Surface Chemistry & Nuclear Chemistry

SURFACE & NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Rg.
2019 - 2021
SURFACE CHEMISTRY
There are many properties of matter, which are related to their surface. Such properties become
predominant if the substance is in finely divided form or its surface is rough. Under these conditions the
surface area increases enormously and large amount of material is present in the surface. The surface
related properties of matter are adsorption, colloidal state and emulsions.
1. ADSORPTION
Suppose we have a substance either in the liquid or solid form. Let us consider a molecule in the bulk of the
substance. It experiences forces of attraction uniformly from all sides by neighbouring molecules. There is
no net force acting on it. If we consider a molecule near its surface we find that such a molecule is not
bonded to other molecules from all sides but has certain unutilised valencies, as there are no molecules
above the surface. In order to satisfy the unutilised valencies, the molecules at the surface attract and
retain other molecular species when the substance is brought in contact with them. The substance, which
has different concentration at the surface than in the bulk of the adjoining phases, is said to the adsorbed.
The phenomenon of existence of a substance in different concentrations at the surface of another
substance than in the bulk phases is called adsorption.
The substance whose surface adsorbs molecular species of another substance is called adsorbent and
the substance, which gets adsorbed, is called adsorbate.
If the concentration of a substance at the surface of another substance is more than in the bulk of the
adjoining phases, it is called positive adsorption. If the concentration of a substance at the surface of
another substance is less than in the bulk of the adjoining phases, it is called negative adsorption. This
type of adsorption takes place only in case of solutions. Adsorption can take place at a solidgas surfaces;
for example charcoal adsorbs colouring matter in solutions and is used to decolourise brown cane juice and
colloidal aluminium hydroxide is used in the purification of water because of its adsorbing properties.
Hence, powdered charcoal and aluminium hydroxide are good adsorbents. Gases and liquids adsorbed on
the surface of a solid are called adsorbates. It should be clearly understood that though adsorption is a
surface phenomenon, the extent and firmness of adsorption are dependent to a great extent on the nature
of the adsorbent and the adsorbate.
1.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADSORPTION AND ABSORPTION
Adsorption is different from absorption. When a substance is uniformly distributed throughout the
bulk of another substance, this shows that absorption has taken place. It occurs at the uniform rate
throughout the body of the material. On the contrary, adsorption involves unequal distribution of the
molecular species in the bulk and the surface. It is a surface phenomenon. It is rapid in the
beginning and gradually slows down at the equilibrium. The forces involved in adsorption are either
weak Vander Waal’s forces or strong chemical bond forces.
In certain cases, both the adsorption and the absorption take place simultaneously and it is not easy
to distinguish between them. Such substance is said to be sorbed and the phenomenon is known as
sorption.
1.2 TYPES OF ADSORPTION
Physisorption Chemisorption
(Physical adsorption) (Chemical adsorption)
1. Caused by intermolecular Vander Waal’s forces. Caused by chemical bond formation.
2. Depends on nature of gas. Easily liquefiable Much more specific and depends upon the nature
gases are adsorbed readily. of the both the adsorbate and adsorbent.
3. Heat of adsorption is small (about 5 kcal per mol) Very large (20  100 kcal per mol)
4. Reversible Irreversible
COLLEGES: Andheri / Borivali / Chembur / Dadar / Kalyan / Kharghar / Nerul / Powai / Thane # 91
SURFACE & NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Rg. 2019 - 2021
5. Forms multimolecular layers on adsorbent Forms unimolecular layer.

surface.
6. Occurs at low temperature; decreases with Increases with increase of temperature.
increase in temperature.
7. Increase of pressure increases adsorption. High pressure is favourable. Decrease of pressure
does not cause desorption.
8. Equilibrium is attained readily and it is reversible. Equilibrium is attained slowly and mostly not
reversible.
Enthalpy of adsorption:
The adsorption of one substance on the surface of another leads to the existence of new types of forces
between them. Therefore, it is an exothermic process and is accompanied by the release of energy. The
enthalpy or heat of adsorption is defined as the heat energy evolved when one mole of adsorbate is
adsorbed on the surface of adsorbent. Since physical adsorption involves weak forces of attraction between
the molecules of the adsorbent and the adsorbate, the heat of physisorption is generally low, of the order of
2040 kJ mol1. Chemical adsorption, on the other hand involves strong chemical bond formation and the
heat of chemisorption is quite high, of the order of 80400 kJ mol1.
1.3 ADSORPTION OF GASES ON SOLIDS

The extent of adsorption of a gas on the surface of a solid depends on the following factors
(i) Nature of gas (ii) Nature of solid (iii) Specific area of solid
(iv) Pressure of gas (v) Temperature (vi) Activation of solid
(i) Nature of gas:
Since physical adsorption is non specific in nature, any gas will be adsorbed on the surface of a
solid to some extent or other. However, under any given conditions of temperature and pressure,
easily liquefiable gases such as NH3, CH4, HCl, Cl2, SO2, CO etc. are adsorbed more than
permanent gases like H2, O2, N2 etc. Chemisorption is specific in nature. Therefore, only those
gases will be adsorbed which form chemical bonds with it.
(ii) Nature of solid:

Activated charcoal is the most common adsorbent for easily liquefiable gases. Poisonous gases
such as CH4 and CO fall in this group. Therefore, it is used in gas masks. Other gases such as O2,
H2 and N2 adsorb more on metals such as Ni, Pt and Pd.
(iii) Specific area of solid:

Specific area of an adsorbent is the surface area available for adsorption per gm of adsorbent.
Greater the specific area of an adsorbent, greater will be the adsorption. The specific area of an
adsorbent can be increased by making the surface rough. The pores must be large enough to allow
penetrations of gas molecules.
(iv) Pressure of a gas:

As physical adsorption is reversible, it is accompanied by decrease in pressure. Therefore, it is
expected that at a given temperature the extent of adsorption will increase with the increase of
pressure of the gas. The extent of adsorption is measured as x/m where m is the mass of adsorbent
and x that of adsorbate. If the physical adsorption is limited to unimolecular layer, the plot of x/m vs
equilibrium pressure at a constant temperature is as shown.
It is evident from the graph that at a certain pressure the adsorption

reaches a maximum value i.e. the adsorption becomes saturated and x
the corresponding pressure is called saturation pressure (Ps). Beyond m
this pressure the adsorption remains constant.
p Ps
(Adsorption isotherm)
At low pressures, x/m varies linearly with p
x x
  p1 or = kp1
m m
x
At high pressures, is independent of p
m
x x
  p 0 or = kp0
m m
1
x x
At intermediate pressures, the variation of vs p can be expressed as  p n where
m m
n > 1.
1
x 1
or = k pn slope =
m n
x
x 1 log
or log = logk + log p m
m n log k
This is called Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
log p
(v) Temperature:
As adsorption is accompanied by release of heat energy, so in accordance with LeChatelier’s
principle, the increase of temperature should decrease the extent of adsorption. This has indeed
been found to be so. A plot of x/m vs temperature at constant pressure is called adsorption isobar.
In the case of physical adsorption x/m decreases with increase of temperature whereas in the case
of chemisorption, x/m initially increases with temperature and then decreases as shown below. The
initial increase is due to the fact that chemisorption requires activation energy.
x x
m m
Temp (T) Temp (T)

(Physical adsorption) (Chemisorption)
(vi) Activation of solid:

Activation of adsorbent means increasing its adsorbing power. This is increased by increasing
specific area either by making the surface rough or by breaking the solid into smaller particles. But
care must be taken so that particles do not become very small, otherwise the interparticle spaces
will be too small to allow penetration of gas molecules.
Competing adsorption:
There is always a competition between different adsorbates to adsorb on the adsorbent. A strongly
absorbable substance can easily displace a weakly adsorbed substance. For example, on the surface of
activated charcoal, gases such as O2, N2 etc. are already adsorbed. But when charcoal comes in contact
with poisonous gases such as CH4, CO which are strongly adsorbable, O2 and N2 get displaced. If a mix of
gases is allowed to adsorb on a particular adsorbent, the strongly adsorbable adsorbate adsorbs to a
greater extent than its partial pressure indicates. For example, moisture though present in small proportion
in air is strongly adsorbed by silica gel. Charcoal adsorbs poisonous gases even though they are present in
small concentration in air.
1.4 ADSORPTION FROM SOLUTION
Some solids are capable of adsorbing certain solutes from the solution. This property is made use of
in adsorbing colouring matter from solutions of organic substances. Raw cane juice is decolourised
by activated charcoal. Similarly, charcoal adsorbs oxalic and acetic acid dyes from their aqueous
solutions. Freundlich adsorption isotherm is also applicable to solutions by replacing the pressure
term by the concentration (C) of adsorbates in solutions. The relationship is modified as follows
1
x
 kC n
m
Taking logarithm, it becomes
x 1
log  logk  logC
m n
x
A graph between log   and log C is a straight line for small ranges of concentrations.
m
1.5 APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION

Some of the applications of adsorption are as follows:
(i) Activated charcoal is used in gas masks to remove poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide,
methane etc. Animal charcoal is used to remove colouring matter from canesugar juice in the
manufacture of sugar.
(ii) Ion exchange resin is used to remove hardness of water.
(iii) Several organic compounds are purified by chromatographic adsorption.
(iv) Silica gel is used for removing and controlling humidity.
(v) The catalytic effect of a number of catalysts like spongy iron (in the manufacture of ammonia) and
nickel, platinum or palladium (used in the reduction of unsaturated hydrocarbons) is based on the
principle of adsorption.
2. CATALYSIS
Catalysis is the phenomenon by which the rate of a reaction is altered (accelerated or retarded) by the
presence of a substance, which itself remains unchanged chemically in the process. The substance altering
the rate of the reaction is a catalyst.
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF CATALYTIC REACTIONS
(i) The catalyst remains unchanged in amount and chemical composition at the end of the reaction; it
may, however, undergo considerable change in physical form.
(ii) A small quantity of the catalyst is capable of producing the desired effect.
(iii) The action of a catalyst is specific to a large extent. Thus, the decomposition of KClO3 is catalysed
by MnO2 but not by platinum.
(iv) The catalyst does not initiate a reaction; it merely accelerates the reaction that is already occurring.
(v) A catalyst does not alter the final state of equilibrium in a reversible reaction.
A certain minimum energy must be possessed by the reactants so that they may react and produce the
products. This is called the activation energy (Ea) for the reaction. A catalyst is said to lower the activation
energy and thus increase the rate of the reaction.
Catalyst
Catalyst is absent
Potential
energy
Extent of reaction
Thus, a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing a pathway whose activation energy is
lower than the activation energy of the uncatalyzed reaction.
2.2 TYPES OF CATALYSIS

(i) Positive catalysis: The catalyst increases the rate of a reaction.
V O
Examples: 2SO2 + O2 2 
5
 2SO3 (Contact process)
Ni
C2H4 + H2  C2H6 (Ethane)

(ii) Negative catalysis (Inhibitor or retarder): Chemical reactions are sometimes retarded by the
presence of a foreign substance the substance is known as a negative catalyst.
Negative Catalyst
Catalyst is absent
Potential
energy
Collision Number
Examples
Alcohol, Acetanilide : Prevents oxidation of Na2SO3 by air
H3PO4 : Prevents decomposition of H2O2
(iii) Auto catalysis: In this type of catalysis, one of the product of the reaction catalyses the reaction. In
the oxidation of oxalic acid by KMnO4, Mn2+ ion formed is known to accelerate the reaction. So,
when KMnO4 solution is run into warm solution of oxalic acid (+ dil. H2SO4), initially there is a time lag
before decolourisation occurs; as more KMnO4 is added, the decolourisation becomes almost
instantaneous.
(iv) Homogeneous catalysis: A catalytic process in which the catalyst is in the same phase as the
reactant is called homogeneous catalysis.
NO
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 
 2SO3(g) (Lead chamber process)
H ( aq )
C12H22O11(aq) + H2O  
 C6H12O6(aq) + C6H12O6(aq) (Inversion of cane sugar)
(v) Heterogeneous catalysis: A catalytic process in which the catalyst and the reactants are in
different phases is called heterogeneous catalysis. This process is also called contact or surface
catalysis.
Examples
Pt Pt asbestos
(i) 2H2O2(l)  2H2O(l) + O2(g) (ii) 2SO2(g) + O2(g)    2SO3(g)
Fe  Mo Pt gauze
(iii) N2(g) + 3H2(g)   2NH3(g) (iv) 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)   4NO(g)+ 6H2O(l)
ZnO  Cr O
(v) CO(g) + 2H2(g)   2 
3
 CH3OH(l)
(vi) Induced catalyst: When one reaction influences the rate of other reaction, which does not occur
under ordinary conditions, the phenomenon is known as induced catalysis.
Examples of induced catalysis:

(i) Sodium arsenite solution is not oxidised by air. If, however, air is passed through a mixture of the
solution of sodium arsenite and sodium sulphite, both of them undergo simultaneous oxidation. The
oxidation of sodium sulphite, thus, induces the oxidation of sodium arsenite.
(ii) The reduction of mercuric chloride (HgCl 2) with oxalic acid is very slow, but potassium
permanganate is reduced readily with oxalic acid. If, however, oxalic acid is added to a mixture of
KMnO4 and HgCl2, both are reduced simultaneously. The reduction of potassium permanganate,
thus, induces the reduction of HgCl2.
2.3 THEORIES OF CATALYSIS

It is not possible to give a uniform explanation of the mechanism of the phenomenon of catalysis as
catalytic reactions are of varied nature. However, two broad theories of catalytic action have been
proposed. First theory, known as intermediate compound formation theory explains successfully the
homogeneous catalysis. The second theory termed as adsorption theory explains the
heterogeneous catalysis.
(i) Intermediate compound formation theory

According to this theory, the catalyst first forms an intermediate compound with one of the reactants.
The intermediate compound is formed with less energy consumption than needed for the actual
reaction. The intermediate compound being unstable combines with other reactant to form the
desired product and the catalyst is regenerated.
C
Consider, a reaction of the type A +B AB which occurs in presence of a catalyst C, may take
place as
A + C AC (slow reaction)
(Catalyst) Intermediate
compound
AC + B AB + C (fast reaction)
Product Catalyst
Rate = k[A] [C]
Many catalytic reactions can be explained on the basis of this theory. Consider the catalytic
oxidation of SO2 to SO3 in the lead chamber process. This occurs as follows
2NO + O2  2NO2
Catalyst Intermediate product
NO2 + SO2  SO3 + NO
Product Catalyst
This theory explain why the catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition at the
end of the reaction and is effective even in small quantities. The scope of this theory is, however,
limited, as the formation of intermediate compound is possible in the case of homogenous catalysis
only. It also fails to explain the action of catalytic promoters, catalytic poisons and action of finely
divided catalysts.
(ii) Adsorption theory

This theory explains the mechanism of heterogeneous catalysis. The old point of view was that
when the catalyst is in solid state and the reactants are in gaseous state or in solutions, the
molecules of the reactants are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst. The increased concentration
of the reactants on the surface influences the rate of reaction. Adsorption being an exothermic
process, the heat of adsorption is taken up by the surface of the catalyst, which is utilised in
enhancing the chemical activity of the reacting molecules. The view does not explain the specificity
of a catalyst.
The modern adsorption theory is the combination of intermediate compound formation theory and
the old adsorption theory. The catalytic activity is localised on the surface of the catalyst. The
mechanism involves five steps:
(i) Diffusion of reactants to the surface of the catalyst.
(ii) Some form of association between the catalyst surface and the reactants occurs. This is assumed
to be adsorption.
(iii) Occurrence of chemical reaction on the catalyst surface.
(iv) Desorption of reaction products away from the catalyst surface.
(v) Diffusion of reaction products away from the catalyst surface.
3. COLLOIDAL STATE
Thomas Graham tried to classify solids into (i) crystalloids and (ii) colloids based on the diffusion of
dissolved solids through parchment paper or animal membrane. Substances like common salt, urea, sugar
etc., which readily pass through the membrane while in the dissolved state were called crystalloids while
substances like starch, gelatin, gum Arabic etc. which in the dissolved state either do not pass through the
membrane or pass through very slowly were called colloids. This classification was rejected because the
same substance under one set of conditions behaved like a crystalloid and under other set of conditions
behaved like a colloid. For example, NaCl in water behaves like a crystalloid but in benzene behaves like a
colloid. Soap in water behaves like a colloid while in alcohol it behaves, like a crystalloid. Therefore, there is
no separate class of substances called colloidal substance. It is just a state of matter into which every
substance can be obtained by a suitable method. The nature of a substance whether crystalloid or
colloid depends upon the size of the solute particles. When the size of solute particles lies between 1 nm to
100 nm it behaves like a colloid. If size of solute particles is greater than 100 nm, it exists as suspension
and if particle size is less than 1 nm it exists as a true solution.
Colloidal solution is heterogeneous in nature and always consists of at least two phasesnamely disperse
phase and dispersion medium. The component present in small proportion and consisting of particles of
colloidal dimensions is called disperse phase. The medium in which colloidal particles are dispersed is
called dispersion medium. The two phases can be solid. liquid or gas. There are eight different types of
colloidal solutions.
Disperse phase Dispersion medium Common name Example
Solid Solid sol. Alloys
Solid Liquid Sol gold sol, paints
Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
Solid Gel Cheese, butter, table jellies, pearl
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, emulsified oils
Gas Liq. aerosol Mist, fog, cloud
Solid Solid foam Pumice stone
Gas
Liquid Foam Soap lather, whipped cream
If colloidal solution has fluid like appearance it is called sol. The dispersion medium in such cases is
generally liquid. Depending upon the nature of medium, colloids are sometimes given special names. For
example
Dispersion medium Name of the sol
Water Hydrosol
Alcohol Alcosol
Benzene Benzosol
Gases Aerosol
3.1 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF INTERACTION BETWEEN DIFFERENT PHASES
Depending upon the nature of interaction between disperse phase and dispersion medium, colloids
are classified as
(i) LYOPHILIC COLLOIDS
In the case of lyophilic colloids, the disperse phase has great affinity for dispersion medium. In such
cases the disperse phase does not easily get precipitated and the colloids are quite stable. The
solids obtained after evaporation of the medium can be easily brought back to the colloidal state by
shaking the solids with the dispersion medium. Such colloids are thus reversible. Examples of
lyophilic colloids are gum, gelatin, starch, proteins and certain polymers in organic solvents. If water
is used as the dispersion medium, the colloid is called hydrophilic colloid.
(ii) LYOPHOBIC COLLOIDS
In the case of lyophobic colloids, the disperse phase has little affinity for the dispersion medium.
These sols are relatively less stable. They can be easily precipitated by addition of small amount of
electrolyte. Once the sol. is precipitated, it cannot be easily brought back to the colloidal state. They
are thus irreversible. Examples of lyophobic sols are gold sol and sulphur sol etc. If water is used
as the dispersion medium the sol is called lyophobic colloid.
Differences between lyophobic and lyophilic sols
Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols

1. Colloidal particles are electrically charged Particles may or may not be charged
2. Stability is due to electrical charge Stability is due to adsorption of dispersion

medium
3. Viscosity is similar to that of the dispersion Viscosity is much higher than that of the
medium dispersion medium
4. Surface tension is similar to that of dispersion Surface tension is often lower than that of the
medium dispersion medium
5. Exhibit Tyndall effect These do not exhibit Tyndall effect
6. The particles are easily detected by the The particles cannot be readily detected by
microscope the microscope
7. Small quantities of electrolyte cause precipitation Small quantities of electrolyte have little effect,
but high concentration causes coagulation
8. The particles migrate in one direction in the The particles may migrate in either direction
electric field or not at all in an electric field
9. Not prepared by direct mixing. Irreversible Often prepared by direct mixing. Reversible
3.2 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF NATURE OF COLLOIDAL PARTICLES

Depending upon the nature of colloidal particles, the colloidal solutions can be classified as
(i) Multimolecular colloid (ii) Macromolecular colloid (iii) Associated colloid
(i) Multimolecular colloids

When on dissolution a large number of atoms or smaller molecules of a substance (with diameters
less than 1 nm) aggregate together to form species having size in the colloidal range, the species
thus formed are called multimolecular as colloids. For example, sulphur sol consists of colloidal
particles, which are aggregates of S8 molecules. A metal sol consists of particles of various sizes,
which are clusters of several metal atoms. The atoms or molecules in each aggregate are held by
Vander Waal’s forces.
(ii) Macromolecular colloids

In this type of colloids, colloidal particles are themselves large molecules having colloidal
dimensions i.e., (1100 nm). They are polymers having very high molecular mass. They include
natural polymers such as starch, proteins, cellulose and synthetic polymers such as polythene,
polyester and nylon etc.
(iii) Associated colloids

This type of colloids includes substances, which behave as true solutions at low concentrations but
become colloidal in nature at high concentrations due to the formation of aggregated particles called
micelles. Soaps and detergents are examples of associated colloids. In aqueous solution sodium
stearate (a kind of soap) ionises as
C17H35COONa  Na+ + C17H35COO
4. PREPARATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

Different type of methods is in use for the preparation of lyophobic and lyophilic sols.
4.1 LYOPHOBIC SOLS
The following two types of methods can prepare lyophobic sols.
(1) Condensation methods (2) Dispersion methods
(1) Condensation methods
In these type of methods, particles of atomic or molecular size are induced to combine to form
aggregates having colloidal dimensions. For this purpose, chemical as well as physical methods can
be used.
(i) By chemical methods
Colloidal solutions can be prepared by chemical reactions involving double decomposition,
oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis.
(a) Double decomposition
A colloidal solution of arsenious sulphide is obtained by passing hydrogen sulphide into solution of
arsenious oxide in distilled water.
As2O3 + 3H2S  As2S3 + 3H2O
Sols of silver halide are obtained by mixing dilute solutions of silver salts and alkali metal halides in
equivalent amounts.
NaCl + AgNO3  AgCl + NaNO3
Silica gel sol is prepared by this method between dilute solutions of sodium silicate and HCl.
Na2SiO3 + 2HCl  H2SiO3 + 2NaCl
(b) Oxidation
A colloidal solution of sulphur can be prepared by passing hydrogen sulphide into a solution of
sulphur dioxide in water or through a solution of an oxidising agent like bromine water or nitric acid.
SO2 + 2H2S  2H2O + 3S ; H2S + [O]  H2O + S
(c) Reduction
A colloidal solution of a metal like silver, gold or platinum can be prepared by the reduction of its salt
solution with a suitable reducing agent such as stannous chloride, formaldehyde, hydrazine etc.
2AuCl3 + 3SnCl 2  2Au + 3SnCl4
Gold sol
4AgCl + N2H4  4Ag + N2 + 4HCl
Silver sol
(d) Hydrolysis
By this method hydroxide sols of less electropositive metals like Fe, Al or Sn are prepared. A red sol
of ferric hydroxide is obtained by the hydrolysis of ferric chloride with boiling water.
FeCl3 + 3H2O  Fe(OH)3 + 3HCl
(ii) By Physical methods

(a) By exchange of solvent
In this method, although no chemical reaction is involved, it can be shown that when a relatively
concentrated solution of a substance is added to a large volume of liquid in which it is sparingly
soluble, particles of colloidal size result under suitable conditions. For example, the addition of an
alcoholic solution of sulphur to excess water causes the formation of colloidal sulphur, the sulphur
being more insoluble in water than in alcohol.
(b) By excessive cooling
The colloidal solution of ice in an organic solvent such as chloroform or ether can be obtained by
freezing a solution of water in the solvent. The molecules of water, which can no longer be held in
solution separately combine to form particles of colloidal size.
(2) Dispersion methods
In these methods, large particles of a substance are broken into particles of colloidal dimensions in
the presence of dispersion medium. Since the sols formed in this manner are unstable, they are
stabilised by adding suitable stabilizers. Some of the methods employed for carrying out the
dispersion are described as follows.
(a) Mechanical dispersions
Many substances can be reduced to colloidal size in a “colloidal mill” consisting of a series of discs
rotating in opposite directions with only a small gap between them at the rate of 10,000 rpm. The
dispersion medium together with the substance to be dispersed and a stabilizer is passed through
the mill and after sometime, a colloidal solution results. The protective material stabilises the sol and
prevents the particles from coagulating.
Inlet (Solid + Medium + Stabilizer)
Driving belt
Outlet Outlet
Metal disc
Colloid mill
(b) Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s arc method
This process involves dispersion as well as condensation. Colloidal solutions of metals such as
gold, silver, copper, platinum etc., can be prepared by this method. In this method electric arc is
struck between electrodes of the metal immersed in the dispersion medium. The intense heat
produced vapourizes some of the metal, which then condenses to form particles of colloidal size. A
slight trace of electrolyte stabilises the sols formed.
+ Electrode 
Dispersion
medium
(c) Peptization
This is a process of converting a precipitate into colloidal solution by shaking it with dispersion
medium in the presence of small amount of electrolyte. The electrolyte used for this purpose is
called peptizing agent. This method is generally applied to convert fresh precipitate into colloidal
solutions because such precipitates are simply aggregates of colloidal particles held by weak forces.
Cause of peptization
During peptization, the precipitate adsorbs one of the ions of the electrolyte on its surface. The
adsorbed ion is generally common with those of precipitate. This causes the development of
positive or negative charge on the precipitates, which ultimately breaks into particles of colloidal
dimensions. For example, when freshly precipitated ferric hydroxide is shaken with aqueous solution
of ferric chloride (peptizing agent) it adsorbs Fe3+ ions and thereby split into colloidal particles of the
type [Fe(OH)3]Fe3+. Similarly, a precipitate of AgCl on shaking with dilute solution of AgNO3 adsorbs
Ag+ ion and get peptised to colloidal particles of the type [AgCl]Ag+. In some cases, peptization can
also be achieved by organic solvents. For example, cellulose nitrate is peptised by ethanol. The
colloidal solution of cellulose nitrate in ethanol is called ‘collodion’.
(d) Washing Methods
It is common experience in analytical chemistry that a precipitate tends to pass through the filter
paper while being washed free from electrolytes. It is probable that the electrolytes have caused the
primary colloidal particles to form a precipitate and their removal may result in a return to the
colloidal state.
4.2 LYOPHILIC SOLS
Such type of sols is quite stable and can be easily prepared by shaking the dispersed phase in
dispersion medium. A few examples of lyophilic sols are gelatin, gum, starch, egg albumin etc.
5. PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

The colloidal solutions obtained by any one of the methods described above contain impurities in the form
of electrolytes or other soluble substances. These impurities have to be removed as they may destabilise
the sol. The following methods are commonly used to purify a colloidal solution.
5.1 DIALYSIS
By this method soluble impurities are removed from colloidal solution by taking colloidal solution in a
bag made of semipermeable membrane like parchment paper or cellophane and dipping it in water.
The molecular and ionic impurities being small in size pass through the pores of semipermeable
membrane. The colloidal particles are large enough so that they cannot pass through the pores.
Movement of the ions through the membrane can be expedited by the application of electric field
through the two electrodes. This method is called electrodialysis.
5.2 ULTRA FILTRATION
In this method, colloidal solutions are purified by carrying out filtration through special type of graded
filter papers called ultrafilters. These filterpapers are made from ordinary filter paper by
impregnating them with colloidal particles. These filter papers allow the electrolytes to pass through
them but not the colloidal particles. The ultrafiltration is generally a slow process and can be
hastened by the application of suction.
5.3 ULTRA CENTRIFUGATION
In this method, the colloidal solution is placed in a high speed ultracentrifuge. On centrifuging, the
colloidal particles settle down. The impurities remain in the dispersion medium and are removed by
decantation. The settled colloidal particles are shaken with water containing peptizing agent to form
the colloidal solution again.
6. PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

The characteristic properties of colloidal solutions are as given below.
6.1 HETEROGENEOUS NATURE
A colloidal solution is heterogeneous in nature. It consists of two phases, namely the dispersed
phase and the dispersion medium.
6.2 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
A colloidal solution has very small value of mole fraction of dispersed phase due to high average
molecular mass of the colloidal particles. As a result, all the colligative properties of a colloidal
solution have quite low values when compared to true solution having same concentration.
However, the low osmotic pressure of a colloidal solution is measurable and can be used to
determine the molecular weight of colloidal particles.
6.3 FILTERABILITY
The size of solute particles is smaller than the pore size of filter paper and therefore, they can
readily pass through a filter paper. Colloidal particles, however cannot pass through ultra filters,
parchment paper or animal membrane.
6.4 TYNDALL EFFECT
When a strong beam of light is passed through a colloidal solution placed in a dark place, the path
of light gets illuminated as a bluish light. This is known as Tyndall effect and is caused by the
scattering of blue part of light by the colloidal particles. The scattering is caused if the size of
particles is of the order of wavelength of light. The same effect is not observed when the light is
passed through a true solution as the size of solute particles is too small to cause any scattering.
Microscope
Colloidal
solution
Source of
light
Condensing Bright Tyndall cone of
lens scattered light
6.5 VISIBILITY
Colloidal particles are too small to be seen with naked eye. But they become visible as bright spots
against dark background when viewed through an ultramicroscope due to scattering of light caused
by them.
6.6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(a) Brownian movement

If the scattered light is viewed from the top, through a microscope, points of light originating from the
individual colloidal particles can be seen. The colloidal particles of a colloidal solution when viewed
through an ultramicroscope show a constant zigzag motion. This type of motion was first observed
by Robert Brown and hence known as Brownian movement. It is caused by the uneven impacts of
the particles of the dispersion medium on the colloidal particles. As the size of the particles
increases, the probability of uneven impacts decreases and the Brownian movement becomes slow.
When the dispersed particles acquire the dimensions of suspension, no Brownian movement is
observed.
(b) Diffusion
Colloidal particles like solute particles of a true solution diffuse from a region of higher concentration
to that of lower concentration. However, colloidal particles diffuse at a slower rate due to their large
size and high molecular mass.
(c) Sedimentation
The colloidal particles tend to settle down very slowly under the influence of gravity.
The sedimentation or the rate of settling down can be increased by ultracentrifuge.
6.7 ELECTROPHORESIS OR CATAPHORESIS
The particles of the colloidal solution carry same type of charge, either positive or negative. The dispersion
medium carries an equal and opposite charge. The colloidal solutions as a whole are electrically neutral.
The origin of electrical charge on colloidal particles could be due to frictional electrification, electron
captures or preferential adsorption of ions from solutions depending on the method used for the preparation
of colloidal solutions. Due to similar nature of the charge carried by the particles, they repel each other and
do not combine to form aggregates. This makes a colloidal solution stable and the colloidal particles do not
settle down.
Some of the common positively and negatively charged colloids are given below:
Positively charged
Fe(OH)3 sol, Cr(OH)3 sol, Al(OH)3 sol, Ca(OH)2, TiO2, dyes like methylene blue and haemoglobin.
Negatively charged
As2S3 sol, Sb2S3 sol, CdS sol, Au sol, Cu sol, Ag sol and acid dyes like congo red.
The existence of charge is shown by passing electric current through two electrodes when all the colloidal
particles move towards the same electrode either cathode or anode. Positively charged colloidal particles
move towards negatively charged cathode whereas negatively charged colloidal particles move towards
positively charged anode. The movement of colloidal particles under the influence of electric field is called
electrophoresis or cataphoresis.
Electroosmosis
If the dispersed phase is prevented from moving, the application of an EMF will, however result in
movement of the dispersion medium. This is the basis of the phenomenon of electro osmosis i.e., the
passage of dispersion medium of a colloid through a porous diaphragm under the influence of an applied
electric field. This can be demonstrated in the following way. In the figure below, the plug of clay provides
stationary negatively charged colloidal particles.
Cathode Anode
Distilled water + Colloidal solution
Plug of clay
Electroosmosis
Water, in contact with clay, must therefore carry a positive charge. Under the influence of an electric field,
water will be found to move towards the cathode.
7. COAGULATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

A colloidal solution is stabilised by small amount of an electrolyte. But if the electrolyte is present in higher
concentration, then the ions combine with colloidal particles and neutralise them. Once discharged, the
colloidal particles unite together to form bigger particles and hence the coagulation takes place. The
precipitation of a colloidal solution through induced aggregation by the addition of a suitable electrolyte is
called coagulation or flocculation.
Certain minimum concentration of an electrolyte is needed to cause coagulation of a particular sol. The
minimum amount of an electrolyte (in millimoles) that must be added to one litre of a colloidal
solution so as to cause its complete coagulation is called coagulation of flocculation value of the
electrolyte.
The coagulation value of an electrolyte varies from electrolyte to electrolyte. Hardy and Schulze studied the
coagulation behaviour of various electrolytes and presented their observations in the form of
Hardy Schulze rule, which states that:
(i) The ions carrying charge opposite to that of sol particles are effective in causing the coagulation of
the sol.
(ii) Coagulating power of an electrolyte is directly proportional to the valency of the ions causing
coagulation.
Thus, for the coagulation of negatively charged sols such as As2S3, Al3+ ions are more effective than
Ba2+ ions, which are more effective than Na+ ions. In the same way, for the coagulation of positively
charged sols such as Fe(OH)3, PO 34 ions are more effective than SO 24 ions which are more
effective than Cl ions. Other methods used to cause coagulation of colloidal solution are as follows:
(i) BY MUTUAL PRECIPITATION
When two oppositely charged sol such as Cr(OH)3 and Sb2S3 are mixed in equimolar proportion,
they neutralise each other and get coagulated.
(ii) BY ELECTROPHORESIS
During electrophoresis of a sol, the colloidal particles move towards oppositely charged electrode.
The particles touch the electrode, lose charge and get coagulated.
(iii) BY REPEATED DIALYSIS

The stability of a sol is due to the presence of a small amount of electrolyte. If the electrolyte is
completely removed by repeated dialysis, the sol will get coagulated.
(iv) BY HEATING
Even simple heating may coagulate the sol.
PROTECTIVE COLLOIDSGOLD NUMBER

Lyophilic sols are reversible and are practically not affected by the electrolytes. Even if coagulated due to
evaporation of dispersion medium, they can easily be brought back to colloidal solutions simply by shaking
with some quantity of dispersion medium. Lyophobic sols, on the other hand are irreversible and are highly
sensitive to the presence of electrolytes. They can be easily coagulated by the addition of electrolytes
beyond a certain minimum concentration. Once coagulated they cannot be revived back to colloidal
solutions. However, addition of a small amount of lyophilic sol to a lyophobic sol, the former exerts a
protecting influence on the latter against coagulation by electrolyte. For example, a gold sol or a silver sol
protected by gelatin, gumarabic or egg albumin, may not be coagulated easily. Different lyophilic sols
exert protective influence to different extent. The protecting power of a protective colloid is expressed in
terms of Gold number defined as below:
The number of milligram of the protective colloid that just prevents coagulation of
10 ml of standard gold sol when 1 ml of 10% solution of NaCl is added to it is called Gold number of
the protective colloid.
Thus, smaller the gold number of a protective colloid, greater will be its protecting power. The gold numbers
of a few protective colloids are given below:
Potato starch : 25
Egg albumin : 0.15  0.25
Gum Arabic : 0.15  0.25

Haemoglobin : 0.03
Gelatin : 0.006
8. GELS
Certain colloidal systems have the property of setting to a semi solid, jellylike form when they are present
at high concentration. Such a process is called gellation and the colloidal systems with jellylike form are
called gels. Gelatin, gum Arabic, agar and processed cheese are the examples of gels. Gels possess rigid
structure formed due to interlocking of particles of disperse phase and create a loose framework. The
particles of dispersion medium are trapped into the loose framework. The degree of rigidity varies from
substance to substance. When gels are allowed to stand for a long time, they give out small quantity of
trapped liquid, which accumulates on the surface. This is called syneresis or weeping.
9. APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDS
Colloidal particles of a colloidal solution carry either positive or negative charge, which makes them good
conductors. This property of colloids is made use of in several applications. Some of the applications are
given below:
9.1 RUBBER PLATING
This involves electrodeposition of negatively charged rubber particles from rubber sol on handles
of different tools, rubber gloves etc.
9.2 SEWAGE DISPOSAL
The sewage water contains impurities, which have colloidal dimensions, carry charge and therefore,
do not settle down. These particles can be removed by electrophoresis. The sewage water is
passed through a tunnel fitted with two electrodes. A high potential difference is applied when all the
colloidal particles move to the oppositely charged electrodes, get neutralised and are coagulated.
9.3 COTTRELL SMOKE PRECIPITATOR

A number of industries release large quantity of smoke into the air causing air pollution. The smoke
contains unburnt colloidal carbon particles. It can be made free of colloidal particles by installing
cottrell precipitator in the chimney of an industrial unit releasing smoke. It consists of two metal rods
charged to high potential difference of the order of 30,000 V. The carbon particles get deposited and
finally precipitated down while the gases free from carbon particles leave the chimney.
9.4 ARTIFICIAL RAIN
Clouds consist of colloidal water particles dispersed in air. They carry charge. When oppositely
charged colloidal particles are sprayed over clouds, the water particles get neutralised and are
coagulated into bigger water drops causing artificial rain.
9.5 PURIFICATION OF WATER

Colloidal particles present in impure water can be coagulated by adding small amount of potash
alum K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O. The ionic species furnished by alum cause coagulation of colloidal
impurities.
9.6 FORMATION OF DELTA
The muddy river water contains colloidal particles of sand and clay, which carry negative charge.
The sea water, on the other hand contains positive ions such as Na+, Mg2+ and Ca2+. As the river water
meets seawater, these ions discharge the sand or clay particles, which are precipitated as delta.
9.7 FOODS
Milk is an emulsion of butterfat in water protected by a protein, casein. Salad dressing, gelatin desserts,
fruit jellies and whipped cream are other examples. Bread, bun, cake are dispersion of air in baked
dough.
9.8 MEDICINES
Medicines in finely divided colloidal form are more effective and are easily absorbed in our system. Many
ointments such as skin ointment, lotion, creams and antibiotics such as penicillin and streptomycin are
produced in colloidal form.
10. ASSOCIATED COLLOIDS
Soaps and detergents form true solutions in water when their concentration is low. However, at high
concentration, they form colloidal solutions, in which colloidal particles are formed by agglomeration of large
number of soap or detergent molecules. These type of colloids are called associated colloids and the
agglomerated colloidal particles are called micelles. The formation of micelles takes place above a certain
concentration called critical micellization concentration (CMC). Each micelle system has a specific value of
CMC.
The soap and detergent molecules have a hydrophobic group at one end and a hydrophilic group at the
other end. Such type of molecules are called surfactant molecules. Sodium oleate (C17H33COONa+) is a
typical example of soap. The long hydrocarbon part of oleate anion is the hydrophobic end while COO
part is the hydrophilic end. The CMC value of sodium oleate is 3  103 M. When the concentration exceeds
CMC, the hydrophobic parts of C17H33COO anions are repelled by solvent molecules and are compelled to
come close to each other. The lyophilic part i.e. COO ions spreads out due to attraction by the solvent
molecules forming micelles, which are of colloidal dimensions.
COO Hydrophobic end (C17H33)
Hydrophilic end
micelle
Cleansing action of soap
A soap molecule contains a non polar hydrophobic group and a polar hydrophilic group. The dirt is held on
to the surface of clothes by the oil or grease, which is present there. Since grease or oil is not soluble in
water, the dirt particles cannot be removed simply by washing the clothes with water. When soap is applied,
the non polar hydrophobic end dissolves the oil or grease. While the polar COO groups remain dissolved
in water. In this way each oil droplet is surrounded by negatively charged COO groups and hence cannot
coalesce. These oil droplets containing dirt can be washed away with water.
11. EMULSIONS
Emulsions are the colloidal solutions in which both the disperse phase and the dispersion medium are
liquids.
11.1 TYPES OF EMULSIONS
There are two types of emulsions.
1. Oil in water type emulsions
In this type of emulsion, oil is the dispersed phase and water is the dispersion medium. For example
milk, vanishing cream etc.
2. Water in oil type emulsions
In this type of emulsions water is the dispersed phase and oil is the dispersion medium. For
example butter, cod liver oil, cold cream etc.
11.2 IDENTIFICATION OF EMULSIONS
The following tests can be employed to distinguish between the two types of emulsions.
1. Dye test
An oil soluble dye is added to the given emulsion. If the background becomes coloured, the
emulsion is water in oil type and if the tiny droplets become coloured, the emulsion is oil in water
type.
2. Dilution test
If the emulsion can be diluted with water, this indicates that the emulsion is oil in water type. In case
the emulsion cannot be diluted with water, it is water in oil type.
11.3 PREPARATION OF EMULSIONS
Emulsion can be prepared by mixing oil and water and shaking them vigorously in the presence of
small quantity of a substance known as emulsifying agent or emulsifier. It is essential to add
emulsifier in order to prepare stable emulsions. Such emulsions have properties, which resemble
somewhat those of lyophilic sols e.g. high viscosity, relatively high concentrations and stability to
electrolytes. An excess of electrolyte may salt out the emulsifier and so cause instability.
Emulsifying agents fall roughly into three categories.
(i) These are either, the long chain compounds with polar groups, such as the soaps and long chain
sulphonic acids and sulphates, all of which produce a considerable decrease in the oilwater
interfacial tension. When olive oil and water are shaken together, very little emulsification occurs,
but the addition of a small amount of NaOH results in the formation of a stable emulsion. The
sodium soap formed by hydrolysis acts as the emulsifier. It appears that certain optimum
concentration of emulsifier is required to obtain stable emulsions. Any concentration of the
emulsifier more or less than this does not cause effective stabilisation.
(ii) There are substances of a lyophilic nature such as proteins, e.g. casein in milk and gums.
(iii) Insoluble powders for example, basic sulphates of iron, copper or nickel, finely divided lead
sulphate and ferric oxide and lamp black stabilise a number of emulsions. The soaps of alkali metals
favour the formation of oil in water emulsions, but those of the alkaline earth metals and of zinc, iron
and aluminium give water in oil emulsions. Similarly, the basic sulphates stabilise oil in water
emulsions whereas opposite type is formed when finely divided carbon is the emulsifying agent.
11.4 APPLICATION OF EMULSIONS
Some of the important applications of emulsions are as given below:
1. In medicines
A number of pharmaceutical preparations are emulsions. These are oil in water type emulsion,
which are easily acted upon by the digestive juices in the stomach.
2. In Metallurgical Operations
The sulphide ores are concentrated by froth flotation process, which involves the treatment of
crushed ore with emulsion of pine oil.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
OBJECTIVE
3
1. The coagulation of 100 cm of gold solution is completely prevented by addition of 0.25 g of starch to
it before adding 10 ml of 10% NaCl solution. The gold number of starch is
(a) 0.025 (b) 0.25 (c) 2.5 (d) 25
Sol. Gold number of starch is the milligrams of starch added to 10 ml of standard gold sol just to prevent
coagulation of Au sol when 1 mL of 10% NaCl is added to it.
10 mL of 10% NaCl is added to 100 mL of gold sol. In other words 1 mL of 10% NaCl is added to
10 mL of gold sol.
Quantity of starch added to 10 mL of gold sol = 25 mg
 Gold number of starch = 25.
 (d)
2. For adsorption of a gas on a solid, the plot of log x/m vs log P is linear with slope equal to: (n being a
whole number)
(a) k (b) log k (c) n (d) 1/n
Sol. For adsorption of a gas on the surface of a solid, the extent of adsorption (x/m) varies with P as given below:
x 1/n
= k(P)
m
where n is a whole number
x 1
log = log k + log P.
m n
x
 Plot of log vs log P is linear with a slope of (1/n).
m
 (d)
3. For the coagulation of 100 mL of As2S3 sol, 5 mL of 1 M NaCl is required. The flocculation value of
NaCl is
(a) 50 (b) 5 (c) 47.6 (d) None of these
Sol. Millimoles of NaCl added = 5
Volume of the sol containing NaCl solution = 100 mL.
Flocculation value is the amount of electrolyte (in millimoles) that must be added to 1 L of the colloidal solution
so as to bring about complete coagulation.
5  1000
 Flocculation value of NaCl = = 50 m mol L1.
100
 (a)
4. Which of the following colloid can be prepared by electrical dispersion as well as reduction method?
(a) Sulphur (b) Ferric hydroxide (c) Arsenious sulphide (d) Gold
Sol. Of the given four options, only gold sol can be prepared by electrical dispersion method i.e., Bredig’s arc
method as well as reduction method when AuCl3 is reduced by SnCl 2
2AuCl3 + 3SnCl 2  2Au + 3SnCl 4
 (d)
5. Silver iodide is used for producing artificial rains because silver iodide
(a) is easy to spray at high altitude (b) is insoluble in water
(c) has crystal structure similar to ice (d) is easy to synthesize
Sol. Silver iodide is used for producing artificial rains because it has crystal structure similar to ice. When AgI is
sprayed over clouds, it causes water droplets of clouds to coalesce to form bigger water drops and induce
rains.
 (c)
SUBJECTIVE
1. The particles of a particular colloidal solution of arsenic trisulphide (As2S3) are negatively charged.
Which 0.0005 M solution of the following salts would be most effective in coagulating this colloidal
solution, KCl, MgCl2, AlCl3 or Na3PO4? Explain.
Sol. Since As2S3 is a negatively charged colloidal sol, hence positively charged ion will cause its coagulation. By
HardySchulze rule “greater the charge on ion, greater the coagulating power to coagulate oppositely charged
+ 2+ 3+ + 3+
colloidal sol”, hence out of K , Mg , Al and Na , Al would be most effective in coagulating this colloidal
solution.
2. A sample of charcoal weighing 6 g was brought into contact with a gas contained in a vessel of one
litre capacity at 27°C. The pressure of the gas was found to fall from 700 to 400 mm of Hg. Calculate
the volume of the gas (reduced to STP) that is adsorbed per gram of the adsorbent under the
condition of the experiment (density of charcoal sample is 1.5 g cm3).
Sol. The adsorption is taking place in a closed vessel, thus when pressure falls there is correspondingly increase
in volume and to keep volume constant, excess of the volume of the gas would be adsorbed.
Using P1V1 = P2V2
P1V1 700  1000

V2 = = = 1750 ml
P2 400
Actual volume of the flask = 1000  volume of charcoal

6
= 1000  = 996 ml
1.50
Volume of the gas adsorbed = 1750  996 = 754 ml
754
Volume of the gas adsorbed per gram of charcoal = = 125.67 ml g1
6
 PV P V 
Volume of the gas adsorbed per gram at STP  u sin g 1 1  2 2 

 T1 T2 
125.67  400  273

= = 60.19 ml g1.
300  760
3. In the lower layer of the atmosphere, there is a great deal of dust. When the weather is fine, it is
possible to see the magnificent red colour of the setting sun. What has this observation to do with
colloids?
Sol. Dust in the atmosphere is often colloidal. When the sun is low down on the horizon, light from it has to pass
through a great deal of dust to reach our eyes. The blue part of the light is scattered away from our eyes. We
see the red part of the spectrum, which remains. Red sunsets are the result of Tyndall effect on a large scale.
2 2
4. 1 gm of active charcoal is taken and its surface area is 3.01  10 m /gm. It adsorbs 100 ml of 0.5 M
CH3COOH in a single layer. After adsorption, its molarity becomes 0.49M. Find the surface area of the
charcoal covered by one molecule of acetic acid.
2 2 2
Sol. Surface area = 3.01  10  1 = 3.01  10 m
Number of CH3COOH molecules = 0.001  6.023  1023 = 6.023  1020
3.01  10 2 2
Surface area of one molecule = 20
= 0.5  1018 = 5  1019 m
6.023  10
3
5. A solution of palmitic acid (M = 256 g mol1) in benzene contains 4.24 g of acid per dm . When this
solution is dropped on a water surface the benzene evaporates and the palmitic acid forms a
2
monomolecular film of the solid type. If we wish to cover an area of 500 cm with a monolayer, what
volume of solution should be used? The area covered by one palmitic acid molecule may be taken to
be 0.21 nm2.
2
Sol. Let the volume of palmitic acid solution required to cover the desired area of 500 cm be V ml.
4.24  V  6.023  10 23
 Number of molecules of palmitic acid in V ml =
1000  256
18
= 9.976  10 V
18 2
The area covered by these molecules = 9.976  10  V  0.21  1014 cm
4 2
= 2.095  10  V cm
2
But this area is equal to 500 cm
4
 2.095  10  V = 500
or V = 0.024 ml.
Radioactivity Theory
It is postulated that stronger proton–neutron, neutron–neutron and even proton–proton attractive forces
exits in the nucleus. These attractive forces are called nuclear forces. Nuclear forces are nearly 1021 times
stronger than electrostatic forces. Unlike electrostatic forces which operate over long ranges also, the nuclear
forces operate only within small distance of about 1.4  10 12 m. Hence these are referred to short range
forces. Unlike electrostatic forces, nuclear forces do not obey the inverse square law.
Nuclear Stability
The stability of nucleus may be discussed in terms of any one of the following.
1. Mass defect and nuclear binding energy.
The most acceptable theory about the atomic nuclear stability is based upon the fact that the observed
atomic mass of all known isotopes (except hydrogen) is always less from the sum of the weight of
protons and neutrons (nucleons) and electrons present in it. Consider the case of helium having 2
protons, 2 neutrons and 2 electrons.
Mass of 2 electrons  2  0.000543  0.001086 amu
Mass of 2 protons  2  1.00758  2.01516 amu
Mass of 2 neutrons = 2  1.00893  2.01786 amu
 Expected mass of helium = 4.03410 amu
However, the actual mass of helium = 4.00390 amu
 Difference between the expected mass and actual mass of helium, i.e.,
m  4.03410  4.00390 amu  0.03020 amu
The difference between the expected mass (calculated by adding the masses of protons, neutrons and
electrons present) and the actual mass of an isotope is called mass defect; it is denoted by m and
expressed in atomic mass units.
The natural question is that where this mass has gone? It has been suggested that this mass is
converted into energy which is released in the formation of the given nucleus from individual
protons and neutrons. The release of energy results in the stability of the nucleus, i.e., it helps in
binding the nucleons together and hence is called binding energy. Thus binding energy of a nucleus
from its protons and neutrons. Obviously, the same amount of energy will be required to separate the
nucleons apart. Hence binding energy of a nucleus may also be defined as the energy required to
disrupt it into its constituent protons and neutrons.
Mathematically, binding energy can be calculated from Einstein equation,
E  mc 2
where m is the mass lost, i.e. mass defect and c is the velocity of light (3  108 m / sec) Note. While
using c in m/sec, use mass in kg (1 a.m.u.  1.66  10 27 kg.)
Alternatively, it may simply be obtained by multiplying the mass defect with 931.5 MeV, i.e.,
Binding energy  m  931 .5MeV
This is because 1amu **  931.5 MeV
Thus the binding energy of helium nucleus  m  931.5 MeV
 0.0302  931.5 MeV
 28.14 MeV
If m is in gram, E will be in MeV per gm atom.
Evidently, greater the mass defect, greater is the binding energy of the nucleus.
The binding energy of a nucleus when divided by the number of nucleons gives the mean binding
energy per nucleon. Thus the mean binding energy per nucleon of helium (having 4 nucleons) is
28.14
  7.03 MeV
4
The binding energy per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the nucleus. The greater the binding
energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus. The average binding energy for most of the
nucleus is in the vicinity of 8 MeV except for the lower members though these members are very
stable. Nuclei having binding energy per nucleon very near to 8 MeV are more or less stable. Iron
has the maximum average binding energy (8.79 MeV) and thus its nucleus is thermodynamically
most stable.
The isotopes with intermediate mass numbers 40 to 100 are most stable. The elements with low mass
numbers or high mass numbers tend to become stable by acquiring intermediate mass number.
Evidently, nuclei of lighter elements combine together to form a heavier nucleus of intermediate
mass number (nuclear fusion); while the nuclei of heavy elements split into two lighter nuclei of
intermediate mass number (nuclear fission). In either case, energy is released and hence the stability
is enhanced.
1. Relative stability of isotopes and binding energy.

Value of binding energy predicts the relative stability of the different isotopes of an element. If the
value of binding energy is negative, the product nucleus or nucleus will be less stable than the
reactant nucleus or nuclei but if the binding energy is positive the product nucleus is more stable than
the reactant nucleus. Thus the relative stability of the different isotopes of an element can be
predicted by the values of binding energy for each successive addition of one neutron to the nucleus.
3 1 4
2 He  0 n  2 He  20.5 MeV
2He 4  0 n 1  2 He 5  0.8 MeV

Therefore, 2 He is more stable than 2 He 3 and 2 He5 .
4
2. Packing fraction.
The difference of actual isotopic mass* and the mass number in terms of packing fraction is defined
as
Actual isotopic mass  Mass number
Packing fraction   10 4
Mass number
The value of packing fraction depends upon the manner of packing of the nucleons within the
nucleus. Its value can be negative, positive or even zero.
Carbon12 has zero packing fraction because it is taken as a reference on the atomic scale and its
actual isotopic mass (12) is equal to its mass number (12).
The negative or zero value of the packing fraction means that the actual isotopic mass is less or equal
to the mass number. This in turn indicates that some mass has been transformed into energy (binding
energy) during formation of nucleus. Such nuclei are, therefore, more stable.
The positive packing fraction should imply the opposite, i.e., the nuclei of such isotopes should be
unstable. However, this generalization is not strictly correct especially for elements of low mass
numbers. For these the actual masses of protons and neutrons (of which the nuclei are composed) are
slightly greater than unity.
In general, lower the packing fraction, greater is the binding energy per nucleon and hence greater is
the stability. The relatively low packing fraction of He, C and O implies their exceptional stability.
Packing fraction is least for Fe (negative) and highest for H (+78).
3. Meson theory of nuclear force.

Neutron is found to play a leading role in binding the nuclear particle. It has been established that
neutron-proton attractions are stronger than the proton-proton or neutron-neutron attractions. This is
evident by the fact that the deuteron, 1 H 2 having one proton and one neutron, is quite stable while
no particle having either two neutrons or two protons is known.
Yukawa in 1935, put forward a postulate that neutrons and protons are held together by very rapid
exchange of nuclear forces called into play by this rapid exchange of pi mesons between nucleons
are also called exchange forces.
The binding forces between unlike nucleons (p and n) are explained by the oscillation of a charged pi
meson (  or   ) .
(a) p1 + n n1 +    n2 n1 + p2

(b) p1 + n2 p1 +   p 2 n1 + p2
Binding forces between like particles (p-p or n-n) result form the exchange of neutral mesons (  ) as
represented below.
(c) p1 p2 +  0 or p1 +  0 p2
0 0
(d) n1 n2 +  or n1 +  n2
4. Neutron-proton ratio and nuclear stability.

The nuclear stability is found to be related to the
neutron/proton (n/p) ratio. If for different elements
the number of neutron is plotted against the number
of protons, it is found that the elements with stable
nuclei (non-radioactive elements) lie within a region
(belt) known as zone or belt of stability in the
Figure.
In figure following points are worth-noting.
(i) For elements with low atomic number (less than 20),
n/p ratio is 1 i.e., the number of protons is equal to
the number of neutrons. Remember that n/p ratio of
1
1H is zero as it has no neutron. Nuclide with
highest n/p ratio is 1 H 3 (n/p= 2.0).
(ii) With the increase in atomic number although the
number of protons increase but the number of
neutrons increase much more that the number of protons with the result the n/p ratio goes on
increasing from 1 till it becomes nearly equal to 1.5 at the upper end of the belt.
(iii) When the n/p ratio exceed 1.52 as in elements with atomic number 84 or higher, the element
becomes radioactive and undergoes disintegration spontaneously. Note that these elements lie
outside the zone of stability.
The way an unstable nucleus disintegrates is decided by its position with respect to the actual n/p
plot of stable nuclei (the zone of stability).
(a) Neutrons to proton (n/p) ratio too high. If the n/p ratio is too high, i.e. when the nucleus contains
too many neutrons, it falls above the zone of stability. The isotope would be unstable and would tend
to come within the stability zone by the emission of a   ray (electron). Electron, in turn, is
produced in the nucleus probably by the following type of decay of a neutron.
1 1 0
0 n  1 H  1e (beta particle)
The electron thus produced is emitted as a   particle and thus the neutron decay ultimately
increases the number of protons, with the result the n/p ratio decreases and comes to the stable belt.
Consider the example of C12 and C14. In C12, the n/p ratio (6/6) is 1; hence its nucleus is quite stable.
On the other hand in C14, the n/p ratio (8/6) is 1.3; hence it should be unstable. In practice also it is
found to be so and C14 decays in the following way to give N14 (n/p ratio = 1).
14 14 0
6C  7N  1 e
n 8  n 7 
   1.33     1.0 
p 6  p 7 
Similarly, 11 N 24  12 M 24  1 e0
 n 13   n 12 
   1.18     1.0 
 p 11   p 12 
238 234
92 U  90Th  2 He 4
 n 146   n 144 
   1.587     1.6 
 p 92   p 90 
(b) Neutron to proton ratio (n/p) too low, i.e. when the nucleus contains excess protons. There are
no naturally occurring nuclides with n/p ratio less than 1, however there are many artificially
nuclides. In such cases, the nucleus lies below the zone of stability, it would again be unstable and
would tend to come within the
zone of stability by losing a position.
11 11
6C  5B  1e 0
n 5  n 6 
   0.83     1.2 
p 6  p 5 
13 13
7N  6C  1 e0
n 6  n 7 
   0.86     1.16 
p 7  p 6 
5. Nuclear shell model.

According to this theory, nucleus of atom, like extra-nuclear electrons, also has definite energy levels
(shells). The shell structure is supported by the existence of periodically in the nuclear properties.
For example, elements with even number of protons and neutrons are more abundant, more stable
and richer in isotopes. Nuclides with odd number of protons and neutrons are least abundant is nature
(only 5 are known 1 H 2 , 3 Li 6 , 5 B 10 , 7 N 14 and 73Ta 180 ).
Thus elements have a tendency to have even number of both protons and neutrons. This suggests that
like electrons, nucleon particles in the nucleus are paired. Magnetic fields of the two paired protons
spinning in opposite direction cancel each other and develop attractive forces which are sufficient to
stabilize the nucleus.
Further, nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 or 126 protons or neutrons have been found to be particularly
stable with a large number of isotopes. These numbers, commonly known as magic numbers are
defined as the number of nucleons required for completion of the energy levels of the nucleus.
Nucleons are arranged in shells as two protons or two neutrons (with paired spins) just like electrons
arranged in the extra-nuclear part. Thus the following nuclei
4 16 40
2 He , 8 O , 20 Ca and 82 Pb 208
containing protons 2, 8, 20 and 82 respectively (all magic numbers) and neutrons 2, 8, 20 and 126
respectively (all magic numbers) are the most stable.
Magic numbers of protons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 114
Magic numbers if neutrons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 126, 184, 196
208
The relatively higher stability of 82Pb can be explained by magic numbers (magic numbers for
protons = 82, magic number for neutron = 126).
Nuclei with nucleons just above the magic numbers are less stable and hence these may emit some
particles to attain magic numbers.
Nuclear Reactions.
We know that in a chemical reaction, only electrons (extra-nuclear part) of the atom take part while the
nucleus of the atom remains unaffected. However, the reverse reactions (i.e., where only nuclei of atoms
part in reactions) are also possible. Such reactions in which nucleus of an atom itself undergoes spontaneous
change or interact with other nuclei of lighter particles resulting new nuclei and one or more lighter particles
are called nuclear reactions.
Important features of nuclear reactions.
(i) Nuclear reactions are written like a chemical reaction. As in a chemical reaction, reactants in a
nuclear reaction are written on the left hand side and products on the right hand side with an arrow in
between them.
(ii) Mass number and atomic number of the elements are written in a nuclear reactions. Mass
number and atomic number of the element involved in a nuclear reaction are inserted as superscripts
27 27
and subscripts respectively on the symbol of the element. For example, 13 Al , Al 13 or 13 A 27 stands
for an atom of aluminium with mass number 27 and atomic number 13.
(iii) Mass number and atomic number are conserved. In a nuclear reaction the total mass numbers and
total atomic numbers are balanced on the two sides of the reaction (recall that in an ordinary the total
number of atoms of the various elements are balanced on the two sides).
(iv) Energy involved in the nuclear reactions is indicated in the product as +Q or -Q for reactions
accompanied by release or absorption of energy respectively.
(v) Important projectiles are
  particles ( 2 He 4 ), proton (1 H 1 or p ), deuteron (1 H 2 or 1 D 2 ), neutron ( 0 n1 ),
electron (  particle, 1e 0 or e) and positron ( 1 e 0 ).
(vi) Representation of nuclear reactions. For example,
14
7N  2 He 4  8 O17  1 H 1  Q
Sometime a short hand notation is used, e.g. the above reaction can be represented as below.
14
7N ( , P ) 8O 17
Nuclear reactions vs Chemical Reactions. Nuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions in the
following respects.
(i) As per definition, chemical reactions depend upon the number of extranuclear electrons while
nuclear reactions are independent upon the electrons but depend upon the nature of the nucleus.
(ii) Chemical reactions involve some loss, gain or overlap of orbital electrons of the two reactant atoms.
On the other hand, nuclear reactions involve emission of some light particles ( ,  , positron, etc.)
from the nucleus of the atom to form another element.
(iii) The chemical reactivity of the element is dependent on the bond present in the concerned compound.
On the other hand, the nuclear reactivity of the element is independent of its state of chemical
combination, e.g. radium, whether present as such or in the form of its compound, shows similar
radioactivity.
(iv) The energy change occurring in nuclear reactions is very high as compared to that in chemical
reactions. Again in chemical reactions the energy is expressed in kcal per mole while in nuclear
reactions the energy is expressed in MeV per nucleus. Nuclear reactions which liberate energy are
called exoergic reactions and which absorb energy are called endoergic.
(v) A chemical reaction is balanced in terms of mass only while a nuclear reaction must be balanced in
terms of both mass and energy. In endoergic reactions, the mass of products is more than the mass of
reactants while in exoergic reactions the mass of products is less than the mass of reactants.
(vi) The chemical reactions are dependent on temperature and pressure while the nuclear reactions are
independent of external conditions.
(1) Natural nuclear reactions. In these reactions, nuclei of a single atom undergoes a spontaneous
change itself.
(2) Artificial nuclear reactions. In these reactions, two nuclei of different elements are brought to
interact artificially. This is done by bombarding a relatively heavier nucleus (non-radioactive) with a
lighter nucleus, viz. proton, deuteron and helium.
Artificial radioactivity was first discovered by Irene Curie and her husband Frederick Joliot. First
artificial radioactive nuclide produced is 15 P 30 by bombarding 13 Al 27 with  -particles.
13 Al 27  2 He 4  15 P 30  0 n1
15 P 30 in turn undergoes   (positron) decay.
15 P 30  14 Si 30  1e 0
The products in a nuclear reaction are generally a heavy nucleus and a light particle, viz. electron,
proton, neutron,  -particle or even  -rays. The heavy nucleus isotope, so obtained may or may not
be stable. In case it is stable, no more radioactivity is observed. However, if it is unstable, it may
itself start disintegrating like the natural radioactive elements. This type of radioactivity, produced in
the product of artificial radioactivity, is called induced radioactivity.
In addition to the natural and artificial radioactivity, two other important nuclear reactions are
nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
Radioactivity.
Radioactivity may be defined as a process in which the nuclei of certain elements undergo spontaneous
disintegration (transformation into another element by the ejection of   or  -particle) at a rate
characteristic for each particular active isotope (Becquerrl, 1896). All the heavy elements from bismuth (At.
No. 83) through uranium and also a few of the lighter* elements possess radioactive properties. However,
the radioactive elements differs widely, e.g. radium atoms have about three million times the activity if
uranium atoms. Uranium, in the form of potassium uranyl sulphate, K2UO2 (SO4)2, was the first compound
found to be radioactive.
Radioactive changes are spontaneous. These are not controlled by temperature, pressure or nature of
chemical combination.
Radioactive Rays (Radioactive emanations).

Radioactive radiations are composed of three important rays, namely  ,   and   rays which differ very
much in their nature and properties, e.g. penetrating power, ionizing power and effect on photographic plates
(see Table). Remember  or  emission is a primary process, while  -emission is a secondary process.
Table Comparison of  ,   and   Rays

 -Particle or Ray  -particles or Ray  -Ray
1 Charge and Mass
It carries 2 unit positive charge It carries 1 unit negative charge These are electromagnetic
and 4 unit mass. and no mass. rays with very short
wavelength (approx. 0.05 A )
2 Nature
It is represented as helium It is represented as electron 1 e 0 It is represented as 0  0 .
nucles or Helium ions,
4 
2 He or He
3 Action of a magnetic field

These are deflected towards the These are deflected to anode. These are not deflected.
cathode.
4 Velocity
2  10 9 cm / s or 2  10 7 m / sec 2.36 to 2.83  1010 cm/s or 2.36 to Same as that of light
1 8 1 9 3 1010 cm/s ( 3  10 8 m / s )
( th of velocity of light). 2.83  10 m / s ( to th of
10 3 10
velocity of light).
5 Ionizing power
Very high, nearly 100 times to Low, nearly 100 times to that of Very low.
that of   ray.  -rays.
6 Effect on ZnS plate
They cause luminescence. Very little effect. Very little effect.
7 Penetrating power
Low. Easily stopped by air. 100 times that of  -particles 10 times that of  -particles
8 Range
Very small (8-12 cm). More that of  -particles More.
9 Kinetic energy
High due to their high mass. Very less due to their small mass. Zero.
10 Nature of product
Product obtained by the loss of 1 Product obtained by the loss if 1 There is no change in the
 -particle has atomic number  -particle has atomic number atomic number as well as in
less by 2 units and mass number more by 1 unit, without any mass number, e.g.
n n 0
less by 4 units, e.g. change in mass number e.g. y A  yA  0y
n n 4
y A  y2 A  2 He 4 n n
y A  y 1 A  1 e
0
Disintegration Theory of Radioactivity

According to this theory, put forward by Rutherford and Soddy in 1902, radioactive elements (which are
generally heavy elements) are unstable (the source of unstability is nucleus) and undergo spontaneous
breakdown from one chemical atom to another. Such breakdowns are successive and proceed with the
emission of either a helium nucleus ( 2 He 4 ) or a   particle ( 1 e 0 ) . In case of natural radioelements,
species of the atom formed in the process is continuous until finally a stable and, therefore, non-radioactive
nuclear species results.
Laws of Radioactive Disintegration.

(i) Atoms of all radioactive elements undergo spontaneous disintegration and form new radioactive
elements. The disintegration is accompanied by the emission of  ,   or   rays.
(ii) The disintegration is at random, i.e. each and every atom has equal chance for disintegration at any
time.
(iii) The number of atoms that disintegrate per second is directly proportional to the number of remaining
unchanged radioactive atoms present at any time. The disintegration is independent of all physical
and chemical conditions like temperature, pressure, chemical combination etc.
The two laws of radioactive disintegration can be summed up as below.
1. Group displacement law. The result of   and   particle changes can be summed up in the form
of group displacement law ‘in an  -particle change the resulting element has an atomic weight less
by four units and atomic number less by two units and it falls in a group of the periodic table two
columns to the left of the original number is increased by one than its parent and hence it lies one
column to its right.’
However, group displacement law, also known s Rutherford Soddy rules, is now a-days stated as
follows.
(i) The total electric charge (atomic number) or algebric sum of the charges before the disintegration
must be equal to the total electric charge after the disintegration.
(ii) The sum of the mass number of the initial particles must be equal to the sum of the mass number of
the final particles.
Remember that a daughter nuclide (a nucleus of a specific mass number is called nuclide) differs
from its parent nuclide not only in its radioactive properties, but also in other physical and chemical
properties and thus we can say that the radioactive process involves the transmutation of the
element.
For example,
(i) Emission of an  -particle 88 Ra 226  86 Rn
222
 2 He 4
Radium (Group II) Radon (Group 0)
210 210
(ii) Emission of a  -particle 82 Pb  83 Bi  1  0
Lead (Group II) Bismuth (Group V)
Points to remember
1.  -Decay produces isodiaphere i.e., the parent and daughter nuclide formed by  -decay have same
isotopic number, i.e., difference between the number of neutrons and protons is same. For example,
226 222
88 Ra  86 Rn
No. of neutrons 138 136
No. of protons 88 86
Difference 50 50
2.  -Decay results in the formation of an isobaric element i.e., parent and daughter nuclide have
different atomic numbers but same mass number. For example,
40
19 K  20 Ca 40  1e 0
3. Emission of 1   particle and 2   particles in succession produces an isotope of the parent

element. For example,
  
235 231 231
92 U  90Th  91 Pa  U 231
92
2. Law of radioactive decay.

According to the law of radioactive decay, the quantity of a radioelement which disappears in unit time
(rate of disintegration) is directly proportional to the amount present.
The law of radioactivity decay may also be expressed mathematically. Suppose the number of atom of the
radioactive element present at the commencement of observation, i.e. when t = 0 is N0, and after time t, the
number of atoms remaining unchanged is Nt, then the rate of decay of atoms is –dN/dt (the word d indicates
a very-very small fraction; the negative sign shows that the number of atoms Nt decreases as time t
increases). Now since the change in number of atoms is proportional to the total number of atoms Nt, the
relation becomes
dN t
   Nt …(1)
dt
where  is a radioactive constant or decay constant and is characteristic of each element. The value of 
is always less than one and its units are time-1.
dN t
  dt …(2)
dt
On integration, ln N t  C  t …(3)
Where C is integration constant.
At the commencement of observation, i.e. when t = 0 and N = N0, the above equation becomes
ln N 0  C  0
C = - ln N0 …(4)
Substituting the value of the integration constant C in equation (3),
ln N t  ln N 0   t …(5)
Putting the above equation into its equivalent exponential form, it becomes
Nt
 e t
N0
N t  N 0 e  t …(6)
1 N
  ln 0
t Nt
2.303 N
 log 0 …(7)
t Nt
Note that this equation is similar to that of the first order reaction, hence we can say that radioactive
disintegrations are examples of first order reactions.
Point to remember:
Since the number of undecomposed atoms decreases with increase in time, the rate of disintegration also
decreases with increase in the time because the rate of disintegration is directly proportional to the amount
of the radioactive substance present.
Half-life Period (T1/2)

Rutherford in 1904 introduced a constant known as half-life period of the radioelement for evaluating its
radioactivity or for comparing its radioactivity with the activities of other radioelements. The half-life
period of a radioelement is defined as the time required by a given amount of the element to decay to one-
half of its initial value.
Derivation of half-life period.

According to definition of half-life period, the ratio of Nt to N0 at the end of half-life period is one half, i.e.,
Nt 1

N0 2
1
Nt  N0
2
Substituting the value of Nt in equation (6)
1
N 0  N 0 e T1 / 2
2
1
 e   T1 / 2
2
1
 T1 / 2   ln
2
 T1 / 2  0.693 (ln 2  0.693)
0.693
 T1 / 2  .

Now since  is a constant, we can conclude that half-life period of a particular radioelement is independent
of the amount of the radioelement. In other words, whatever might be the amount of the radioactive element
present at a time, it will always decompose to its half at the end of one half-life period. This can beautifully
be expressed in the form of a table where x represents the amount of substance at start (i.e. when time = 0).
No. of half-life period Mass, initially present Decomposing mass Residual mass
0 x 0 x
1 x x/2 x/2
2 x/2 x/4 x/4
3 x/4 x/8 x/8
4 x/8 x/16 x/16
Half-life period is a measure of the radioactivity of the element since shorter the half-life period of an
element, greater is the number of the disintegrating atoms and hence greater is its radioactivity. The half-life
periods or the half-lives of different radioelements vary widely, ranging from a fraction of a second to
millions of years. Nuclides emitting high energy  -rays have shorter half-lives. This is known as Geiger-
Nuttal rule.
Average Life Period (T)
Since total decay period of any element is infinity, it is meaningless to use the term total decay period (total
life period) for radioelements. Thus the term average life is used which is determined by the following
relation.
Sum of lives of the nuclides
Average life (T) 
Total number of nuclides
Relation between average life and half-life, Average life (T) of an element is the inverse of its decay
constant, i.e.
1
T 

Substituting the value of  in the above equation,
T
T  1 / 2  1.44 T1 / 2
0.693
Thus, Average life (T) = 1.44  Half-life (T1/2)
Activity of Population.
Rate of decay or the number of atoms undergoing decay in unit time is called activity. Activity is directly
proportional to the number of atoms of the nuclides present and also to the decay constant.
dN
  N
dt
where N is the number of nuclides in the mass m gram of a population of mass number A
6.023  10 23  m
 N
A
Activity is inversely proportional to half life or average life. If half life of a nuclide is high, its activity will
be less and versa.
After each half-life, the population is reduced to half of its value and hence activity also reduces to half of its
n
1
value. Moreover, if ‘n’ number of half-lives have gone through, then the activity reduces to   . For
2
1
example, if an element, say E has a half-life of 10 years, then time taken to reduce its activity to about of
8
its original value can be calculated by using the above statement, i.e.,
n 3
1 1 1
   
8 2 2
 Number of half-lives gone through = 3
and time taken  3  10  30 years
Number of atoms of the nuclide left after time t (i.e., Nt) is given by the following relation.
N
N t  0n
(2)
where n = No. of half-lives and N0 = Initial number of atoms
Units of Radioactivity.
The standard unit of radioactivity is curie (c) which is defined as that amount of any radioactive material
which gives 3.7  1010 disintegrations per second (dps.), i.e. 1 c  3.7  1010 dps. The millicurie (mc) and
microcurie (  c) are equal to 10 3 and 10 -6 curies, i.e. 3.7  10 7 and 3.7  10 4 dsp respectively. In short,
1 c  10 3 mc  10 6  c
But now-a-day, the unit curie is replaced by Rutherford (rd) which is defined as the amount of a radioactive
substance which undergoes 106 dps, i.e. 1 rd = 106 dps. The millicurie and microcurie corresponding
rutherfird units are millirutherford (mrd) and microrutherford (  rd ) respectively.
1 c  3.7  1010 dps  37  10 3 rd
1 mc  3.7  10 7 dps  37 rd
1  c  3.7  10 4 dps  37 mrd
However, in SI system the unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq)
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second  1  rd
10 6 Bq = 1 rd
3.7  1010 Bq = 1c
Disintegration Series.
The phenomenon of natural radioactivity continues till stable nuclei is formed. All the nuclei from the initial
element to the final stable element constitute a series known as disintegration series. Further, we know that
mass numbers change only when  -particles are emitted (and not when  -particles are emitted) causing
the change in mass of 4 units at each step. Hence, the mass numbers of all elements in a series will fit into
one of the following formulae
4n, 4n  1, 4n  2 or 4n  3
Hence, there can be only four disintegration series.
The number indicate that in a particular series the mass numbers of all the members are either divisible by 4
(4n) or divisible by 4 with remainder of 1, 2, or 3; n being an integer.
Name of the series Starting nuclide Final Particles lost

nuclide  
Th232 208
4n (Thorium) series 90 82Pb 6 4
4n + 1 (Neptunium) series (94Pu241) 92Np237 83Bi

209
8 5
238 206
4n + 2 (Uranium) series 92U 82Pb 8 6
4n + 3 (Actinium) series (92U235) 89Ac227 82Pb

207
7 4
Points to remember.
1. 4n + 1 Series is an artificial series while the rest three are natural.
2. The end product in the 4n + 1 series is bismuth, while in the rest three, a stable isotope of lead is the
end product.
3. The 4n + 1 series starts from plutonium 94Pu241 but commonly known as neptunium series, because
neptunium is the longest-lived member of the series.
4. The 4n + 3 series actually starts from 92U235.
5. Among the series, least branching is present in thorium series.
The total number of  and  particle emitted in a series can be easily obtained from a knowledge of the
First and last numbers of the series, as follows. Let the number if  -particle emitted be a and that of 
particle be b. Hence, the total loss in mass number charge is 2a – b (the total charge on the particle emitted).
Radioactive Equilibrium.
Suppose a radioactive element A disintegrates to form another radioactive element B which in turn
disintegrates to still another element C.
AB C
In the beginning, the amount of A (in terms of atoms) is large while that of B is very small. Hence the rate of
disintegration of A into B is high while that of B into C is low. With the passage of time, A goes on
disintegrating while more and more of B is formed. As a result, the rate of disintegration of A to B goes on
decreasing while that of B to C goes on increasing. Ultimately, a stage is reached when the rate of
disintegration of A to B is equal to that of B to C with the result the amount of B remains constant. Under
these conditions B is said to be in equilibrium with A. For a radioactive equilibrium to be established half-
life of the parent must be much more that half-life of the daughter.
It is important to note that the term equilibrium is used for reversible reactions but the radioactive reactions
are irreversible, hence it is preferred to say that B is in a steady state rather than in equilibrium state.
Thus at a steady state,
Rate of disintegration of A = Rate of disintegration of B
dN A dN B

dt dt
dN
A N A   B N B   N
dt
where  A and  B are the radioactive constants for the process A  B and B  C respectively.
N A B TA  1
   T  
N B  A TB  
where TA and TB are the average life period of A and B respectively.
In terms of half-life periods,
N A (T1 / 2 ) A

N B (T1 / 2 ) B
Thus at a steady state (at radioactive equilibrium), the amounts (number of atoms) of the different
radioelements present in the reaction series are inversely proportional to their radioactive constants or
directly proportional to their half-life and also average life periods.
It is important to note that the radioactive equilibrium differs from ordinary chemical equilibrium because in
the former the amounts of the different substances involved are not constant and the changes are not
reversible.
Nuclear Transformation or Nuclear Transmutation.

The conversion of one element into another by artificial means, i.e., by means of bombarding with some
fundamental particles, is known as artificial transmutation. The phenomenon was first applied by
Rutherford on nitrogen whose nucleus was bombarded with  -particle to produce oxygen.
14 4 17 1
7N  2 He  8O  1H
Nitrogen isotope  -particle Oxygen isotope Proton

In case, the element so produced shows radioactivity, the phenomenon is known as induced radioactivity.
Following important fundamental particles have been used in the bombardment of different elements.
(i)  -particle : Helium nucleus represented as 2He4
(ii) Proton : Hydrogen nucleus represented as 1H1
(iii) Deuteron : Deuterium nucleus represented as 1H2 or 1D2
(iv) Neutron : A particle of mass number 1 but no charge represented as 0n1.
Since  -particle, protons and deuterons carry positive charge, they are repelled by the positively charged
nucleus and hence are not good projectiles. On the other hand, neutrons, which carry no charge at all, are the
best projectiles, Further among  -particles, protons and deuterons; the latter two carrying single positive
charge are better projectiles than the  -particles. However, the positively charged  -particles, protons and
deuterons can be made much more effective if they are imparted with high velocity. Cyclotron is the most
commonly used instrument for accelerating these particles, the particles leave the instrument with a velocity
of about 25,000 miles per second.
A more recent accelerating instrument, called the synchrotron or bevatron makes use of the induced
current of force exerted on the electron in a changing magnetic field.
It is important to note that the neutrons, being neutral, cannot be accelerated by particle accelerators.
Age Determination (Carbon Dating).

Since radioactive decay follows a very exact law, and is virtually unaffected by heat, pressure, or the state of
chemical combination of the decaying nuclei, it can be used as a very precise clock for dating past events.
For instance, the age of earth has been determined by uranium dating technique as follows. Samples of
uranium ores are found to contain Pb206 as a result of long series of   and   decays. Now if it is assumed
that the ore sample contained no lead at the moment of its formation, and if none of the lead formed from
U238 decay has been lost, then the measurement of the Pb 206/U238 ratio will give the value of time t of the
mineral.
No. of atoms of Pb 206
238
 e  t 1
No. of atoms of U left
where  is the decay constant of uranium-238.
Similarly, the less abundant isotope of uranium, U235 eventually decays to Pb 207; Th232 decays to Pb208 and
thus the ratios of Pb207/U235 and Pb 208/Th232 can be used to determine the age of rocks and minerals. Many
ages have been determined this way to give result from hundreds to thousands of millions of years.
Besides the above long-lived radioactive substances viz. U238, U235 and Th232 (which have been present on
earth since the elements were formed), several short-lived radioactive species have been used to determine
the age of wood or animal fossils. One of the most interesting substance is C14 which was used by Willard
Libby (Nobel laureate) to determine the age of wood or animals fossils. The radioisotope C14 is produced by
the bombardment of nitrogen atoms present in the earth’s upper atmosphere with neutrons (from the cosmic
rays).
14 1
7N  0n  6 C 14  1H
1
The C14 atoms thus produced are rapidly oxidized to 14CO2 which in turn is incorporated in plants as a result
of photosynthesis. Thus all plants contain some C14 and since the carbon of animals is ultimately derived
from plants, the carbon of animals will contain the same ratio of C14/C12 as the carbon of plants. The death
of plants or animals puts an end to the intake of C14 in the dead tissue starts decreasing due to its
radioactivity.
6 C 14  7N
14
  1e 0
It has been observed that on average, 1 gm of C14 emits about 12  -particles per minute. Now thus knowing
the proportion and half-life (5760 years) of the isotope C14 or by comparing the  -activity of the dead
matter with that of carbon still in circulation, the approximate time of the death of the plant or animal can be
calculated according to the following disintegration equation.
2.303 a
 log
t ax
where  is disintegration constant and can be known from the equation,  = 0.693/half-life of the element ;
a and a – x are the initial and present values respectively of the isotope.
Thus carbon dating technique is the most valuable tool in archaeology, in determining the age (since its
death) of any once living object that contains carbon, viz., wood, cloth or paper derived from natural
materials, or charcoal from ancient wood fires.
Similarly, tritium 1H3 has been used for dating purposes because of the fact that it is free to move to and
from the upper atmosphere and possesses a constant specific activity. The position is however changing with
the release of tritium from nuclear reaction. Because of its shorter half-life (12.5 years) it is used for even
shorter-range dating, such as finding the age of a wine.
Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones, Isoelectronic Species and Isosters.
1. Isotopes: Atoms of a given element which have same atomic number (nuclear charge) but different
mass number are called isotopes. In other words, isotopes are the atoms of the same element
differing in mass number. Thus isotopes have same number of protons and electrons but different
number of neutrons. They have same position in the periodic table, same chemical properties and
same atomic charge. The term was first coined by Soddy. However, isotopes were first separated by
Aston using mass spectrometer (Ne20 and Ne22).
Examples:
1 2 3
(i) 1H 1H 1H
Hydrogen (Protium) Deuterium Tritium
(p = 1, e =1, n = 0) (p = 1, e = 1, n = 1) (p = 1, e = 1, n = 2)
12 13 14
(ii) 6C , 6C and 6C (iii) 8O16, 8O17, 8O18 (iv) 17Cl35 and 17Cl37
of all the elements, tin has maximum number of stable isotopes (ten).
The fractional atomic weight (35.5) if chlorine is due to the fact that in the ordinary chlorine atom,
Cl35 and Cl37 are present in the ratio of 3:1.
3  35  1  37
 Average atomic weight of Cl   35.5 amu
4
The percentage of a given isotope in the naturally occurring sample of an element is called its
isotopic abundance. As the isotopic abundance of an element is constant irrespective of its source,
atomic weight of an element is constant.
2. Isobars: Isobars are the atoms of different elements with the same mass number but different atomic
numbers. In other words, isobars have different number of protons, neutrons and electrons but the
sum of protons and neutrons (i.e., number of nucleons) is same.
Example:
40 40 40 130
(i) 18Ar , 19K and 20Ca ; (ii) 52Te , 54Xe130 and 56Ba130.
Since isobars are the atoms of different elements, they will have different physical and chemical
properties.
3. Isotones: Isotones are the atoms of different elements with the same number of neutrons but
different mass numbers, e.g. 14Si30, 15P31 and 16S32. Since the variable factor in isotones is the number
of protons (atomic number), they must have different physical and chemical properties.
Example: 14Si30, 15P31 and 16S32 and 19 K40 and 20Ca40; 1H3 and 2He4; and 6C13 and 7N14.
4. Isodiaphers: Atoms having same isotopic number are called isodiaphers.

Mathematically, isotopic number (isotopic excess) = (N – Z ) or (A – 2Z )
Where, N = No. of neutrons; Z = No. of protons
Example:
235
(i) 92U and 90 Th231 (ii) 39
19K and 9F
19
(iii) 65
29Cu and 24Cr
55
5. Isoelectronic species: Species (atoms, molecules or ions) having same number of electrons are
called isoelectronic.
Example:
(i) N3-, O2-, F-, Ne+, Mg2+, Al3+, CH4, NH3, H2O and HF have 10 electrons each.
(ii) P3-, S2-, Cl-, Ar, K+ and Ca2+ have 18 electrons each.
(iii) H-, He, Li+ and Be2+ have 2 electrons each.
(iv) CO, CN- and N2 have 14 electrons each.
(v) N2O, CO2 and CNO- have 22 electrons each.
6. Isosters: Molecules having same number of atoms and also same number of electrons are called
isosters.
Examples: (i)N2 and Co (ii) CO2 and N2O (iii) HCl and F2 (iv) CaO and MgS
(v) C6H6 (benzene) and inorganic benzene B6N6.
Comparison of Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones, Isodiaphers, Isoelectronic Species and Isosters

Species Same Different
Isotopes (i) Atomic No. (Z) (i) Mass No. (A)
(ii) No. of protons (ii) No. of neutrons
(iii) No. of electrons (iii) Physical properties
(iv) Electronic configuration
(v) Chemical properties
(vi) Position in the periodic table
Isobars (i) Mass No. (A) (i) Atomic No. (Z)
(ii) No. of nucleons (ii) No. of protons, electrons and neutrons.
(iii) Electronic configuration
(v) Chemical properties
(vi) Position in the periodic table
Isotones No. of neutrons (i) Atomic No.
(ii) Mass No., Protons and electrons.
(iii) Electronic configuration
(iv) Physic and chemical properties
(v) Position in the periodic table.
Isodiaphers Isotopic No. (i) At. No., mass No., electrons, protons,
(N – Z ) or (A – 2Z ) neutrons.
(ii) Physical and chemical properties
Isoelectronic (i) No. of electrons At. No., mass No. and radii.
species (ii) Electronic configuration
Isosters (i) No. of atoms
(ii) No. of electrons __________
(iii) Same physical and chemical properties
Nuclear Isomers
Nuclear isomers (isomeric nuclei) are the atoms with the same atomic number and same mass number but
with different radioactive properties. They have same number of electrons, protons and neutrons. Examples
of nuclear isomers is uranium-X (half-life 1.4 min) and uranium-Z (half-life 6.7 hours). Nuclear isomers
were discovered by Otto Hahn.
The reason for nuclear isomerism is the different energy states of the two isomeric nuclei. One may be in the
ground state whereas the other should be in an excited state. The nucleus in the excited state will evidently
have a different half-life.
Now-a-days as much as more than 70 pairs of nuclear isomers have been found. Few examples are
69 69 80 80
(i) Zn Zn (i) Br Br
(T1/2 = 13.8 hour) (T1/2 = 57 min) (T1/2 = 4.4 hour) (T1/2 = 18 min).
SURFACE CHEMISTRY
Foundation Builder (Objective)
ADSORPTION
1. According to Freundlich adsorption isotherm, which of the following is correct?

(a) x/m  p1 (b) x/m  p1/n (c) x/m  p°
(d) All the above are correct for different ranges of pressure
2. Which plot is the adsorption isobar for chemisorption? (‘x’ is the mass of gas adsorbed on the
surface of ‘m’ gram of adsorbent)
x/m x/m
(a) (b) x/m (c) x/m (d)
T T T T
3. Which of the following is less than zero during adsorption?

(a) G (b) S (c) H (d) All of the above
4. Which of the following is not a characteristic of chemisorption?

(a) Adsorption is irreversible. (b) H is of the order of 900 kJ.
(c) Adsorption is specific. (d) Adsorption increases with increase of surface area.
5. The order of the decomposition of ammonia gas over the surface of adsorbent is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 0
6. The term occlusion is restricted to

(a) sorption of gases by metals only. (b) sorption of liquid by metals only.
(c) alloys. (d) all of these.
7. Higher the critical temperature of a gas more is

(a) adsorption (b) change in enthalpy
(c) change in entropy (d) all of these.
8. Limitations of Freundlich’s equation is / are:

(a) it is valid over a certain range of pressure only.
(b) the constant k and n vary with temperature.
(c) Freundlich’s equation is purely empirical formula without theoretical foundation.
(d) all of these.
9. At extremely high temperature the adsorption is

(a) saturated (b) undetectable (c) surface area dependent (d) spontaneous
10. Which of the following is not true for physiosorption?

(a) It is reversible.
(b) It occurs in the form of multimolecular layers.
(c) It needs activation energy to start the process of adsorption.
(d) It increases with increase in pressure.
11. A graph of extent of adsorption versus pressure at constant temperature is called

(a) adsorption isobar. (b) adsorption isotherm.
(c) adsorption isostere. (d) none of these.
12. Which of the following is most favourable for vander Waal’s adsorption?
(a) High pressure and high temperature. (b) Low pressure and low temperature.
(c) Low pressure and high temperature. (d) High pressure and low temperature.
13. Which adsorption does not take place at very low temperature?
(a) Physiosorption (b) Chemisorption (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
14. There are certain properties related to adsorption:

I: reversible
II: formation of unimolecular layer
III: low heat of adsorption
IV: occurs at low temperature and decreases with increasing temperature
Which of the above properties are for physical adsorption?
(a) I, II ,III (b) I, III, IV (c) II, III, IV (d) I, III
15. Following is the variation of physical adsorption with temperature:
A
A
A d
d
d A s
s
s d o
s
o
o r r
o
r
p (b) r (c) p
t
(d) p
(a) t
p
t i
t
i
i o
i o
o
o n n
n n
T T T T
16. Which gas is adsorbed to maximum extent on the given surface?

(a) NH3 (b) H2 (c) N2 (d) O2
17. Surface area per g of the adsorbent is called:

(a) molar surface area (b) normal surface area
(c) specific surface area (d) equivalent surface area
18. Adsorption is :
(a) an exothermic process hence increase in temperature decreases adsorption
in cases where Vander Waals forces exits between adsorbate and adsorbent .
(b) an endothermic process hence increases in temperature increases
adsorption
(c) an exothermic process hence increase in temperature increases adsorption.
(d) None of theses.
x
19. Graph between log   and log p is a straight line at angle 450 with intercept
m
OA As shown. Hence,  x  at a pressure of 0.2 atm is:
m
0
45
450
O 0
45
log p
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.6 (d) 0.8
20. In the following isotherm
x
(a) p 0 when point B is reached (b) desorption may start along AB
m
(c) x P 1 / n along OA (d) all of these
m
x
21. When saturation is attained in terms of adsorption, variation of   and C
 m
(concentration ) is given by the portion of the isotherm
(a) OA (b) OB (c) AB (d) BC
22. Lake test of aluminium ion is based on absorption of blue litmus on:
(a) solid surface of Al (b) solid surface of Al(OH)3
(c) solid surface of Al2O3 (d) solid surface of AlCl3
23. 50 mL of 1 M oxalic acid (molar mass = 126) is shaken with 0.5g of wood
charcoal. The final concentration of the solution after adsorption is 0.5M. What
is the amount of oxalic acid adsorbed per g of carbon?
(a) 3.15 (b) 1.575 (c) 6.30 (d) 12.60
x
24. For the adsorption of solution on a solid surface = KC1/n Adsorption isotherm
m
x
of log   and log C was found of the type This is when
m
(a) C = 0 (b) C = 1M (c) C = constant (d) C = 2M
25. Following are the events taking place to explain adsorption theory
I: desorption
II: diffusion of the reactants long the surface
III: adsorption of the reactants
IV formation of the activated surface complex
These events are taking place in the following order:
(a) I, II, III, IV (b) III, II, IV,I (c) III, IV, I, II (d) IV, III, II, I
26. Adsorption is the phenomenon in which a substance:

(a) accumulates on the surface of the other substance
(b) goes into the body of the other substances
(c) remains close to the other substance
(d) none of these
27. Softening of hard water is done using sodium aluminium silicate (Zeolite). This
causes:
(a) adsorption of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions of hard water replacing Na+ ions
(b) adsorption of Ca2+ and Mg2+ of hard water replacing Al3+ ions
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of these
Colloids and Emulsions

28. Which of the following metal sols cannot be prepared by Bredig’s arc method?
(a) Copper (b) Potassium (c) Gold (d) Platinum
29. Gelatin protects

(a) Gold sol (b) As2S3 sol (c) Fe(OH)3 sol (d) All of these
30. A sol has positively charged colloidal particles. Which of the following solutions is required in
lowest concentration for coagulation?
(a) NaCl (b) K4[Fe(CN)6] (c) ZnCl2 (d) Na2SO4
31. Flocculation value is expressed in terms of

(a) milli mole/Litre (b) mole/Litre (c) grams/Litre (d) mole/milli litre
32. The gold numbers of four protective colloids O, P, Q and R are 0.005, 0.01, 0.1 and 0.5
respectively. The decreasing order of their protective power is
(a) R, Q, P, O (b) O, P, Q, R (c) P, Q, R, O (d) Q, R, O, P
33. The protective power of lyophilic sol is

(a) dependent on the size of colloidal particles.
(b) expressed in terms of gold number.
(c) expressed by x/m.
(d) directly proportional to the magnitude of charge on it.
34. The stability of the dispersed phase in a lyophobic colloid is due to

(a) high viscosity of the medium.
(b) the formation of electrical layer between two phases.
(c) high surface tension of solution.
(d) none of the answer is correct.
35. Tyndall effect is due to

(a) reflection of light. (b) scattering of light.
(c) absorption of light. (d) adsorption of light.
36. The ability of ion to bring about coagulation of a given colloidal solution depends upon
(a) the size of its ion. (b) the magnitude of charge.
(c) the sign of charge. (d) both magnitude and sign of charge.
37. Purple of cassius is

(a) colloidal solution of gold. (b) colloidal solution of silver.
(c) colloidal solution of platinum. (d) oxyacids of gold.
38. The critical micellization concentration (CMC) is

(a) the concentration at which micellization begins.
(b) the concentration at which true solution is formed.
(c) the concentration at which one molar electrolyte is present per 1000 gm of solution.
(d) the concentration at which solute and solution form equilibrium.
39. Separation of colloidal particles from those of molecular dimension with electricity is known
as
(a) electrolysis (b) electrophoresis (c) electrodialysis (d) none of the above
40. Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols because
(a) the colloidal particles have positive charge.
(b) the colloidal particles have negative charge.
(c) the colloidal particles are solvated.
(d) there are strong electrostatic repulsions between the negatively charged colloidal
particles.
41. On adding few drops of dil. HCl to freshly precipitated ferric hydroxide, a red coloured
colloidal solution is obtained. This phenomenon is known as
(a) peptisation (b) dialysis (c) protective action (d) dissolution
42. An arsenious sulphide solution carries a negative charge. The maximum precipitating power
of this sol is possessed by
(a) K2SO4 (b) CaCl2 (c) Na3PO4 (d) AlCl3
43. In colloidal state, particle size ranges from

(a) 1 to 10 Å (b) 20 to 50 Å (c) 10 to 1000 Å (d) 1 to 280 Å
44. Peptisation denotes

(a) digestion of food.
(b) hydrolysis of proteins.
(c) breaking and dispersion into colloidal state.
(d) precipitation of a solid from colloidal state.
45. A colloidal solution is subjected to an electrical field. The particles move towards anode. The
coagulation of same sol is studied using NaCl, BaCl2 and AlCl3 solutions. Their coagulating
power should be
(a) NaCl > BaCl2 > AlCl3 (b) BaCl2 > AlCl3 > NaCl
(c) AlCl3 > BaCl2 > NaCl (d) BaCl2 > NaCl > AlCl3
46. Cellulose dispersed in ethanol is called

(a) emulsion (b) micelle (c) collodion (d) hydrophilic solution
47. Which of the following is most effective in causing the coagulation of ferric hydroxide sol?
(a) KCl (b) KNO3 (c) K2SO4 (d) K3[Fe(CN)6]
48. Colligative properties of colloidal sols of same compound are very low in comparison to their
true solutions of same concentration because
(a) colloidal sols do not ionize.
(b) colloidal sols ionize upto lesser extent.
(c) colloidal sols do not show colligative properties.
(d) true solutions do not show colligative properties.
49. Which of the following is not a colloidal solution?

(a) solid-solid (b) liquid-liquid (c) gas-gas (d) solid-liquid
50. Cottrell precipitator acts on which of the following principle?

(a) HardySchulze rule
(b) Distribution law
(c) Le Chatelier’s principle
(d) Neutralization of charge on the colloidal particles
51. Ultrafiltration is used for

(a) concentration of the sol (b) purification of the sol
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these
52. Dirty water is passed through a tunnel fitted with metallic electrodes which are maintained at
high voltage to remove dirt, rubbish etc. This is based on the principle of
(a) electrolysis. (b) electrophoresis. (c) dialysis. (d) deemulsification.
53. The work of Hardy-schulze mainly deals with

(a) coagulation. (b) ultrafiltration. (c) electrophoresis. (d) dialysis.
54. Dialysis is based on the fact that

(a) colloidal particles are retained by animal membrane.
(b) animal membrane allows the passage of colloidal particles from low to high concentration.
(c) animal membrane allows the passage of colloidal particles from high to low concentration.
(d) colloidal particles have affinity for dispersion medium.
55. The various factors on which the colour of a sol depends is/are
(a) size and shape of colloidal particles. (b) method of preparation of sol.
(c) the way an observer receives the light. (d) all of these.
56. The stabilization of the dispersed phase in a lyophobic sol is due to

(a) the viscosity of the medium
(b) the surface tension of the medium
(c) affinity for the medium
(d) the formation of an electrical layer between the two phase.
57. Which of the following electrolytes brings about the coagulation of a gold sol quickest and in
least concentration?
(a) NaCl (b) AlPO4 (c) MgSO4 (d) K3[Fe(CN)6]
58. In which of the following respects the lyophilic sols do not differ from lyophobic sols?
(a) Stability (b) Reversibility
(c) Particle size (d) Behaviour towards dispersion medium
59. During electrophoresis of a colloidal solution, colloidal particles move towards

(a) anode (b) cathode
(c) both cathode as well as anode (d) either cathode or anode
60. The Brownian motion is due to

(a) temperature fluctuation within the liquid phase.
(b) attraction and repulsion between charges on the colloidal particles.
(c) impact of molecules of the dispersion medium on the colloidal particles.
(d) convection currents.
61. When a colloidal solution is observed under an ultramicroscope, we can see

(a) light scattered by colloidal particles (b) size of the particle
(c) shape of the particle (d) relative size
62. Which of the following will have the least coagulating power for arsenious sulphide sol?
(a) Na+ (b) Mg2+ (c) Al3+ (d) Ca2+
63. A colloidal solution may be coagulated by

(a) adding electrolyte (b) heating
(c) adding oppositely charged sol (d) all of these
64. Gold number gives

(a) the amount of gold present in the colloid.
(b) the amount of gold required to break the colloid.
(c) the amount of gold required to protect the colloid.
(d) none of the above
65. On adding one ml solution of 10% NaCl to 10 ml gold sol in the presence of 0.25 g of starch,
the coagulation is just prevented. Starch has the gold number
(a) 0.025 (b) 0.25 (c) 2.5 (d) 250
66. Colloidal particles in soap sol carry
(a) negative charge. (b) positive charge.
(c) no charge. (d) either positive or negative charge.
67. When a river enters the sea, a delta is formed. Formation of delta is due to
(a) peptization (b) coagulation (c) emulsification (d) dialysis
68. To prevent possible coagulation caused by same amount of an electrolyte; quantities of

protective colloids A, B, C and D are 2g, 1.5 g, 1 g and 1.75 g; increasing order of the gold
numbers of these protective colloids will be
(a) C < A < B < D (b) B < C < D < A (c) C < B < D < A (d) A < D < B < C
69. Select correct statement (s)

(a) a hydrophilic colloid is a colloid in which there is strong attraction between the dispersed
phase and water
(b) a hydrophobic colloid is a colloid in which there is a lack of attraction between the
dispersed phase and water
(c) hydrophobic sols are often formed when a solid crystallises rapidly form a chemical
reaction or supersaturated solution
(d) all of the above
70. a colloid of gold particles is

(a) hydrophobic in nature (b) is a sol (of solid dispersed in water)
(c) both (a) &(b) (d) none of these
71. Some of the properties given below are for colloids sols:
I: Viscosity same as that of the medium
II: Extensive hydration takes place
III: particles migrate either towards cathode or anode in an electric field
IV: particles cannot be detected even under ultramicroscopic
Select the properties which are for lyophilic colloidal sols:
(a) I, II (b) III, IV (c) I, III (d) II, IV
72. Some of the following are true solutions:

I: Air ; II: Sea water ; III Gasoline IV: Wine; V: pearl; VI : Blood
Select true solutions:
(a) I, II, III, IV (b) II, III, IV, V (c) I, IV, V, VI (d) II, IV, VI
73. Select correct statement (s):

(a) the process of dialysis is similar to osmosis, except that both solvent and small solute
particles can pass through the semipermeable dialysis membrane
(b) protein can be purified by dialysis
(c) hemidialysis is used to cleanse the blood of patients whose kidneys have malfunctioned
(d) all of the above
74. Peptisation is:

(a) conversion of a colloidal into precipitate form
(b) conversion of precipitate into colloidal sol
(c) conversion of metal into colloidal sol by passage of electric current
(d) conversion of colloidal sol into macromolecules
75. Colloidon is obtained:

(a) when cellulose nitrate is peptised by organic solvent as ethanol
(b) when high electric current is passed between metal electrodes
(c) colloidal sol is heated
(d) aq NAOH is added to cellulose nitrate
76. Hemi dialysis is used to:

(a) separate colloidal sol from water
(b) separate charged and uncharged particles
(c) cleanse the blood of patients whose kidneys have malfunctioned
(d) in none of the above
77. Electro-osmosis is observed when:

(a) dispersion medium begins to move in an electric field
(b) dispersed phase begins to move in an electric field
(c) in both (a) and (b)
(d) in none of these
78. Tyndal effect is not observed in:

(a) suspension (b) starch sol (c) gold sol (d)NaCl solution
79. Which is kinetic phenomenon?

(a) Brownian motion (b) Tyndall effect
(c) both (a) and(b) (d) none of these
80. Following are some of the properties of the colloidal sols

I: Tyndall effect
II: Brownian motion
III: Maxwell distribution of molecules
These valid properties are:
(a) I, II, III (b) I, II (c) I, II (d) II, III
81. Potential difference of the electrical double layer formed in a colloidal sol is
called:
(a) EMF (b) Zeta potential (c) Brownian potential (d) Nernst potential
82. SnO2 is taken in basic medium and current is passed. Colloidal sol migrates
towards
(a) anode(+plate) (b) cathode(-plate)
(c) both(a) and (b) (d) none of these
83. Which pair is correctly matched?

(a) [Fe(OH)3]:Fe3+ (b) [AS2S3]:As3+
(c) [SnO2]: SnO 32 in acidic medium (d) [AgI]:I- in excess of AgNO3
84. Colloidal sulphur particles are negatively charged with S2 O 32 and other ions on
the surface of sulphur. Hence , most effective electrolyte in coagulating colloidal
sulphur is:
(a) NaCl (b) MgCl2 (c) AlCl3 (d) Na2SO4
85. Aluminium hydroxide forms a positively charged sol. Which of the following ionic
substance should be most effective coagulating the sol?
(a) NaCl (b) Fe2 (SO4)3 (c) CaCl2 (d) K3PO4
86. [Ag I] I- (1 mole requires) AgNO3, Pb(NO3)2 and Fe(NO3)3 as:

(a) 1, 1, 1 (b) 1, 2, 3 (c) 1, 1 , 1 , (d) 6, 3, 2
2 3
87. Gold number is maximum for the lyophilic sol:
I: Casein: 0.01
II: Hemoglobin : 0.03
III:Gum Arabic: 0.15
IV:Sodium oleate: 0.40
Which has maximum protective power:
(a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV
88. Gold number of hemoglobin is 0.03 Hence, 100mL of gold sol will require how
much hemoglobin so that gold is not coagulated by 10mL of 10% NaCl solution:
(a) 0.03mg (b) 30mg (c) 0.30mg (d) 3mg
89. Of which of the following colloidal systems, fog is an example:

(a) liquid dispersed in gas (b) gas dispersed in gas
(c) solid dispersed in gas (d) solid dispersed in liquid
90. 1 mol of [AgI] Ag+ sol is coagulated by:

(a) 1 mol of KI (b) 500 mL of 1 M K2SO4
91. The stabilization of a dispersed phased in a lyophobic colloid is due to:

(a) the adsorption of charged substances on dispersed phase
(b) the large electro-kinetic potential developed in the colloid
(c) the formation of an electrical layer between two phases
(d) the viscosity of the medium
92. The diameter of colloidal particle is of the order:

(a) 10-3 m (b) 10-6 m (c) 10-15 m (d) 10-7 nm
93. The process of passing of a precipitate into colloidal solution, on adding an

electrolyte is called:
(a) dialysis (b) peptisation (c) electrophoresis (d) electrosmosis
94. The Tyndall effect is not observed in:

(a) suspension (b) true solution (c) emulsions (d) colloidal solution
95. Smoke is a dispersion of:

(a) gas in gas (b) gas in solid (c) solid in gas (d) liquid in gas
96. If a freshly ppt of SnO2 is peptised by a small amount of NaOH, these colloidal
particles may be represented as:
(a) [SnO2] Sn O 32 : 2 Na+ (b) [SnO2] Sn4+ : O2-
(C) [SnO2] Na+ : OH- (d) [SnO2] Sn4+ : OH-
97. On adding AgNO3 Solution into KI solution, a negatively charged colloidal sol is
obtained when they are in:
(a) 100 mL of 0.1 M AgNO3 + 100 mL of 0.1 M KI
(b) 100 mL of 0.1 M AgNO3 + 100 mL of 0.2 M KI
(c) 100 mL of 0.2 M AgNO3 + 100 mL of 0.1 M KI
(d) 100 mL of 0.15 AgNO3 + 100 mL of 0.15 M KI
98. Which one of the following statements is correct:

(a) Brownian movement is more pronounced for smaller particles than for
bigger ones
(b) Sols of metal sulphides are lyophilic
(c) Schulze-Hardy law staes, the bigger the size of the ion, the greater is its
coagulating power
(d) One would expect charcoal to adsorb chlorine more strongly than hydrogen
sulphide.
99. Gold number of a lyophilic sol is such property that:

(a) the larger its value, the greater is the peptizing power
(b) the lower its value, the greater is the peptizing power
(c) the lower its value, the greater is the protecting power
(d) the larger its value, the greater is the protecting power
100. Colloidal solutions of gold prepared by different methods are of different colours
because of:
(a) different diameters of colloidal gold particles
(b) variable valency of gold
(c) different concentration of gold particles
(d) impurities produced by different methods
101. When NaCl solution is added to Fe(OH)3 sol:

(a) [Fe(OH)3]Fe3+ is formed (b) [Fe(OH)3]Cl- is formed
+
(c) [Fe(OH)3]Na is formed (d) Fe(OH)3 is coagulated
102. Anionic surfactants are:

(a) C15H31COONa (b) R SO3Na
103. Cationic surfactant is:

(a) C17H35 COONa (b)
(c) (d) C15H31COONa
104. Non-inorganic surfactants are:
(a) R SO3Na (b) C17H35COONa
(c) CnH2n+1 (OCH2CH2)x OH (d) all of these
Emulsions
105. The emulsifying agent in milk is:

(a) lactic acid (b) fat (c) lactose (d) casein
106. Emulsions are colloids in which both the dispersed phase and dispersion medium are
(a) liquids. (b) gases. (c) solids. (d) solid and liquid
respectively
107. Some of the following are suspensions:

I : Fog ; II: Air ; III : Blood IV : Paint ; V: Aerosol sprays ; VI : Pearl
True suspensions are :
(a) I, II, III (b) III, IV, V (c) I, III, V (d) I, II,V
108. Some of the properties of emulsions are:

I: Emulsions scatter light and thus exhibit Tyndal effect
II: Oily emulsion are more viscous than the aqueous emulsions
III: Electrical conductance of aqueous emulsions is higher that of oily emulsion
and increases on the addition of electrolyte Select correct properties:
(a) I, II (b) I, III (c) II, III (d) I, II, III
109. Coagulation or demulsification can be done by some of the method given below;
I: by addition of a substance which would destroy the emulsifier
II: by addition of an electrolyte which would destroy the charge
III: by heating, Freezing and centrifuging
Select correct method:
(a) I, II (b) I, II, III (c) II only (d) III only
Catalysis
110. The process which is catalysed by one of the products is called
(a) acid-based catalyst. (b*) auto catalyst.
(c) negative catalyst. (d) positive catalyst.
111. The efficiency of an enzyme in catalysing a reaction is due to its capacity

(a) to form an enzymesubstrate complex.
(b) to decrease the bond energies of the substrate molecule.
(c) to change the shape of the substrate molecule.
(d) none of the above.
112. When a catalyst is added to a system the

(a) equilibrium concentrations are increased.
(b) equilibrium concentrations are unchanged.
(c) the rate of forward reaction is increased and that of backward reaction is decreased.
(d) value of equilibrium constant is decreased.
113. Catalytic poison act by

(a) coagulating the catalyst.
(b) getting adsorbed on the active centers on the surface of catalyst.
(c) chemical combination with any one of the reactants.
(d) none of the above.
114. Which type of metals form effective catalysts?

(a) Alkali metals (b) Transition metals
(c) Alkaline earth metals (d) Radioactive metals
115. The minimum energy level of reactants necessary to permit a reaction to occur is
(a) internal energy (b) threshold energy (c) activation energy (d) free energy
116. Which is not correct for catalyst? It

(a) enhances the rate of reaction in both directions.
(b) changes enthalpy of reaction.
(c) reduces activation energy of reaction.
(d) is specific in nature.
117. Efficiency of a catalyst depends on its

(a) particle size (b) solubility (c) molecular weight (d) none of these
118. When Mn O 4 is added to oxalic acid rate of the reaction with time (oxidation of
Mn O 4 by oxalic acid) may follow graph :
119. Following reaction is catalysed by Br- (aq)

2H2O2(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2 (g)
This is an example of :
(a) homogeneous catalysis (b) heterogeneous catalysis
120. Following are the terms about activity and selectivity;

I: Activity is the ability of catalysts to accelerate chemical reactions and
selectivity is the ability of catalysts to direct reaction to yield particular products
II: Activity is the ability of catalysts to direct reaction to yield particular
products and selectivity is the ability of catalysts to accelerate chemical
reactions.
Select correct term:
(a) I (b) II (c) I and II both (d) none of these
121. ZMS-5 is one of the zeolite with formula:

(a) Hx [(AlO2)x .(SiO2)96-x]. 16H2O (b) Na56[(AlO2)56.(SiO2)36].250 H2O
(c) Na2Ca(AlO2)2(SiO2)4. 6H2O (d) none is correct
122. Zeolite can be used to soften water when:

(a) Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions in zeolite are replaced by Na+ ions in hard water
(b) Ca2+ ions in zeolite are replaced by Mg2+ ions in hard water
(c) Na+ ions in zeolite are replaced by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in hard water
(d) None is correct
123. Energy of activation of forward and backward reaction are equal in cases
(numerical values) where:
(a) H = 0 (b) no catalyst present
(c) S = 0 (d) stoichiometry is the mechanism
124. Which of the following can catalyse decomposition of ozone layer?

(a) Cl from decomposition of freon
(b) NO formed near ozone layer due to interaction of N2 and O2 or during
lighting
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of these
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
FOUNDATION BUILDER (OBJECTIVE)
1. During the transformation of abX to cdY, the number of -particles emitted are
(a) b  d (b) (ac) ½ (bd)(c) (ca)+ ½ (bd) (d) (bd)+2(ca)
4
A
2. In the radioactive change Z P  ZA1 Q  ZA14 R  ZA14 S , the radioactive emitted in
sequence are
(a) ,, (b) ,, (c) ,, (d) , ,
3. The mass defect of the nuclear reaction 10 10 0

4 Be 5 B  1 e is
(a) m = At. mass of 10

5 B
 At. mass of 10
4 Be
10 10
(b) m = At. mass of 5
B  At. mass of 4 Be + mass of one electron
(c) m = At. mass of 10
5 B
 At. mass of 10
4 Be  mass of one electron
10 10
(d) m = At. mass of 5
B  At. mass of 4 Be + mass of two electrons
  
4. In the series RaA  RaB  RaC  RaC1, the isotopic elements are
(a) RaA and RaB (b) RaB and RaC (c) RaA and RaC1 (d) RaB and RaC1
5. Which of the following has the highest value for its radioactivity?
(a) 1 g of Ra (b) 1g of RaSO4 (c) 1g of RaBr2 (d) All have same value
6. Which emits -particle?

(a) 1H2 (b) 6C14 (c) 16K
40
(d) All
7. 1 mole of an -emitting nuclide ZX A (half life = 10 hrs) was placed in sealed

container. 4.521023 He atoms will accumulate in the container in
(a) 4.52 Hr (b) 9.4 Hr (c) 10.10 Hr (d) 20 Hr
8. Arrange the following particles in order of their increasing penetration capacity

as the projectiles for artificial transmutation of elements: Proton (11H), -
particle (42He), Deutron (21H), neutron (01n)
(a) 42He < 21H < 11H < 10n (b) 11H < 21H > 10n
1 2 4 1
(c) 1H < 1H < 2He < 0n (d) 10n < 21H < 42He < 21H
9. Loss of a -particle is equivalent to

(a) increase of one proton (b) decrease of one neutron
(c) combination (a) and (b) (d) none
255
10. What will be product of reaction, (, 2n)?
101 Md
256 257 257 205
(a) 103 Lr (b) 102 No (c) 103 Lr (d) 82
Pb
11. The t1/2 of cobalt-60 is 5.27 years ( = 2.5107min1). The decay activity of 2g
of the sample is about
(a) 51015 dpm (b) 51010 dpm (c) 7.51015 dpm (d) 7.51020 dpm
12. A radioactive sample has initial activity of 28 dpm. Half hour later its activity is
14 dpm. How many atoms of nuclide were present initially?
(a) 200 (b) 400 (c) 600 (d) 1210
13. The mass of helium atom of mass number 4 is 4.0026 amu, while that of the
neutron and proton are 1.0087 and 1.0078 respectively on the same scale.
Hence the binding energy per nucleon in the helium atom is nearly
(a) 5 MeV (b) 7 MeV (c) 10 MeV (d) 14 MeV
14. Number of stable isotopes is least when the number of neutrons and that of
protons in the isotopes are respectively
(a) odd and odd (b) even and odd (c) odd and even (d) even and even
15. A radioactive nuclide generally disintegrates by -emission when its N/P ratio is
(a) less than1 (b) equal to one (c) equal to 1.2 (d) greater than 1.5
x 17
16. 8 X atom is isotonic to 9 Y atom. The value of x is
(a) 8 (b) 16 (c) 9 (d) 17
17. If 5g of a radioactive substance has a t 1 =14 h, 20g of the same substance will
2
have a t 1 equal to
2
(a) 56 h (b) 3.5 h (c) 14 h (d) 28 h
40 41
18. The nuclides 18 Ar and 19 K are
(a) isotopes (b) isobars (c) isotones (d) none of these
257
19. To what stable isotope would 103 Lr decay?
206 209 206 207
(a) 82 Pb (b) 83 Bi (c) 82 Pb (d) 82 Pb
20. The half-life of a radioactive isotope is 1.5 hours. The mass of it that remains
undecayed after 6 hours is (if initial mass of the isotope was 32 g)
(a) 32g (b) 16g (c) 4 g (d) 2g
21. The radioactivity due to C-14 isotope ( t 1 = 6000 yr) of a sample of wood from
2
an ancient tomb was found to be nearly half that of fresh wood; the tomb is,
therefore, about
(a) 3000 years old (b)6000 years old
(c) 9000 years old (d)12000 years old
22. The half-life period of a radioactive nuclide is 3 hours. In 9 hours its activity will
be reduced by a factor of
(a) 1/9 (b) 1/8 (c) 1/27 (d) 1/6
23. If (3/4)th quantity of a radioactive element disintegrates in two hours, its half-
life would be
(a) 1 hour (b) 45m (c) 30m (d) 15m
24. A sample of rock from moon contains equal number of atoms of uranium and
lead
( t 1 for U= 4.5  10 9 years ). The age of the rock would be
2
(a) 4.5  10 9 years (b) 9  10 9 years (c) 13.5  10 9 years (d) 2.25  10 9 years
25. If N0 is the initial number of nuclei, number of nuclei remaining undecayed at

the end of nth half-life is
(a) 2  n N 0 (b) 2 n N 0 (c) n 2 N 0 (d) n 2 N 0
26. The emission of beta particles is from:

(a) the valence of an atom
(b) the inner shell of an atom
(c) the nucleus due to the nuclear conversion proton  neutron + electron
(d) the nucleus due to the nuclear conversion neutron  proton + electron
27. In  – decay, n/p ratio :

(a) may increases or decrease (b) remains constant
(c) decreases (d) increases
28. If  – decay, n/p ratio :

(a) remains unchanged (b) may increase or decrease
(c) increases (d) decreases
29. If n/p ratio is high , the nucleus tends to stabilize by :

(a) the emission of a  - particle (b) neutron capture
(c) losing a positron (d) any one of these
30. Which statement is true about n/p ratio?

(a) It increases by  – emission (b) it increases by  - emission
(c) It increases by  - emission (d) none of these
31. n/p ratio during positron emission:

(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Remains constant (d) all of these
32. The rays are given off by a radioactive element from:

(a) nucleus (b) valence electrons
(c) all the orbits (d) outer orbit
33.  - rays are emitted from a nucleus due to:

(a) high n/p ratio
(b) excess energy possessed by nucleus after emission of  - or  - particles
(c) fission reaction
(d) fusion reaction
34. Which is the SI unit of radioactivity?

(a) Einstein (b) Becquerel (c) Curie (d) Moseley
35. Which of the following statement about radioactivity is wrong?

(a) It involves outer electrons activity
(b) It is not affected by temperature or pressure
(c) It is an exothermic process
(d) The radioactivity of an element is not affected by any other element
compounded by it
36. Radium is a radioactive substance. If dissolves in dilute H2SO4 and forms a

compound radium sulphate. The compound is :
(a) no longer radioactive
(b) half as radioactive as the radium content
(c) as radioactive as the radium content
(d) twice as radioactive as the radium content
37. If a radioactivity substance is placed in vacuum at 100°C, its rate of

disintegration in comparison to one atmospheric pressure :
(a) is not affected (b) increases
(c) decreases (d) increase when the product is gas.
38. The value of disintegration constant of a radioactive isotope :

(a) decreases with increasing temperature
(b) decrease with increasing pressure
(c) increase with increasing concentration
(d) is independent temperature pressure and concentration
39. The activity of radioisotope changes with:

(a) temperature (b) pressure
(c) chemical environment (d) none of these
40. The half life of a radioactive element depends upon :

(a) the amount of the element (b) the temperature
(c) the pressure (d) none of these
41. Weight of 14C6 to have radioactivity 1 curie | (disintegration constant = 4.4 

10-12 sec-1 ) |is
(a) 2  10-4 kg (b) 0.9  10-4kg (c) 1.7 10-4kg (d) 3.710-10kg
42. The number of millimoles of 14C6 equivalent to one millicuries, if t1/2 = 5570
years and 1 curie = 3.7  1010 dps is :
(a) 1.56  10-2 (b) 3.12  10-2 (c) 4.34  10-2 (d) 7.80  10-2
43. The activity of a radio nuclide (X100) is 6.023 curie. If the disintegration
constant is 3.7  104 sec-1, the mass of radio nuclide is :
(a) 10-14g (b)10-6g (c) 10-15g (d) 10-3g
44. Two radioactive elements X and Y have half lives of 50 and 100 minutes
respectively. Initial sample of both the elements have same number of atoms.
The ratio of the remaining number of X and Y after 200 minutes is :
(a) 2 (b) ½ (c) 4 (d) ¼
45. The radioactivity elements A and B have half lives of 15 and 5 respectively. The
experiment beings with 4 times the number of B atoms as A atoms. At which of
the following times does the number of A atoms left equals the number of B
atoms left :
(a) 30 minutes (b) 15minutes (c) 10minutes (d) 5 minutes
46. A radioactivity element A decays with a decay constant  . The fraction of nuclei
that decayed at any time t, if the initial nuclei are N0 is given by :
(a) e  t (b)1 - e  t (c) e t (d) 1 / ( e – e  t )
47. A radioactive isotope has initial activity of 28 dpm. Its activity is reduced to 14
dpm after half an hour. The initial number of nuclide is sample was :
(a) 200 (b) 400 (c) 600 (d) 1211
48. The decay constant of 226Ra is 1.37  10-11 sec-1. A sample of 226 Ra having an
activity of 1.5 milli curie will contain…… atoms
(a) 4.05  1018 (b) 3.7  1017 (c) 2.05  1015 (d) 4.7  1010
49. If the amount of radioactive substance is increased three times, the number of
atoms disintegrating per unit time of half life.
(a) double (b) no change
(c) triple (d) be 1/3rd of the original number of atoms
50. Average life of a radioactive substance is :

(a) 0.44times of half life (b) 2.44 times of half life
(c) 1.44 times of half life (d) 0.693 times of half life
51. Radium has atomic mass 226 and half life of 1600 year. The number of
disintegration per second per gram are:
(a) 4.8  1010 (b) 3.7  108 (c) 9.2  106 (d) 3.7  1010
52. The half life periods of four isotopes are given below:
(i) 7.6 years, (ii) 4000 years (iii) 6000 years (iv) 3.2  105 year
Which of the above isotopes is most stable?
(a) (iv) (b) (iii) (c) (ii) (d) (i)
53. One mole of A present in a closed vessel undergoes decay as

m m s
z A  z  4 A  2 2 He 4 . The volume of He collected at NTP after 20 day (t1/2 A= 10
days)is :
(a) 11.2 litre (b) 22.4 litre (c) 33.6 litre (d) 67.2 litre
54. The radioactivity of a sample is R1 at a time T1 and R2 at a time T2. If the half
life of the specimen is T, the number of atoms that have disintegration in the
time (T2 – T1) is proportional to:
(a) (R1T1 – R2T2) (b) ( R2 – R1) (c) ( R1 – R2) / T (d) (R1 – R2) / 0.693
55. A radioactive element X, decays by the sequence and with half lives, given
below :
k1 k2
X [half life =30 min]  Y+  Y [ half life = 2 days ]  Z + 2
Which of the following statements is correct :
(a) Disintegration constant k2 > k1
(b) Atomic number of X and Z are same
(c) The mass number of Y is greater then X
(d) Y and Z are isotopes
56. Correct order of radioactivity is

(a) 1H1 > 1H2 > 1H3 (b) 1H3 > 1H2 > 1H1
(c) 1H3 > 1H1 > 1H2 (d) 1H2 > 1H1 > 1H3
57. The isotope 235U92 decays in a number of steps to an isotope of 207

Pb82. the
group of particles emitted in this process will be :
(a) 4  , 7  (b) 6  , 4  (c) 7  , 4  (d) 10  , 8 
58. The number of  - and  - particles emitted in the nuclear reaction

228
Th90  212Bi83 are :
(a) 8  , 1  (b) 4  , 7  (c) 3, 7  (d) 4  , 1 
59. No.of  -particles emitted during the change aXb  cYd :

(a) [ ( a – d )/ 4 ] (b) c + [ ( a – d ) / 2 ] + b
(c) c + [ ( b – d ) / 2 ] – a (d) c + [ ( a – d ) / 2 ] – b
60. The last product of 4n series is:

(a) 208Pb82 (b) 207Pb82 (c) 209
Pb82 (d) 210
Bi83
61. Pair of similar radiations is

(a)  - and  - rays (b)  - and X – rays
(c)  - and  - rays (d)  - and X – rays
62. Which nuclei is most likely appears to be unstable:

(a) 5B10 (b) 4Be10 (c) 7N14 (d) 8O16
63. What is the value of n for the parent element of (4n + 3) series:
(a) 59 (b) 58 (c) 57 (d) 60
64. The radioactive decay of 88X35 be a emission produces an unstable nucleus

which spontaneously emits a neutron. The final product is :
(a) 88X37 (b)89X35 (c) 88Z34 (d) 87W36
65. When 27Al13 is bombarded with  -particles, a radioactive isotope of phosphorus

30
P15 with the emission of ……. is formed.
(a) neutrons (b) proton (c) positrons (d) electrons
66. The number of neutrons in the parent nucleus which give 14N on beta emission
is:
(a) 6 (b) 7 (c) 8 (d) 14
67. Number of neutrons in a parent nucleus X which give 7N14 after two successive
 emission would be :
(a) 9 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8
35
68. The ratio isotope formed during nuclear reaction 17Cl (n . p) is:
(a) 15P32 (b) 16S35 (c) 16S34 (d) 15P34
69. Successive emission of an  -particles and two  -particles by an atom of a

radioactive element results in the formation of its
(a) isobar (b) isomer (c) isotone (d) isotope
70. Wooden artifact and freshly cut tree are 7.6 and 15.2 min-1g-1 of carbon
(t1/2 = 5760 years) respectively. The age of the artifact is:
(a) 5760 years (b) 5760  (15.2 / 7.6 ) years
(c) 5760  ( 7.6 / 15.2 ) years (c) 5760  (15.2 / 7.6 ) years
71. A freshly prepared radioactive source of half period 2 hours emits radiations of
intensity which is 64 times the permissible safe level. The minimum time after
which it would be possible to work with source is:
(a) 6 hours (b) 12 hours (c) 24 hours (d) 48 hours
72. A sample of rock from moon contains equal number of atoms of uranium and
lead (t1/2 for U 4.5  109 years). The age of the rock would be:
(a) 9.0  109 years (b) 4.5  109 years
9
(c) 13.5  10 years (d) 2.25  109 years
73. At radioactive equilibrium, the ratio of two atoms A and B are 3.1  109 : 1. If
half life of ‘A’ 2  1010 years. What is half life of ‘B’?
(a) 6.45 year (b) 4.65 year (c) 5.46 year (d) 5.64 year
74. One gram of mass is equal to:

(a) 5  1010 erg (b) 9 1020 erg (c) 7  105 erg (d) 11 1012 erg
75.  -rays have ionization power because they possess :

(a) lesser kinetic energy (b) higher kinetic energy
(c) lesser penetration power (d) higher penetration power
76. A magnet will cause greater deflection of :

(a)  -rays (b)  -rays (c)  -rays (d) neutrons
77. The ionizing power of  - ,  - and  - rays is in the decreasing order:

(a)      (b)      (c)      (d)     
78. Which nuclear reaction is not correct:

(a) 63Cu29(p, 1H2) 62Cu29 (b) 9Be4(  , 0n1) 6C12
(c) 5Be10(  , 0n1) 7N13 (d) 27Co59 (0n1 , 1H2 ) 62
Mn25
79. Nuclear reaction accompanied with emission of neutron(s) is:

(a) 27Al13 + 4He2  30P15 (b) 12C6 + 1H1  13N7
(c) 30P15  30 Si14  oe1 (d) 240 Am96 + 4He2  244Bk97+ oe1
80. Which of the following transformations is not correct?

(a) 75As33 + 4He2  78Br35 + 1n0 (b) 7Li3 + 1H1  7Be4 + 1n0
(c) 45Sc21 + 1no  45Ca20 + 1n0 (d) 209Bi83 + 2H1  210PO84 + 1n0
81. In the nuclear reaction, 14N7 + 4He2  pHeq + 1H1 the nucleus X is
(a) nitrogen of mass 16 (b) nitrogen of mass 17
(c) oxygen of mass 16 (d) oxygen of mass 17
82. Sulpher–35 (34.96903 amu) emits a  -particle but no  -rays. The product is
chlorine–35 (34.96885 amu ). The maximum energy carried by  - particle is:
(a) 16.758 MeV (b) 1.6758 MeV
(c) 0.16758 Me V (d) 0.016758 MeV
83. The reaction 235U92 + 1n0  140

Ba56 + 93Kr36 + 3 1n0 represent:
(a) artificial radioactivity (b) nuclear fission
(c) Nuclear fusion (d) none of these
84. Large energy released in atomic bomb explosion is mainly due to:
(a) Conversion of heavier to lighter atoms
(b) products having lesser mass than initial substance
(c) release of neutrons
(d) release of electron.
85. The number of neutrons accompanying the formation of 139Xe54 and 94Sr38
from the absorption of a slow neutron by 23592 , following by nuclear fission is :
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 3
86. The source of enormous energy of sun is :

(a) fusion of hydrogen to form helium (b) fission of uranium
(c) fusion of deuterium and tritium (d) fusion of tritium of form helium
87. Antineutrino can be detected during the emission of :

(a)  - rays (b)  - particles (c) Protons (d) X – rays
88. If two light nuclei are fused together in nuclear reaction , the average energy
per nucleon:
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Cannot be determined (d) Remains same
89. Isodiapheres are atoms having :

(a) p/n constant (b) (p – n) constant
(c) (n – p) constant (d) ( n – p ) different
90. Which among the following is wrong about isodiapheres?

(a) they have the same difference of neutrons and protons same isotopic
number
(b) nuclide and its decay product after  - emission are isodiaphers
(c) z A m  z 2 B m  4  2 He 4 ‘A’ and ‘B’ are isodiaphers
(d) All correct
91. How many  and  particles should be eliminated so that an isodiaphere is

formed:
(a) n  ,n  (b) nn  1 (c) n  (d) n 
WINDOW TO IIT – JEE
Surface chemistry & Nuclear Chemistry

Q.1 An element AZ M undergoes an  - emission followed by two successive  -
emissions. The element formed is ………
(1982 – 1 Mark)
Q.2 The rate of chemical change is directly proportional to ……..

(1985 – 1 marks)
14
Q.3 The number of neutrons in the parent nucleus which gives N on beta emission
7
is ……..
(1985 – 1 marks)
Q.4 A radioactive nucleus decays emitting one alpha an two beta particles ; the
daughter nucleus is ………..of the parent.
(1989 – 1 marks)
Q.5 In  - emission from a nucleus the atomic number of the daughter element
decreases by one.
(1990 – 1 marks)
Q.6 If uranium (mass number 238 and atomic number 92 ) emits an  -particle ,
the product has mass no. and atomic no.
(1981 – 1 marks)
(a) 236 and 92 (b) 234 and 90 (c) 238 and 90 (d) 236 and 90
Q.7 The radiations from a naturally occurring radioactive substance, as seen after
deflection by a magnetic field in one direction, are :
(1984 – 1 marks)
(a) definitely alpha rays (b) definitely beta rays
(c) both alpha and beta rays (d) either alpha or beta rays
Q.8 The half – life period of a radioactive element is 140 days. After 560 days , one
gram of the element will reduced to :
(1986 – 1 marks)
1 1 1 1
(a) g (b) g (c) g (d) g
2 4 8 16
27 29
Q.9 13 Al is a stable isotope , 13 Al is expected to disintegrate by :
(1996 – 1 marks)
(a)  - emission (b)  - emission (c) positron emission (d) proton emission
139 94
Q.10 The number of neutrons accompanying the formation of 54 Xe and 38 Sr from
235
the absorption of a slow neutron by U, followed by nuclear fission is ,
92
(1999 – 2 marks)
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 3
23
Q.11 Na is more stable isotope of Na. Find out the process by which 24
11 Na can
undergo radioactive decay ;

(2003S )
(a)  - emission (b)  - emission
+
(c)  - emission (d) K electron capture
Q.12 Nuclear reactions accompanied with emission of neutron(s) are :

(1988 – 1 marks)
(a) 17 4 30
13 Al 2 H  15 P (b) 12 1
6 C 1 H 
13
7N
30
(c) 15 P 30 0
14 Si  1 e (d) 241
96 Am 42 He 244 0
97 Bk  1 e
Q.13 Radioactive decay is a first order process Radioactive carbon in wood sample
decays with a half life of 5770 years. What is the rate constant ( in years -1 )for
the decay? What fraction would remain after 11540 years ?
(1984 – 3 marks)
234Th
Q.14 disintegrates to give 206 Pb82 as the final product. How many alpha and
90
beta particles are emitted during this process?
(1986 – 2 marks)
Q.15 An experiment requires minimum beta activity product at the rate of 346 beta
particles per minute. The half life period of 99
42 Mo , which is a beta emitter is
99
66.6 hours. Find the minimum amount 42 Mo requires to carry out the
experiment in 6.909 hours. (1989 – 5 marks)
Q.16 The nucleidic ratio, 31 H to 11 H in a sample of water is 8.0  10 – 8 : 1 . Tritium

undergoes decay with a half life period of 12.3 years. How many tritium atoms
would 10.0 g of such a sample contain 40 years after the original sample is
collected? (1992 – 4 marks)
Q.17 One of the hazards of nuclear explosion is the generation of 90Sr and its
subsequent incorporation in bones. This nuclide has a half - life of 2.81 years.
Suppose one microgram was absorbed by new – born child, how much 90 Sr
will remain in his bones after 20 years? (1995 – 2 marks)
227
Q.18 Ac has a half – life of 21.8 years with respect to radioactive decay. The decay
follows two parallel paths. One leading to 227Th and the other to 223Fr. The
percentage yields of these two daughter nuclides are 1.2 and 98.8 respectively.
What are the decay constants   for each of separate paths?
(1996 – 2 marks)
14
Q.19 Write a balanced equation for the reaction of N N with  - particle.
(1997 – 1 marks)
238
Q.20 92Uis radioactive and it emits  and  particles to form 206 82Pb. Calculate
the number of  and  particle emitted in this conversion. An ore o 238 92U is
found to contain 23892 U and 206 82 Pb in the weight ratio of 1: 0 : 1 . The half –
life period of 238 92 U is 4.5  109 years. Calculate the age of ore.
(2000 – 5 marks)
64
Q.21 Cu (half – life = 12.8 h) decays by   emission (38%),   emission (19 %)
and electron capture (43%) . Write the decay products and calculate partial half
– lives for each of the decay process.
(2002 – 5 marks)
Q.22 Complete and balance the following reactions.
(i) 92 Th 234  …….+ 7 2 He4 + 6 – 1  0 (2004 – 1 marks)
235 1 137 92
(ii) 92 U + 0n  …..+ 52 Te + 40Zr (2005 – 1 marks)
86 0
(iii) 34 Se  2 – 1 e + …….. (2005 – 1 marks)
Q.23 Rate of physiorption increase with (2003S)

(a) decrease in temperature (b) increase in temperature
(c) decrease in pressure (d) decrease in surface area
Q.24 Adsorption of gases on solid surface is generally exothermic because :

(2004S)
(a) enthalpy is positive (b) entropy decreases
(c) entropy increases (d) free energy increases
Q.25 Lyophilic sols are (2005S)

(a) Irreversible sols
(b) They are prepared from inorganic compound
(c) coagulated by adding electrolytes
(d) Self – stabilizing
Q.26 1 gm of charcoal adsorbs 100 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 M CH3 COOH to form a

monolayer , and thereby the molarity of CH3 COOH reduces to 0.49 . Calculate
the surface area of the charcoal adsorbed by each molecule of acetic acid.
Surface area of charcoal = 3.01  102 m2 /gm. (2003 – 2 marks)
Q.27 20% of surface sites are occupied by N2 molecules . The density of surface site
is 6.023  1014 cm – 2 and total surface area is 1000 cm2. The catalyst is
heated to 300K while N2 is completely desorbed into a pressure of 0.001 atm
and volume of 2.46 cm3 . Find the number of active sites by each N2 molecule.
(2005 – 4 marks)
Q.28 The correct statement(s) pertaining to the adsorption of a gas on a solid surface
is (are)
(a) Adsorption is always exothermic.
(b) physisorption may transform into chemisorption at high temperature.
(c) Physisorption increases with increasing temperature but chemisorptions
decreases with increasing temperature.
(d) Chemisorption is more exothermic than physisorption, however it is very
slow due to higher energy to activation. (2011 – 4 marks)
Q.29 Choose the correct reason(s) for the stability of the lyophobic colloidal particles.
(A) Preferential adsorption of ions on their surface from the solution.
(B) Preferential adsorption of solvent on their surface from the solution.
(C) Attraction between different particles having opposite charges on their
surface.
(D) Potential difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of
opposite charges around the colloidal particles. (2012 – 4 Marks)
ANSWER KEY
OBJECTIVE TYPE (SURFACE CHEMISTRY)
1. D 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. D 6. A 7. D
8. D 9. B 10. C 11. B 12. D 13. B 14. B
15. B 16. A 17. C 18. A 19. B 20. D 21. D
22. B 23. C 24. B 25. B 26. A 27. A 28. B
29. A 30. B 31. A 32. B 33. B 34. B 35. B
36. D 37. A 38. A 39. C 40. C 41. A 42. D
43. C 44. C 45. C 46. C 47.D 48. D 49. C
50. C 51.B 52. B 53. A 54. A 55. D 56. D
57. B 58. C 59. D 60 C 61. A 62. A 63. D
64. D 65. D 66. A 67. B 68. C 69. D 70. C
71. D 72. A 73. D 74. B 75. A 76. C 77. A
78. D 79. A 80. B 81. B 82. A 83. A 84. C
85. D 86. C 87. A 88. C 89. A 90. C 91. C
92. D 93. B 94. B 95. C 96. A 97. B 98. A
99. C 100. A 101. D 102. C 103. C 104. C 105. D
106. A 107. B 108. D 109. B 110. B 111. A 112. B
113. B 114. B 115. B 116. B 117. A 118. C 119. A
120. A 121. A 122. C 123. A 124. C
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
FOUNDATION BUILDER (OBJECTIVE)

1. C 2. B 3. B 4. C 5. A 6. D 7. D
8. A 9. C 10. C 11. A 12. D 13. B 14. D
15. D 16. B 17. C 18. C 19. B 20. D 21. B
22. B 23. A 24. A 25.A 26. D 27. A 28. D
29. A 30. D 31. A 32. A 33. B 34. B 35. A
36. C 37. A 38. D 39. D 40. D 41. A 42. A
43. C 44. D 45. B 46. B 47. D 48. A 49. C
50. C 51. D 52. A 53. C 54. D 55. B 56. B
57. C 58. D 59. C 60. A 61. D 62. B 63. A
64. D 65. A 66. C 67. A 68. B 69. D 70. A

71. B 72. B 73. 74. B 75. B 76. B 77. A
78. D 79. A 80. C 81. D 82. C 83. B 84. B
85. B 86. A 87. B 88. C 89. C 90. D 91. C
Window to IIT-JEE
A4
Q.1 Sol . z M;
Q.2 Sol. Product of active masses
14
Q.3 8; 6 C147 N  01 e
Q.4 Sol. Isotopes

0
Q.5 Sol . False : In  - emission ( -1e ) the atomic number of the daughter nuclei
increases by 1.
Q.6 Sol. (b) 92 U 238  90U 234 + 4
2 He
Q.7 Sol. (d)  - and  - rays , made up of oppositely charged particles , are
deflected by a magnetic
field in opposite directions ;  - rays remains undeflected
560
Q.8 Sol (d) No. of half – lifes = 4
140
Q.9 Sol . The species 13Al29 ( No. of neutrons = 16 ) contains more neutrons than
the stable isotope
27
13Al ( No. of neutrons = 14 )
Neutron on decomposition shows  - emission .
0 n1 1 P1  e0
1
 - emission
Q.10 Sol. (d) The guiding rule is :

The mass number and atomic numbers do not change in a nuclear
reaction
The given nuclear fission reaction is : 235 1 139 94 1
92 U  0 n  54 Xe  38 Sr 3 0 n
Q.11 Sol (a) n/p ratio of 24Na nuclide is 13/11 i.e. greater than unity and hence
radioactive. To achieve stability, it would tend to adjust its n/p ratio to the
proper value of unity. This can be done by breaking a neutron into proton and
electron 0 n1  +1 P1 + - 1e0 or  -
27
Q.12 Sol. ( a , d ) (a) 13 Al + 2He4  15 P30 + 0n1
Q.13 Sol. Half life , t ½ = 5770 year
Let the original sample be 1 gram.

 After every 5770 years one – half of radioactive carbon would decay or
disintegrate.
1 1 1
Thus, 1 g sample becomes ½ g after 5770 years and   left after 11,540
2 2 4
years.
 25% of radioactive carbon remain after 11540 years.
0.693 .693
Rate constant, K for first order reaction, K = = = 1.2  10- 4 years-1
t1/ 2 5770
Q.14 As for emission of one  - particle atomic mass decreases by 4 and number by
2. Further for the emission of one  - particle, the atomic mass do not change
but the atomic number increases by 1. So we first find the  - particles:
Decrease in atomic mass = 234 – 206 = 28
28
No. of  -particles emitted = 7
4
Hence, atomic number decreases to
90-(7  2) =76
Now, atomic number of Pb = 82,which is more by (82-76)=6
Therefore,  -particles emitted = 6
Q.15 Minimum number of  -particles required 346 min-1

No. of  -particles required for carrying out the experiment for 6.909  60
minutes
=346  6.909  60 =143431
143431
 Amount of  -particles required = = 2.3814  10-19 mol
6.023 1023
0.693 0.693
Now we know that,  = = = 0.0104 hr-1
T1 / 2 66.6
2.303 a
Further we know that,  = log
t ax
Where a = Initial concentration of  -particles
x = Consumed concentration of  -particles
ax t 0 .0104  6 . 909
log   2.303 = - 2 .303
  0 .0312
a
a
 0.31
ax
a  2.3814  10 19
 0.31
a
On usual calculations, a = 3.451  10-18 mol
Q.16 The ratio of H3 : H1:: 8  10-18 : 1
 No.of H atoms in 18 g H2O = 2N
 No. of H3 atoms in 18 g of H2O = 2N  8  10-18 = 2  6.023  1023  8 
10-18atoms
2  6.023 10 23  8  10 18  10

 No.of H3atoms in 10g H2O = atoms
18
= 5.354  106 atoms
No.of atoms left after 40 years are derived as
2.303 N
Now, t= log 0
 N
2.303  12.3 5.354  10 6
40 = log
0.693 N
5
N = 5.624  10 atoms
90
Q.17 Wt.of Sr at start, N0 = 1mg, Wt.of90Sr after20 years,Nt =?, Time t=20years
Half-life of 90Sr,T1/2 = 28.1 years
0.693 0.693
Calculation of decay constant,    = 0.0247 years-1
T1 / 2 28.1
Substituting the values in the relation Nt = N0e- t =1 e-0.0247  20 =
0.061 g
0.693
Q.18  Ac = = 3.18  10-2 year-1
21.8
Since the decay involves two parallel paths
Th227
 AC 227 
 Fr 223
 Ac  Th   Fr
Th
Thus, Fractional yield of Th =
 Ac
1.2
or Th  3.18 10 2   3.81 10 4 yr 1
100

Similarly, Fraction yield of Fr = Fr
 Ac
98.8
  Fr  3.18 10  2   3.14  10  2 yr 1
100
Q.19 7N14 + 2He4  [ 9F18]  8O17 + 1H1
Q.20 Let the number of  - particles emitted = a

and number of  - particle emitted = b
238
92U  a24 + b-10 + 82Pb206
thus 4a + 206 = 238 ; therefore a = 8
further 2a – b + 82 = 92 ; therefore b = 6
composition of the ore indicates that is has 1 gm of U and 0.1 gm of Pb ; thus
here Nt = 1 gm
determination of N0
206 g Pb is obtained from 238 g of U
238
0.1 g Pb is obtained from =  0.1 g  0.1155 g
206
therefore initial amount of U (N0) = 1 + 0.1155 = 1.1155
2.303 N 2.303 1.1155
now are know that t = log o  9
log
K N t 0.693 / 4.5  10 1
By usual calculations , t = 7.097  108 years
Q.21
Let the rate of constant of the above emission

process be k1 , k2 and k3 respectively and the overall
rate constant be k. then
00693 0.693 1 0.693 1
k = k1 + k 2 + k3 =  h . Also k1 = 0.38  h
t1 / 2 12.8 12.8
0.69312.8
t1 = = 33.68 h
0.38  0.693
0.693 0.693 0.693
similarly , t2 =    12.8 = 67.36 h,
k2 0.19k 0.19  0.693
0.693 0.693 12.8
t3 =   = 29.76 h
k3 0.43k 0.43
where t1 , t2 and t3 are the partial half lives for - emission ,  + emission and
electron capture process, respectively
Q.22 (i) the atomic number of the final stable product = 90 – 7  2 + 1 6 = 82 & the
mass number of the final stable product = 234 – 7  4 + 0 = 206. thus the
element X should be 82Pb206
(ii) 92U235 + on1  52T137 + 40Zr97 + 20n1
(iii) 34Se86  2-1e0 + 36Kr86
Q.23 (a)
Rate of physiorsption increases with decreases of temperature x/m= amt of gas
absorbed per unit mass of adsorbent t = temperature
Q.24 (b)
when a gas is adsorbed on the surface, the freedom of movement of its
molecules becomes restricted. This causes decreases in the entropy of the gas
after adsorptions, i.e. S becomes negative.
Q.25 (b)
Lyophilic sols are self stabilizing because these sols are reversible and the
highly hydrated in the solution.
Q.26 Number of moles of acetic acid in 100 ml before adding charcoal = 0.05
Number of moles of acetic acid in 100 ml after adding charcoal = 0.049
Number of moles of acetic acid absorbed on the surface of charcoal = 0.001
Number of molecules of acetic acid absorbed on the surface of charcoal = 0.001
 6.02  1023
= 6.02  1020
2 2
surface area of charcoal = 3.01  10 m
Q.27 N2 = 0.001 atm, T = 300 K , V = 2.46 cm2

PV 0.001 2.46  10 3
 Number of N2 molecules =  N AV   6.023  1023
RT 0.0821 300
= 6.016  1016
Now total number of surface sites = Density  Total surface area = 6.023 
1014  1000
= 6.023  1017
20
sites occupied by N2 molecules =  6.023  1017 = 12.04  1016
100
12.04  1016
 No. of sites occupied by each N2 molecules = 2
6.016  1016
Q.28. (ABD)
Q. 29. (AD)
Sol. (A) due to preferential adsorption of common ions
(B)X
(C) X (due to repulsion not due to attraction)
(D) The layer of oppositely charged particles around any colloidal particles will
decrease the potential energy of system as a whole.
IIT – JEE SYLLABUS
Surface Chemistry: Elementary concepts of adsorption (excluding adsorption isotherms); Colloids: types,
methods of preparation and general properties; Elementary ideas of emulsions, surfactants and micelles
(only definitions and examples).
Nuclear Chemistry: Radioactivity: isotopes and isobars; Properties of α, β and γ rays; Kinetics of
radioactive decay (decay series excluded), carbon dating; Stability of nuclei with respect to proton-neutron
ratio; Brief discussion on fission and fusion reactions.
CONTENTS
1. THEORY (SURFACE CHEMISTRY) 91 – 110
2. THEORY (NECLEAR CHEMISTRY) 111 – 126
3. FOUNDATION BUILDER 127 – 140

(SURFACE CHEMISTRY)
4. FOUNDATION BUILDER 141 – 149

(NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY)
6. WINDOW TO IIT-JEE 149 – 152
7. ANSWER KEY 153 – 158
COLLEGES: Andheri / Borivali / Chembur / Dadar / Kalyan / Kharghar / Nerul / Powai /Thane
PREFACE
Surface chemistry can be roughly defined as the study of chemical reactions at interfaces. Some
related practical applications are classed as surface engineering. The science encompasses concepts
such as heterogeneous catalysis, semiconductor device fabrication, fuel cells, self-assembled
monolayers, and adhesives.
Nuclear chemistry is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and
nuclear properties.
It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the
chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors) which are designed to perform nuclear
processes.
This booklet is divided into various sections. The first section deals with detailed theory about the
chapter. This is followed by some interesting solved examples which will help in further understanding
of the concepts.
A glance at the previous year questions of IIT-JEE has been provided in the last section as “Window to
IIT-JEE”
We are sure; you will have fun while you go through this journey.
Team chemistry @ IIT-ian’s PACE
COLLEGES: Andheri / Borivali / Chembur / Dadar / Kalyan / Kharghar / Nerul / Powai /Thane

Surface Chemistry &amp; Nuclear Chemistry

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SURFACE & NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Rg.

5. Forms multimolecular layers on adsorbent Forms unimolecular layer.

1.3 ADSORPTION OF GASES ON SOLIDS

(ii) Nature of solid:

(iii) Specific area of solid:

(iv) Pressure of a gas:

It is evident from the graph that at a certain pressure the adsorption

At low pressures, x/m varies linearly with p

Temp (T) Temp (T)

(vi) Activation of solid:

1.5 APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION

(ii) Ion exchange resin is used to remove hardness of water.

(iii) Several organic compounds are purified by chromatographic adsorption.

(iv) Silica gel is used for removing and controlling humidity.

2.2 TYPES OF CATALYSIS

Examples of induced catalysis:

2.3 THEORIES OF CATALYSIS

(i) Intermediate compound formation theory

(ii) Adsorption theory

3.1 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF INTERACTION BETWEEN DIFFERENT PHASES

(i) LYOPHILIC COLLOIDS

Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols

2. Stability is due to electrical charge Stability is due to adsorption of dispersion

3.2 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF NATURE OF COLLOIDAL PARTICLES

(i) Multimolecular colloids

(ii) Macromolecular colloids

(iii) Associated colloids

4. PREPARATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

(ii) By Physical methods

5. PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

6. PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

6.6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

(a) Brownian movement

6.7 ELECTROPHORESIS OR CATAPHORESIS

Distilled water + Colloidal solution

7. COAGULATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS

(iii) BY REPEATED DIALYSIS

PROTECTIVE COLLOIDSGOLD NUMBER

Gum Arabic : 0.15  0.25

9.3 COTTRELL SMOKE PRECIPITATOR

9.5 PURIFICATION OF WATER

10. ASSOCIATED COLLOIDS

COO Hydrophobic end (C17H33)

P1V1 700  1000

Actual volume of the flask = 1000  volume of charcoal

125.67  400  273

1. Relative stability of isotopes and binding energy.

2He 4  0 n 1  2 He 5  0.8 MeV

3. Meson theory of nuclear force.

4. Neutron-proton ratio and nuclear stability.

5. Nuclear shell model.

Important features of nuclear reactions.

Radioactive Rays (Radioactive emanations).

Table Comparison of  ,   and   Rays

3 Action of a magnetic field

Disintegration Theory of Radioactivity

Laws of Radioactive Disintegration.

3. Emission of 1   particle and 2   particles in succession produces an isotope of the parent

2. Law of radioactive decay.

Half-life Period (T1/2)

Derivation of half-life period.

Average Life Period (T)

Name of the series Starting nuclide Final Particles lost

Surface Chemistry & Nuclear Chemistry

Surface Chemistry & Nuclear Chemistry