is presented in Figure 1.
of Re = 7 · 103 to 7 · 104. Trying to reduce the cooling air
The ambient air enters through the air filter, inlet control valve
consumption in the turbine cooling casing system even more,
and mass flowmeter to the inlet pipe where stagnation parameters
these dimensions and parameters are also too large. For this
of inlet gas are measured. The mass flow rate in the test section is
purpose, we undertook an experimental study in collaboration
with Avio AERO to estimate the Mach number effect on the controlled during the measurements by a precise needle control
impingement heat transfer coefficient for a diameter smaller valve. Next, the air flows into the pipe with jets. The jets exit
than 1 mm and for the jets outlet pressure typical at cruise follows to a low-pressure chamber controlled by a pout control
conditions (much lower than 1 bar). For such flow conditions, valve (Figure 1). To investigate the heat transfer, liquid crystal
the Reynolds numbers are very low, i.e. in the range from 2,500 (LC) sheet for temperature distribution measurements was
to 4,000, approaching the laminar flow conditions. As a row of placed on the surface under the jets, on the bottom wall of the test
impinging jets is used in a turbine cooling casing system, a row section. All the heat transfer measurements were made on the
of impinging jets was applied in our test stand to take into bottom plate of the stand. It is fabricated of 15-mm-thick
account the mutual jets interaction in the heat transfer process. transparent poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). The impinging
flow originates from the jets in the pipe above the plate, which is
Experimental setup shown schematically in Figure 2. The plate is covered with
25- m m-thick heater foil (INCONEL) on which a layer of
Test stand
The measurement test stand is shown in Figure 1. This test
Figure 2 Measurement plate cross-section schematic
section is a model of a turbine cooling casing system. A pipe with a
row of 26 jets is located downstream of the inlet. It is a straight
pipe with a series of in-line holes. The jets outlet is connected to
vacuum tanks through a control valve. The test stand, apart from
the outlet pressure control, has a possibility to independently
control the inlet pressure. A camera for temperature measurement
of the test wall was located beneath the test section.
After the test stand assembly, the validation experiments were
carried out. Four different Reynolds numbers were selected
(namely, Re = 2,500, 4,000, 6,000 and 10,000), and series of 30
measurements for each case were conducted. For each case of
Reynolds number obtained, standard deviation of averaged heat
transfer coefficient (HTC) values was 2 per cent. The pressure drop
in the front and back of the jets section was measured, and the
difference is small enough that its effect on HTC results is negligible.
As has been aforementioned that the jet diameter was very
small, d = 0.9 mm, and the distance between jets was from l to
 Wall distance effect
Marcin Kurowski et al.
self-adhesive LC foil is placed. The LC is sensitive to temperature
between 30°C and 50°C.
While summarizing, one can say that in general the following
measurements were carried out during the tests:

inlet flow stagnation parameters (temperature and pressure);

temperature of the lower outer surface of the measurement
plate;

temperature of the heater foil;

temperature distribution on the test wall;

heating power of the foil;

pressures along the flow path; and

mass flow.
The camera is a 3CCD JAY camera capable of taking 30 fps
films with 24-bit colour depth (8 bits for each of the red-green-
blue components). The camera observes the LC foil through
the transparent PMMA wall. On the other side, the LCs are
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covered with the heater foil (Figure 2). The heater foil is
powered by a power supply system capable of controlling and
supplying the necessary amount of power to it.
HTC calculation
Because of the measurement plate dimensions, the frame
covers more than the heater foil region which is the area of
interest. It was decided that HTC distribution would be
investigated in a region 10 mm longer than the jets row length
(26 jets, spaced 5 mm in the pipe) and expanding 15 mm across
the jets centre line on the plate, as depicted in Figure 3.
In Figure 3, the red dashed lines indicate 26 jets, the yellow
solid lines mark the centre of the jets row and a region
expanding 15 mm from the jets. The 15 mm distance was
chosen, as it was sufficient to embrace a region of significant
activity of the impinging jet, and still sufficiently distant from
the power supply buses, the influence of which was neglected.
The axial distance from the extreme jets was selected as twice
the distance between the jets, yielding 10 mm.
The temperature distribution field is calculated from the data
depicted in Figure 3, by using the calibration curves of the LC.
The calibration determines the relation of the LC’s colour (in
terms of the red, green and blue component value) versus
temperature. This process was done in the form of in-situ
calibration using the same experimental test stand and, in this
way, conserving the same illumination conditions as in the
experiment. The foil with LC was gradually heated to a set of
temperatures (from 29°C to 51°C). When the desired
temperature (specific calibration point, e.g. 32°C) had been
achieved, a photograph of the region was taken, and the values
of the colour components were extracted. Based on this set of
discrete points, the calibration curves were determined. A
MATLAB code for determining the temperature from the LC’s
colour, exploiting these curves, was developed.
Figure 3 Definition of the interest region
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Further, when the temperature field during the experiment is
found, the HTC is calculated from equation (1):
 
qconv W
HTC ¼ (1)
DT m2  K
where HTC (W/m2 · K) – heat transfer coefficient, DT (K) =
Tw  Tamb  the temperature difference between the discrete
point on the wall (measured by means of LC) and the jet
temperature, the same as the ambient air, while qconv represents
the heat flux transferred by convection between the tested
surface and the mainstream flow.
To correctly evaluate qconv, the conductive heat losses across
the PMMA surface (qcond) must be accounted for. To calculate
that following 1-D approach, qconv is expressed by equation (2):
k
qconv ¼ qjoule  qcond ¼ qjoule  ðTw  Tamb Þ (2)
s
where s represents the tested surface thickness (m) and k is the
thermal conductivity of the PMMA (W/m · K).
The heat flux value is calculated as the electric power of the
heater foil (qjoule), reduced by the factor resulting from the heat
conduction (qcond) from the foil to the wall. The temperature
measurement on the bottom wall was carried out only at one
point (more points would limit access/view of the camera).
Because of the lack of measurements in other points, Tamb was
taken as a reference to calculate qcond. The assumption of Tamb
as the lower temperature, instead of plate bottom surface
temperature (Tbottom wall), results in slightly higher conduction
heat loss qcond and allows, under given conditions, a better
comparison between different cases, while the same
methodology was maintained. Equation (1) stands in every
point of the domain, i.e. the set of equations for the whole
surface is uncoupled and can be solved in every point (PIXEL)
of the investigated temperature field independently, yielding a
distribution of HTC over the surface.
Numerical model description
Apart from the experimental investigations, 3-D numerical
simulations were also carried out. The computational domain
is created according to the test section configuration; however,
it includes one nozzle (one jet) only. Such simplification arises
from the assumption that the flow conditions for each nozzle
(jet) are the same.
A general view of the computational domain is shown in Figure 4.
The presented results are obtained by means of the Ansys/Fluent,
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) with k-v shear stress
transport turbulence model. The boundary conditions were applied
according to the measured flow conditions, Re = 4,000 and M =
0.77. At the nozzle (a hole in the pipe) inlet total conditions, the
normal flow direction and turbulence quantities (turbulence
intensity = 1 per cent and viscosity ratio = 10) were set, while the
static pressure was applied at the outlet.
As aforementioned, only one jet was investigated, and hence,
the periodic condition was set on the lateral surfaces (normal to
the pipe axis). An important condition set at the fluid/solid
interface, at the location of the investigated wall, was the heat
generation rate. The heat generation rate allows including the
effects of the applied heating foil. The heat generation rate was
 Wall distance effect
Marcin Kurowski et al.
Figure 4 Computational domain
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calculated according to the measured electric power which was
applied to the foil. As the heat transfer in the solid part (blue) is
highly important for temperature distribution, the selected parts
of the test section are also included. Below the investigated plate,
an additional fluid domain is applied to allow the heat transfer
outside the test section. Flow model and numerical settings are
the same for all fluid zones. Because of an unknown temperature
at the bottom side of plate, the inflow/outflow conditions were set
and air recirculation below the investigated plate was resolved. At
the inlet, total pressure and total temperature were set according
to the measured ambient conditions, while a static pressure was
set at the outlet to enforce flow velocity less than 1 m/s.
The block structured mesh for fluid and solid zones was
generated by python scripts in IGG/Numeca. The mesh is
refined close to the investigated walls (y1 approximately 1), and
the total number for the fluid part contains 6 M hexahedral
cells, while the solid part consists of 0.78 M hexahedral cells.
High-quality mesh is generated close to the cooling wall with
nearly orthogonal cells and expansion ratio of approximately
1.15. Study of mesh refinement in the impinging jet zone was
carried out to reduce mesh effect on heat transfer coefficient on
the cooled wall.
Results and discussion
Numerical simulations
The example of HTC distribution on the wall for the flow case
of Re = 4,000 and h = 6 d made in the experiment is shown in
Figure 5. This is a view which in zoom shows the heat transfer
phenomenon in the vicinity of one single jet. For this jet, a
normalized HTC distribution (Figure 5, vertical dashed line)
versus a non-dimensional distance r/d from the jet stagnation
point is shown in Figure 6. As one can see in the figures beneath
the jet creates one circumference local maximum of heat
transfer with a centre at a distance of about 1.6 to 1.7 d from the
jet stagnation point. The local heat transfer peak at this position
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Figure 5 Heat transfer (normalized HTC) distribution in the vicinity of a
single jet
Figure 6 Normalized HTC distribution versus distance from the jet
stagnation point
1.2
1 EXP
CFD
0.8
HTC/HTCmax 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
–15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15
r/d
can be linked with the transition from the laminar to the
turbulent boundary layer. At greater radial distances from the
stagnation point, a drop in the heat transfer rate occurs because
of the flow velocity decrease in the radial direction. Similar
results with the local heat transfer peak in this region were
obtained both experimentally by Gardon and Akfirat (1965)
and numerically by Aillaud et al. (2016).
Specifically, very detailed analysis of the physics of the flow
under the impinging jet by means of large eddy simulation was
introduced by Aillaud et al. (2016). In this study, they show
that the secondary peak (about r/d =1.6) can be explained by an
intermittent formation and convection of secondary vortices.
This region coincides with the location of the unsteady
boundary layer flow separation that occurs just before the
formation of secondary vortices at r/d = 1. The region near the
jet stagnation point relates to the primary vortices which orient
upwards as the radial location increases. The primary vortices
impinge the wall as expected, inducing an adverse pressure
gradient and separation of the boundary layer. The separation
process induces low heat transfer and causes the local
minimum in the mean heat transfer distribution where the
separation evolves into a secondary vortex. Secondary vortices,
in addition to the primary ones, organize the mixing near the
wall producing a fluid flux towards the plate in the region of the
heat transfer enhancement.
However, one fact in the results shown in Figures 5 and 6
is worth emphasizing and is very interesting. The heat
transfer distribution in which the maximum is in the location
 Wall distance effect
Marcin Kurowski et al.
about r/d = 1.6 and is noticeable higher than in the jet
stagnation point, is in its own way specific. In almost all results
found in the literature, the HTC value in the stagnation point
was higher than the second local maximum at a distance larger
than 0.5 d from the jet centre. A probable explanation of such
distribution goes in the direction of a very specific flow
parameter combining the nozzle geometry and a low Reynolds
number. At such conditions the flow near the stagnation point
can be laminar, particularly with a very low Reynolds number,
what induces a flow pattern where shear stresses in the
deflection zone are lower in relation to the shears downstream of
the transition enhanced by the secondary vortices. A similar
HTC distribution close to the stagnation point at a distance up
to 3 d was predicted by numerical simulations. In this case, the
HTC peak is located at r/d = 1.3. At a larger distance, the
difference is greater. A probable reason for that is different heat
conduction and temperature distribution in the test section
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parts. The measurements indicate the existence of a plateau in
the heat transfer distribution at the location between about
5 10 d. It is formed as a result of the test section configuration,
and the length is much greater than the effective channel width.
The location of the maximum HTC is correlated with the
nozzle diameter and velocity distribution in a jet zone close
to the wall. As shown in Figure 7, the velocity distribution in
the middle section indicates the location of maximum
velocity near the wall in the range from r/d = 1 to 1.5. The
velocity is increasing up to approximately 1.3 d location, and
then, it is decreasing. As a result, the location of the HTC
maximum depends on the local velocity and shear stress
distribution.
Experimental investigations
In the frame of measurement preparation for every value of the
Reynolds number and for the jet-to-wall distance h = 6 d, a series
of 30 subsequent heat transfer experiments were performed.
For every single experiment, the following magnitudes were
determined:
Figure 7 Velocity distribution at cross section
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology

the HTC value averaged over the whole investigated
region;

the mean HTC value over all the same measurement cases
(one value for every Reynolds number); and

the value of standard deviation of the averaged HTC.
In general, one can say that the standard deviation of the mean
HTC during all the experiments does not exceed the rate of 2
per cent.
The plots with normalized HTC (HTC/HTCmax) distributions
averaged in the direction parallel to the pipe with jets in the region
of interest of the test wall and for different flow cases are shown in
Figures 8 and 9. The averaging was made calculating the mean
value, for every horizontal line (in the X-coordinate direction), from
the top to the bottom of the interest region (Figure 3).
Figures 8 and 9 show that the change of the heat transfer level
with the jet-to-wall distance decrease is very intensive in the
vicinity of the jet impinging area. Taking into account the error
bars, this change in the heat transfer is about two times, what is
significantly different from the results which one can find in the
literature. However, in the literature many studies concern heat
transfer at a flow velocity of up to M = 0.2. As Brevet et al.
(2001) show in their experiments at a given impingement
distance h/d, it appears that the mean Nusselt numbers fit the
same function of the Reynolds number Re independently of the
Figure 8 Normalized HTC distribution averaged along the channel
length, Re = 2,500
Figure 9 Normalized HTC distribution averaged along channel length,
Re = 4,000
 Wall distance effect
Marcin Kurowski et al.
jet diameter and independently of the Mach number M as long
as the Mach number does not exceed 0.2. In our experiment,
the Mach numbers for Re = 2,500 and 4,000 are equal to M =
0.56 and 0.77, respectively, so they are much higher than 0.2.
When the Mach number in the jet exceeds 0.2, it has been
observed that the mean Nusselt number is still mainly ruled by
the Reynolds number, but a higher Mach number (>0.2)
increases sensibly the mean Nusselt number.
Moreover, Obot et al. (1979a, 1979b, 1982) investigated the
nozzle geometry effects on the velocity profile at the nozzle exit,
which might be expected to influence the flow vertical structure
around the jet circumference and the turbulence level
generated in the shear layer. They suggested that the variations
in turbulence because of different nozzle designs brought about
variations in the measured heat transfer rate, particularly in the
optimal nozzle-to-plate spacing for the maximum heat transfer.
For a nozzle with a sharp-edged inlet and the length-to-
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diameter ratio of 1 (Re = 29,500), the maximum stagnation
point Nusselt number, equal to 155, occurs at h/d = 4, and with
a contoured nozzle, the maximum is 20 per cent lower and
occurs at h/d = 8. The data given by Popiel and Boguslawski
(1988) show that the area mean heat transfer because of an
impinging jet issuing from a contoured ASME nozzle is 25 per
cent less than that of a jet from a sharp-edged orifice when h/d =
4, Re = 20,000 and r/d = 1. Hoogendoorn (1977) investigated,
inter alia, the effect of small-scale turbulence on the heat
transfer in impinging jet systems. Hoogendoorn showed that
the level of turbulence at the nozzle exit had an impact on the
heat transfer at the stagnation point. For instance, an increase
in the axial turbulence intensity from 0.5 to 3.2 per cent (at
Re = 60,000 and h/d = 2) results in an increase in the Nusselt
number at the stagnation point of around 20 per cent.
Our experiments are in agreement with the tendency of the
heat transfer change with these experiments taking into account
both the velocity effect and the nozzle geometry effects. Nozzles
(jets) with sharp-edged inlets with the length-to-diameter ratio
lower than 1 were used in our experiment. In case of very low
Reynolds numbers when the jet-to-wall distance decreases,
probably the decay of the turbulence level and the vortex
structure start to play a significant role causing the heat transfer
rate to increase considerably.
Table I shows the heat transfer values averaged on the whole
area of interest. As aforementioned, a higher value was received
for the shorter jet-to-wall distance, namely, for 4.5 d, and this
value for a specific Reynolds number was assumed as a
reference. Data show that in case of Re = 2,500, the averaged
heat transfer for both jet-to-wall distances increases
moderately, about 10 per cent. An increase in the jet region is
balanced by a decrease in a larger distance from the jets centre
line. For higher Reynolds numbers, i.e. for Re = 4,000, the
Table I Surface averaged heat transfer
Reynolds Jet exit Mach Jet-to-wall Mean
no. no. distance HTC/HTCmax
2,500 0.56 4.5 d 1 National Heat Transfer Conference, Pittsburgh, PA.
2,500 0.56 6d 0.89
4,000 0.77 4.5 d 1 determining the heat transfer characteristic of impinging
4,000 0.77 6d 0.71
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
averaged heat transfer increases considerably (about 30 per
cent) when the jet-to-wall distance decreases from 6 to 4.5 d.
The differences in heat transfer between flows with various
Reynolds numbers are about 50 per cent.
Conclusion
Experimental investigations were carried out to study the heat
transfer distribution between orthogonally impinging jets from
a long round pipe and a flat plate. The Reynolds number based
on the jet orifice exit conditions was varied between 2,500 and
4,000; meanwhile, for such Re, the flow velocity in jets was
particularly very high, changing from M = 0.56 to 0.77. Such a
combination of flow conditions, i.e. a low Reynolds number
and a very high flow velocity cannot be found in the existing
literature.
The following are the preliminary conclusions (further
experiments and numerical simulations are in progress) that
can be drawn from these studies:

The maximum heat transfer value on the wall does not
occur near the jet stagnation point but at a distance of
about 1.6 to 1.7 d from the jet centre, what is a very
specific distribution of the heat transfer coefficient,
probably as a result of a low Reynolds number and a high
velocity combination of the flow parameters.

Decreasing the jet-to-wall distance from 6 to 4.5 d caused
the heat transfer rate at the jets stagnation point vicinity to
increase considerably. Such a tendency is a result of the
nozzle geometry effect; according to the state of the art, it
is typical for nozzles (jets) with sharp-edged inlets. The
scale of the increase, approximately twice with little
reduction of the jet-to-wall distance is quite surprising.

The heat transfer averaged over the whole investigated
region increases considerably when the jet-to-wall
distance decreases.

Generally, one can say that a high jet velocity can have
influence on the jet impingement heat transfer. In certain
cases, the Reynolds number is not enough to describe the
mean heat transfer on an impinged surface. The high flow
velocity tends to improve the heat transfer on the surface.
Compressible effects should be taken into account with
high velocity impinging jets.
References
Aillaud, P., Duchaine, F., Gicquel, L.Y.M. and Didorally, S.
(2016), “Secondary peak in the Nusselt number distribution
of impinging jet flows: a phenomenological analysis”, Physics
of Fluids, Vol. 28 No. 9, p. 095110.
Brevet, P., Dorignac, E. and Vullierme, J.J. (2001), “Mach
number effect on jet impingement heat transfer”, Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 934 No. 1, pp. 409-416.
Downs, S.J. and James, E.H. (1987), “Jet impingement heat
transfer – a literature survey”, ASME paper n° 87-HT-35, The
Gardon, R. and Akfirat, J.C. (1965), “The role of turbulence in
jets”, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 8
No. 10, pp. 1261-1272.
 Wall distance effect
Marcin Kurowski et al.
Jambunathan, K., Lai, E., Moss, M.A. and Button, B.L.
(1992), “A review of heat transfer data for single circular jet
impingement”, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow,
Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 106-115.
Hoogendoorn, C.J. (1977), “The effect of turbulence on heat
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Corresponding author
Marcin Kurowski can be contacted at: marcin.kurowski@
imp.gda.pl