Introduction to Lymphatic System Unit: 5

Lymphatic system

 The lymphatic system is a part of circulatory system and a vital part of the immune system comparing a
network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph directionally towards the heart.
 The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste and other
unwanted materials.
 The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels , lymph node , and lymph. The tonsils , spleen and thymus
are all part of the lymphatic system.
 The primary function of lymphatic system is to transport lymph , a fluid containing infection –fighting white
blood cells, throughout the body.
 The tissue fluid derived from the blood plasma and waste products from the cells is returned to the venous
capillary but within the tissue space fine capillary vessels known as lymphatic capillaries begin, which helps
to drain the waste products and water from the interstitial spaces.

 The fluid within the lymphatic capillaries and vessels is known as lymph. The composition of lymph is likely
of the blood plasma but the dissolved substances are in different concentration. Lymph also contains
materials which may be damaging to the body. Because of the greater permeability of the lymph capillaries,
substances of larger size can enter these vessels and be removed from the interstitial space eg . If infection is
present and phagocytosis has occurred, the neutrophils and monocytes with their ingested micro organism are
drained away in the lymphatic capillaries and vessels and finally destroyed by lymph nodes.
The lymphatic system consists of following structure:-
a. Lymph capillary  The accessory organs of lymphatic system
b. . Lymph vessels are:-
c. Lymph duct a. Spleen
i. The thoracic duct b. Tonsil
ii. The right lymphatic duct c. Thymus gland
d. Lymph nodes

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Function of lymphatic system

1. It helps to absorbed the fat from small intestine because the only way of fat absorption is lymph.
2. The protein which contain in tissue fluid, send into the blood .
3. It supplies nutrition and oxygen for those organs where blood supply is impossible.
4. Its nature is lymphocytes.
5. It serves as an immune system for the body by providing lymphocytes and other.
6. The lymph node filters the lymph and neutralizes the bacteria by the process of phagocytosis.
7. It transports the infection and other malignant cells from the organ to another so the cancer is spread
mainly through lymph vessels.
8. It removes the waste products from intercellular fluid.

Lymph
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 Lymph is a clear , watery appearing fluid found in the lymphatic vessels.

 A thin coagulable fluid (Similar to plasma but ) containing white blood cells (lymphocytes) and chyle (A
milky fluid consisting of lymph and emulsified fat ; formed in the small intestine during digestion of
ingested fats) ; is convey to the blood steam by lymphatic vessels.
 The lymph is formed where the interstitial fluid (the fluid which lies in the interstices of all body tissues)
is collected through lymph capillaries. It is then transported through lymph vessels to lymph nodes before
emptying ultimately into the right and left subclavian vein , where it mixes back with blood

Composition of Lymph
 Lymph contain a variety of substance  Glucose
including:-  Fats
 Protein  Water
 Salt  White blood cells

Formation of lymph
Plasma gets filtered into the interstitial space across the capillary wall.
This will be reabsorbed, leaving a small amount of fluid behind.
In glands, various substance like protein, fats are also enters into the interstitial space.
Various organic substance from degenerating cells are also enters in the interstitial space.
The left out fluid and other substances enter the lymph vessels and constitute lymph.
Small pressure favours the formation of more fluid than they absorbed this fluid enters the lymphatic
vessels.

Function :- Lymphatic vessels play a role in:-

 Absorption of dietary fats
 Delivering fats to the bloodstream.
 Collecting of excess interstitial fluids to the bloodstream.
 Delivering foreign particles to the lymph nodes.

Lymph capillaries
 The lymphatic capillaries are end tubes originated from interstitial space. It is composed of a single layer
of endothelial cells, same structure as blood capillaries but their walls are more permeable to all interstitial
fluid constituents including proteins and cell debris.
 Lymphatic capillaries are widespread, but are absent in bones, bone marrow, teeth and CNS.
 Lymphatic capillary are incredibly permeability much more so than blood capillaries.
 The tiny lymphatic capillaries join with each other to form lymphatic vessels.

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Lymph Vessels
 The walls of the lymphatic vessels are about the same structure as those of a small vein.
 Lymphatic vessels begin at the blind ended capillary weave between the tissue of the body.
It has 3 layers.
i. The outer coat:- Fibrous tissue which acts as a protective covering.
ii. The middle coat:- muscular and elastic tissue .
iii. The inner coat:- single layer of endothelial cells.
 These lymphatic vessels contain numerous cup shaped valves that prevent backward flow of lymph .
There is no pump like the heart , which involved in the onward movement of lymph but the muscle tissue
in the walls of the large lymph vessels has an intrinsic ability to contract rhythmically . The other factors
which helps in flowing of lymph includes:
 Tissue fluid pressure
 Contractions of surrounding muscles
 Pressure caused by the pulsation of adjacent arteries.
 Negative pressure in the thorax during inspiration
These lymph vessels join together and become larger, eventually forming two larger and become larger ,
eventually forming two larger ducts ,the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct, that empty lymph into the
subclavian veins.

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like dilatation on the lymphatic pathway situated in

The thoracic duct:- This duct begins at the
cysterna(A sac or cavity containing fluid especially
lymph or cerebrospinal fluid) chyli ,which is a sac
front of the first and second lumber vertebrae to the
right of the abdominal aorta.
The thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessels in
the body and contains several valves. It is
approximately 40cm (16 inch) in length . It extends
from the lower border of the body of thoracic
vertebrae to the root of the neck and opens into the
subclavian veins. This duct conveys all lymph from
the lower limbs , pelvic cavity ,abdominal cavity,
left side of the chest, left side of the head ,neck and
left side to the subclavian vein
The Right lymphatic duct:- The right lymphatic duct
is about 1cm in length . It is lies in the root of the
neck and terminates by emptying its contents into
the right subclavian vein. The right lymphatic duct
receive all the lymph which has drained from the
right half of the head and neck , the right arm and the
right side of the chest.

Lymphatic tissue
 Lymphatic tissue is a specialized form of reticular connective tissue in the lymphatic system that contains
large number of lymphocytes.
 The lymphatic tissue include the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, adenoids(A collection of lymphatic tissue
in the throat behind the uvula) and thymus.
 There are a number of lymphatic tissue in our body in addition to lymph nodes . These are :
a. The tonsils(Between the mouth and oral part of the pharynx)
b. Pharyngeal tonsil:-On the wall of nasopharynx
c. Solitary lymphatic follicles :- In the wall of the small intestine
d. Aggregated lymphatic nodules :- In the small intestine(Payers patches)
e. Vermiform appendix:- Out growth from the caecum.
Lymph nodes
 Lymph nodes are the collection of the lymphatic tissue containing mainly lymphocytes and macrophages.
They are situated in strategic(systemic) position throughout the body .
 It is surrounded by a capsule.
 The size of the lymph is variable from a pin head to the size of an almond , oval or kidney shaped and range
in size from a few millimeters and it is about 1–2 cm long
 Lymph nodes are major sites of B lymphocytes (Are predominately concentrated in the cortex) and T
lymphocytes(in the paracortex), and other immune cells. Lymph nodes are important for the proper
functioning of the immune system, acting as filters for foreign particles and cancer cells.
 Lymph nodes is also capable of making a controlled response to antigenic stimulation.
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 Each lymph node is surrounded by a fibrous capsule, and inside the lymph node the fibrous capsule extends
to form trabeculae.
 The node is made by reticular(forming a network) and lymphatic tissues containing mainly lymphocytes and
macrocytes.
 The lymph nodes act filters for the lymph tapping particular matter and micro organisms.
 The substance of the lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The cortex is
continuous around the medulla except at the hilum, where the medulla comes in direct contact with the hilum.
 Thin reticular fibers and elastin form a supporting meshwork called a reticular network inside the node.
 White blood cells (leukocytes), the most prominent ones being lymphocytes, are tightly packed in the follicles
(B cells) and the cortex (T cells).
 The vessels bringing lymph to the node are called the afferent vessels.
 The vessels which leaves lymph nodes drain lymph away from the node is called efferent vessels.
 There are as many as 4-5 afferent vessels while only one efferent vessels presents in each lymph nodes.
 Each lobe has a concave surface called the hilum where an artery enters ,a vein and the efferent lymph vessels
leave.
Capsule
 The lymph node capsule is composed of dense
irregular connective tissue with some plain
muscle fibers, and from its internal surface are
given off a number of membranous processes or
trabeculae, consisting, in humans of connective
tissue.
 The sub capsular sinus is the space between the
capsule and the cortex which allows the free
movement of lymphatic fluid and so contains a
sparsity of lymphocytes.
 The lymph node contains lymphoid tissue, i.e., a meshwork or fibers called reticulum with white blood cells
enmeshed in it. The regions where there are few cells within the meshwork are known as lymph sinus. It is
lined by reticular cells, fibroblasts and fixed macrophages.
Cortex
 The cortex of the lymph node is the peripheral portion underneath the capsule and the subcapsular sinus. The
subcapsular sinus drains to trabecular sinuses, and then the lymph flows into the medullary sinuses.

The outer cortex consists mainly of the B cells arranged as follicles, which may develop a germinal center
when challenged with an antigen, and the deeper cortex mainly consisting of the T cells. There is a zone
known as the subcortical zone where T-cells (or cells that are mainly red) mainly interact with dendritic cells,
and where the reticular network is dense. The predominant site within the lymph nodes which contain T cells
& accessory cells is also known as paracortex (reticular network)

Medulla

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 The medulla contains large blood vessels, sinuses and medullary cords that contain antibody-secreting plasma
cells.

The medullary cords are cords of lymphatic tissue, and include plasma cells, macrophages, and B cells. The
medullary sinuses (or sinusoids) are vessel-like spaces separating the medullary cords. Lymph flows into the
medullary sinuses from cortical sinuses, and into efferent lymphatic vessels. 

Location of Lymph Nodes

 The size of lymph glands in adults is smaller, as compared to those in children between the age group 10 - 12.
 Lymph node is located in the lymphatic system, which is distributed throughout the body. It can be present
independently or in groups.
 About 500 - 600 lymph nodes are present in the human body.
 Groups of lymph nodes are present in the neck, collarbone, under the arms (armpit), and groin. Following is
the list of lymph nodes with their placement in the body.
 Cervical lymph nodes: These lymph nodes are located in the head and neck region. Basically found deep in
the neck, behind the ears and bottom of the jaw. In total, they are six in number. They draw lymph from the
scalp, face, nasal cavity and pharynx.
 Supraclavicular lymph nodes: Situated along the collarbone or clavicle, they drain lymph from the parts of the
collarbone and the upper parts of the chest. These nodes can also be considered a part of the cervical lymph
nodes.
 Axillary lymph nodes: These nodes are present in the armpit area. They are divided into two types, namely,
superficial and deep lymph nodes. They drain lymph from arm, walls of thorax and breast.
 Mediastinal lymph nodes: They are present in the central part of the chest, between the lungs. It drains from
the middle section of chest cavity, parts of the upper abdomen and lungs.
 Supratrochlear lymph nodes: These nodes are present on the arms just above the elbow joint. They drain from
the fingers, hand on the ulnar side of the arm and superficial areas of the forearm.

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 Mesenteric lymph nodes: - Distributed in the lower abdomen, they lie close to the small intestine. They drain
cecum, jejunum, ileum, colon and upper part of rectum.
 Inguinal lymph nodes: These nodes are located in the groin area. They may be superficial or deep lymph
nodes. They receive lymph from the genital areas, buttock, anus, abdominal wall and legs. 
 Femoral lymph nodes: Located in the upper thigh portion along the femoral veins. They are immediately
below the inguinal lymph nodes. They drain from some of the genital parts, buttock, thigh and the medial side
of the leg. 
 Popliteal lymph nodes: These lymph nodes are present in the knee area called popliteal fossa. There are two
sets of popliteal lymph nodes some are present beneath the popliteal fascia and some are found between the
popliteal artery and the posterior surface of the knee joint. They drain from the knee, thigh, calf and feet.

The lacteals
 The lacteals are the lymph capillary which drain lymph from the small intestine . About 60% of the fat
absorbed from the small intestine passes into the lymph capillaries and this high concentration of fat gives the
lymph a milky appearance. Because of this, lymph entering the thoracic duct is known as chyle.

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Function of Lymph nodes

  Lymph Collection and Filtration
Lymph is drained and collected from the adjoining parts of the lymph nodes. To be more precise, the afferent
lymphatic vessels deliver unfiltered body fluid to the lymph node for filtration. These nodes act as filters for
disease-causing agents like bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. The foreign particles or the disease
causing agents collected in the lymph nodes are then destroyed by the WBCs. The filtered fluid is collected
by the efferent lymphatic vessel, which is then emptied into the cardiovascular system. 

▶ Production of Antibodies
According to medical studies, lymph nodes are the major sites for initiation of autoimmune responses. Lymph
nodes contain lymphocytes, which is a type of WBC. At the time of infection, in response to the antigen,
lymphocytes make antibodies which target the pathogens and destroy them. Due to this activity, there is an
increase in the production of beta cells which results in swollen, inflamed, painful and sensitive nodes.
Significant change in their size can be observed during mild infection like cold and life-threatening condition
like cancer. 

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The Spleen

 The spleen is a dark purple –colored organ, which lies in the left hypochondriae region of the abdomen,
between the fundus of the stomch and the diaphragm. Its long axis lies in the line of 9th to 10th ribs on the left
hand side .
 The spleen, in healthy adult humans, is approximately 7 centimetres (2.8 in) to 14 centimetres (5.5in) in
length 3-4 cm thick. It usually weighs between 150 grams to 200 grams.
 It varies in size and weight during the lifetime of an individual .And normally spleen is not palpable.

Organ associated with spleen

 Superiorly and posteriorly- Diaphragm
 Inferiorly- Left colic flexure of the large intestine
 Anteriorly- Fundus of the stomach
 Medially- Pncreas and the left kidney
 Laterally- Separated from 9th , 10th and 11th ribs and intercostals muscles by the diaphragm.

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Artery Splenic artery

Vein Splenic vein
Nerve Splenic plexus
 The spleen has diaphragmatic and visceral surface.
 The diaphragmatic surface of the spleen is convex, smooth, and is directed upward, backward. It contains
hilum, where branches of the splenic artery enter the spleen.
 The visceral surface of the spleen is divided by a ridge into two regions: an anterior or gastric and a posterior
or renal.
 The gastric surface is directed forward, upward, and toward the middle, is broad and concave, and is in
contact with the posterior wall of the stomach.
 The renal surface is directed medialward and downward. It is somewhat flattened, considerably narrower than
the gastric surface, and is in relation with the upper part of the anterior surface of the left kidney and
occasionally with the left suprarenal gland.

Structure
 The spleen has an outer caot of peritoneum , which is firmly adherent to the internal fibro-elastic coat or
splenic capsule that dips into the organ, forming trabeculae.
 Two kinds of splenic pulp occupy the interstices of the reticulum
 Micrograph of splenic tissue showing the red pulp (red), white pulp (blue) and a thickened inflamed capusule.
 Red pulp (Mechanical filtration of red blood cells.) It consists of numerous various sinusoids, containing
blood ,separated by a network of perivascular tissue which is referred to as the splenic cords. These are so
called cord contains numerous microphages and are the site of intense phagocytes activity . They are also
contain numerous lymphocytes,which are derived from the white pulp.
 white pulp:- It is consists of periateriolar sheath of lymphatic tissue with enlargements called splenic
lymphatic follicles or Malpighian bodies .
 Active immune response through humoral and cell-mediated pathways. Composed of nodules, called
Malpighian corpuscles. These are composed of "lymphoid follicles" (or "follicles"), rich in B-lymphocytes.
 They are visible to the naked eye as whitish dots against the dark red background of the red pulp on the
freshly cut surface of the spleen.

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Functions
1. Destruction of warm out erythrocytes (Phagocytosis):- Erythrocytes are destroyed in the spleen and the
breakdown products are bilirubin,biliverdin and iron . Iron is passed to the liver via the splenic and portal
veins. Other cellular materials e.g leukocytes ,platelets and mocrobes are phagocytosed in the spleen.
2. A reservoir for blood :- The spleen can act as a reservior for red cells , which is discharge into the
bloodstream in an emergency situation.
3. The formation of lymphocytes:- The spleen is formed partly by lymphatic tissue which produces T
lymphocytes and B lymphocytes.
4. Haemopoiesis:- In the foetus , the spleen is an important haemopoitic organ and platelets are formed in the
red pulp. The white pulp of the mature spleen contributes to the circulating pool of immuno-compelent
lymphocytes

Thymus glands
 The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of the immune system. Within the thymus, T cells or T
lymphocytes mature.
 Anterior view of chest showing location and size of adult thymus the thymus is of a pinkish-gray color, soft,
and lobulated on its surfaces.
 The thymus is composed of two identical lobes and is located anatomically in the anterior superior
mediastinum, in front of the heart and behind the sternum.
 Histologically, each lobe of the thymus can be divided into a central medulla and a peripheral cortex which
is surrounded by an outer capsule. The cortex and medulla play different roles in the development of T-cells.

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 Age Mass
birth about 15 grams
puberty about 35 grams
twenty-five years 25 grams
sixty years less than 15 grams
seventy years as low as 5 grams
 At birth it is about 5 cm in length, 4 cm in breadth, and about 6 mm in thickness.The organ enlarges during
childhood, and atrophies at puberty. Unlike the liver, kidney and heart, for instance, the thymus is at its
largest in children. The thymus reaches maximum weight (20 to 37 grams) by the time of puberty. The
thymus of older people is scarcely distinguishable from surrounding fatty tissue. As one ages the thymus
slowly shrinks, eventually degenerating into tiny islands of fatty tissue. By the age of 75 years, the thymus
weighs only 6 grams. In children the thymus is grayish-pink in colour and in adults it is yellow.

Structure
 The thymus consists of two lobes joind by areolar tissues .The lobes are enclosed by a capsule which dips
into their substsnces. Dividing them into lobules that consists of an irregular branching framework of
epithelial cells and lymphocytes.
Blood supply :- The arteries supplying the thymus are derived from the internal thoracic artery, and from the
superior thyroid artery and inferior thyroids.
The veins end in the left brachiocephalic vein and in the thyroid veins.
The nerves are exceedingly minute; they are derived from the vagi and sympathetic nervous system. Branches
from the descendens hypoglossi and phrenic reach the investing capsule, but do not penetrate into the
substance of the organ.
Function
 Lymphocytes are originated from haemocytoblast(stem cell) on the red bone marrow. The thymus controls
lymphocytes production in both the peripheral and the central lymphoid organ. The thymus itself is essential
for the maturation of lymphocytes into the cell which is responsible for cellular maturity, T lymphocytes.
 The maturation of the thymus and other lymphoid tissue is stimulated by ‘ thymoxin, a hormones secreted by
the epithelial cells that form the framework of the thymus gland.

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Tonsils
 Tonsils are collections of lymphoid tissue facing into the aerodigestive tract. The set of lymphatic tissue
known as Waldeyer's tonsillar ring includes the adenoid tonsil, two tubal tonsils, two palatine tonsils, and the
lingual tonsil.
 Adenoids "pharyngeal tonsils" Roof of pharynx
 Tubal tonsils Roof of pharynx
 Palatine tonsils , situated at either side at the back of the human throat.
 Lingual tonsils Behind terminal sulcus (tongue)

Development
Tonsils tend to reach their largest size near puberty, and they gradually undergo atrophy thereafter. However,
they are largest relative to the diameter of the throat in young children.

Functions
 These immunocompetent tissues are the immune system's first line of defense against ingested or inhaled
foreign pathogens.
 Tonsils have on their surface specialized antigen capture cells called M cells that allow for the uptake of
antigens produced by pathogens.
 These M cells then alert the underlying B cells and T cells in the tonsil that a pathogen is present and an
immune response is stimulated.
 B cells are activated and proliferate in areas called germinal centres in the tonsil. These germinal centres
are places where B memory cells are created and secretory antibody (IgA) is produced.

Peyer's patches
 Peyer's patches are organized lymphoid nodules, named after the 17th-century Swiss anatomist Johann
Conrad Peyer.
 They are aggregations of gut associated lymphoid tissue that are usually found in the lowest portion of the
small intestine, the ileum, in humans
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 As such, they differentiate the ileum from the duodenum and jejunum. The duodenum can be identified by
Brunner's glands. The jejunum has neither Brunner's glands nor Peyer's patches
 Peyer's patches are observable as elongated thickenings of the intestinal epithelium measuring a few
centimeters in length.
 About 30 are found in humans.
 Microscopically, Peyer’s patches appear as oval or round lymphoid follicles (similar to lymph nodes)
 Peyer's patches importancefor the immune
surveillance of the intestinal lumen and in
facilitating the generation of the immune
response within the mucosa.
 Peyer's patches thus act for the
gastrointestinal system much as the tonsils
act for the respiratory system, trapping
foreign particles, surveilling them, and
destroying them.
 Peyer's patches are covered by a special
Function epithelium that contains specialized cells
called microfold cells (M cells) which
sample antigen directly from the lumen

Immunoglobulin (Antibody) and its types

 An antibody is define as a protein that is produced by B lymphocytes in response to the presence of an
antigen.
 Antibody is gamma globulin in nature and it is also called immunoglobulin(Ig).
 Immunoglobulin's form 20% of the total protein.
 Antibodies enters almost all the tissues of the body.
Property IgG Ig A IgM IgE IgD

Heavy chain γ α μ ε δ

Major feature Crosses Found in body Produced by B Found in lungs, Present on

placenta secretion milk , cell, largest skin and lymphocyte
barrier tear etc Most antibody mucousmembran cell surface
abundant. e
Function Complement Defence Complement Involve in Recognition
fixation mechanism in fixation allergic reaction of antigen by
external B lymphocyte
secretion
Questions
 Explain the lymphatic system and write the function of lymphatic system.

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 Define the lymph node and explain the function of lymph nodes.
 Write the structure and function of spleen.
Short notes
 Lymph capillary
 Lymph vessels
 Payers patches
 Tonsils
 Thymus gland
 Immunoglobulin and its types.

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