ial report_
The Long Suffering of Frederic Chopin
Adam K. Kubba, MD; and Madeleine
(CHEST 1998; 113:210-16)
Frederic Chopin, the half-Polish, half-French
composer and virtuoso pianist, used the piano to
express his thoughts and feelings as perhaps no other
composer has done before or since.the piano was
his means of communication, his other self. His
frailty and ill health from a very early age, together
with his conviction that he would not live to an old
age, meant that he was denied many of the usual
outlets for his emotions. These factors, however,
combined with his extraordinary gifts, probably re¬
sulted in a legacy of music for the pianoforte (as the
instrument was then known) which has been and will
continue to be a source of delight to countless music
lovers throughout the world. Despite his ill health
and short life, the legacy of music he left the world
included 27 piano etudes, 25 preludes, 19 nocturnes,
52 mazurkas, 4 impromptus, 2 concertos, 3 sonatas,
and a barcarolle.
Family History
Many dates have been given as the exact date of
birth of Frederic Francois Chopin. March 1st,
March 5th (St. Frederic's day), and February 22nd
are possible dates; the latter has the greatest histor¬
ical support.1 Chopin was born in the village of
Zelazowa-Wola, near Warsaw, in the year 1810. The
course of his boyhood was not particularly marked by
anything extraordinary, except that he was "sickly
and delicate"2 and that the attention of his family was
concentrated on his health. He studied music under
Fredrik Ziwna, a passionate disciple of Johann Se¬
bastian Bach.
His father, Nicolas Chopin (a Frenchman by birth,
who worked as a bookkeeper and teacher), suffered
from a recurrent respiratory disease but survived
until the age of 73 (1770-1844). He died on May 3rd,
1844 of "lung disease and weakened heart."3
Chopin's mother, Justyna (Polish by birth), enjoyed
good health and died at age 77 (1784-1861). Chopin
*From the Gastro-Intestinal Unit, Western General Hospital,
Edinburgh, and The University of Glasgow Library,
UK.
Glasgow,
Manuscript received August 6, 1997; accepted August 7.
210
Young, MA
had three sisters. Isabella (1811-1881) led a healthy
life and died at age 70 (cause of death unknown).
Ludwika (1807-1855), who suffered recurrent respi¬
ratory tract infections throughout her life, died at age
47 of a respiratory condition. Finally, Emilia (1813-
1827).she was a frail, thin child who suffered
recurrent coughing, breathlessness, weight loss,
pneumonia, "asthma," and recurrent hematemesis
from the age of 11 years. She died of a massive upper
GI hemorrhage at age 14.
To our knowledge, the only unusual family medi¬
cal history is the illness and early death of Emilia.
Chronic 111 Health
In his teens, Chopin suffered from respiratory
complaints, recurrent diarrhea, and weight loss.4 The
onset of his illness was reported by George Sand (a
female friend and lover) and Franz Liszt (a friend
and famous composer) to have started well before
puberty. In 1826 (at age 16), he had an illness lasting
6 months, in which respiratory complaints, severe
headaches, and cervical adenopathy were prominent
symptoms.5 He suffered similar complaints while in
Vienna in 1830 (at age 20).
Chopin lived in Poland and developed his musical
genius there, but the desire to become famous and to
learn more music, coupled with political instability in
Poland, made him leave for France. He left for Paris
on November 2nd, 1830. This was a highly emotional
journey for Chopin who, at that stage, expected to be
in Paris for a year or so.
In 1831 (at age 21), he complained of chest pain,
hemoptysis, fever, and headaches. In 1835, he had
bronchitis and laryngitis.
It was noted when he was as young as the age of 20
that he lacked the growth of facial hair, such that he
wrote in 1832, "I have one side-whisker.the other
won't simply grow."6 Chopin never fathered any
children that we know of, despite his 11-year rela¬
tionship inwith George Sand.
Early 1837, an epidemic of influenza broke out
in Paris. In February, Chopin fell ill with high fever;
he had hemoptysis and hematemesis. He was ex¬
hausted and listless, and was confined to his bed for
Special Report
several weeks. Dr. Gaubert, Chopin's physician, was
adamant that Chopin was not suffering from tuber¬
culosis (TB) and felt that a warmer climate might
help Chopin's condition. This that
because the physician believed
report arose either
Chopin did not
have TB or because it was expedient to deny the
presence of an infectious disease such as TB, which
carried with it social and economic disadvantages.
Chopin was chronically breathless and easily ex¬
hausted; he often had to be carried off after playing
the piano for any length of time. He was compelled
to travel southward to avoid the rigors of winter. He
chose to live in the mild climate of the island of
Majorca. He continued to be ill for weeks after his
arrival on Majorca. On December 3rd, 1837, he
wrote: "These two weeks, I was sick as a dog, I got a
chill despite the temperature of 70, amidst roses,
oranges, palms and fig trees. Of the three most
famous doctors on the island, one sniffed at what I
spewed up, the other tapped at the place from where
I spewed it, the third poked and listened while I
spewed. The first said that I was dead, the second
that I was dying and the third that I would die."7
The natives on the island regarded all pulmonary
diseases as incurable and infectious, and the landlord
demanded that Chopin and George Sand should
leave the house (in writing, because he was afraid to
come near his tenant). He insisted that their furni¬
ture be burned and the house disinfected at their
expense. Chopin and Sand left for Valdemosa, but he Figure 1. A photograph of Chopin taken in the last months of his
did not recover and was troubled with fever, weak¬ life.
ness, and nightmares. This went on till the middle of
January 1839. While they were isolated in Majorca,
Sand reported difficulties in finding the right food the winter he has 2-3 more serious crises lasting 2-3
for Chopin, because fatty food gave him indigestion
and severe diarrhea. In February 1839, he left days each suffering from neuralgia but he has no
lesion of his chest."7
Majorca for Marseilles. By September 1842, he was
back in Paris. The Last Years
Chopin's health, already affected by many The winter of 1847 brought short improvements
changes, visibly declined from the year 1840 onward
and long relapses, and his relationship with George
(Fig 971). He exhibited gross weight loss (weighing
Sand came to an end, which appeared to be a turning
only pounds) and had a parchment-like pallor. A
caricature done by his friend Pauline Viardot in 1844 point in the decline of his health.7
clearly demonstrated that Chopin was barrel chested Although Chopin was described in 1848 as "puny,
thin and pale,"5 he was determined to visit London.
and had extremely thin limbs (Fig 2).
A married sister of Gutmann (a close friend) The trip to Britain appears to have been a mistake.
remembered that in 1843 Chopin already had to be The purpose of this journey was to give concerts.
carried upstairs when he visited her mother. When This, combined with the political unrest in France,
shopping, he never left the carriage and stayed the encouragement of his friends, and his desire to
closely wrapped in his blue mantle.57 recover from the pains of his separation from George
In the winter of 1843 he was very ill again, in pain Sand, were sufficient motives for him to leave Paris.
and very pale. This condition continued until the Some believe that he wanted a new life in London,
spring of 1844. Later that year, his lover George and that this was the reason he carried letters of
Sand wrote to his sister Ludwika: "His illness has not introduction to Englishmen and Poles living in En¬
been greatly different over the last 6 years. In the gland, as though his name alone was not sufficient
morning he has a fairly severe coughing spell. During introduction. Others deny that he ever intended to
CHEST/113/1 /JANUARY, 1998 211

Figure 2. A caricature done in 1844 shows a barrel-chested
Chopin with thin limbs (courtesy of Madam M. Maurvois).
leave Paris for good, as he retained his apartment
and had no farewell party prior to his departure. In
London, he was confined to bed frequently, but in
April felt well enough to visit Edinburgh. It was in
Scotland that he formed a new relationship, with
Jane Stirling (a Scottish heiress).
On his return to London (November 17th, 1848),
he wrote, "I have been ill for the last 18 days. Ever
since I reached London, I have not left the house at
all. I have had such a cold and such headaches, short
breath and all the bad symptoms (my head is very
painful apart from the cough and suffocation). The
doctors visit me every day."5 Chopin left London for
Paris on November 19th. On the way to Paris, he
wrote to his friend Solange: "Tomorrow I go to Paris,
scarcely dragging myself and weaker than you have
ever seen me. I am swollen up with neuralgia, can
neither breathe nor sleep."5
212
On his return to Paris, he found that his trusted
physician, Dr. Molin, had died. This was very upset¬
ting to him, because he credited this doctor with
helping him out of several relapses, and with saving
his life in the winter of 1847. After Dr. Molin's death,
he had no confidence in any other physician. In early
1849, Chopin's disease progressed rapidly, and his
friends' fears turned to despair. Chopin's condition
was such that he hardly spoke or left his bed. He also
suffered from pains of the wrists, hands, and ankles.
On hearing this, his sister left Warsaw for Paris.
Although
his
the suffering grew more and more terrible,
of will and
power precision of ideas remained
of
intact, perception intentions clear.
his
When cholera broke out in Paris around the
summer of 1849, his friends decided to move him to
the outskirts of Paris. By now, Chopin was being
treated by a Dr. Fraenkel, who satisfied him no
better than all his other previous physicians. Chopin
said of him: "There is no way of finding out from him
whether I should go to some spa or to the south. He
has once again taken back his infusion and given me
another medicine and once again I don't want
it.and when I ask him concerning my regimen, he
says that I do not need to lead a regular life. In short,
he is crazy."5-8
On the night of June 21st, he had two hemor¬
rhages (though not clarified, the implication was that
these were hemoptysis). The following day he had a
hematemesis, edema ofthe ankles and legs, lethargy,
and increased tiredness. At the end of June, he
wrote, "I have no fever, thank God. .Which baffles
and angers all run of the mill doctors."9
.
On July 2nd he wrote: "I have not spat blood since
the day before yesterday, my legs are swollen, I am
weak and lazy, I can't go upstairs, I suffocate."910
On July 10th, he consulted Dr. Jean Cruveilhier
(1791-1874). Dr. Cruveilhier was one of France's
most accomplished doctors. He held the Professor¬
ship of Surgeryof at Montpellier from 1823 to 1825,
Professorship Anatomy at Paris from 1825 to 1836,
Chair of Pathological Anatomy at Paris from 1836 to
1850, and wrote several books on TB, surgery,
anatomy, and pathology. He was considered the
father of the clinical and pathological science of
peptic ulcer disease. His most famous publication
was his Anatomie Pathologique du Corps Humain,
published in Paris between 1830 and 1842. To this
day, thisatlas
is considered the most magnificent patho¬
logical saideverof published.
Chopin his encounter with his new doctor:
"I have some sort of diarrhea, he [meaning Dr.
Cruveilhier] also regards me as consumptive and
ordered a tea spoonful of something with Lichen in
it, he ordered me to rest."3
Early in September, Chopin's physicians held a
Special Report
consultation; Drs. Cruveilhier and Louis (another of
Chopin's physicians) had invited Dr. Blacke, a fa¬
mous pediatrician, to confer with them. Chopin
wrote of the pediatrician's presence: "He will help
me most, for there is in me something of a child."69
The only output we know of this consultation is that
it was decided that the patient was too ill to travel out
of Paris.
By mid September, Mr. Norwid (a close friend)
came to visit Chopin in Chaillot and described his
visit: "I found him dressed but reclining on his bed
with swollen legs, then in voice broken by his
coughing and choking, he began to reproach he me for
not having come to him for such a long time; had
fits of coughing. .he said farewell to me and he
pressing my hand, threw his hair back from his
forehead and said: T am going. .' and began to
cough. Upon hearing this, I kissed him on the arm
.
and knowing that he was pleased when sharply
contradicted, I said, Tou have been going in this way
every year, and yet, thank God, we still see you alive.'
To this Chopin finishing the sentence that was
interrupted by the coughing said, T am saying I am
going to leave this apartment and move to the place
Vendome.'"13 Late in September, Chopin moved to
his last apartment at 12 Place Vendome.
The Last Days
The accounts of Chopin's last days, even if we
confine ourselves to those given by eye witnesses, are
a mesh of contradictions that is not wholly possible to
disentangle.
In the first days of October 1849, Chopin's condi¬
tion was such that when unsupported, he could not
sit upright and was very breathless. He lived in this
apartment for no more than three weeks. Liszt said
later that new actually arrived on the day
furniture
he died.3
Chopin wrote a few days before his death: "As this
earth will suffocate me, I implore you to have my
body open so that I may not be buried alive." When
Chopin's death approached, he took on severe
cramps. On the night of October 12th, it seemed that
his death was imminent. Dr. Cruveilhier sent for
Father Alexander (Abbe Alexander Jelowicki, a Pol¬
ish priest), who came at once. The following day, St.
Edward's day, the priest came back and was sur¬
prised to be invited by Chopin to have breakfast with
him; the patient's condition seemed to have im¬
proved.
Accounts of this encounter were later recalled by
Father Alexander. The priest handed him a crucifix
and knelt beside him; Chopin made his confession,
asked for the sacrament, and then called his friends
back to the room. Princess Marcelina began to recite
the litany for the dying, which others repeated after
her.1'3'11
Chopin's tears ran down his cheeks and he asked
for some music. Princess Marcelina (one of many
wealthy lady friends) and Mr. Franchomme began to
play the Sonata in G minor, but after the first few
measures, the music had to defer to a coughing fit.
This dying agony went on for 4 days, during which
Chopin remained conscious most of the time.
On the evening of October 15th, 1849, Chopin felt
worse; in the night he could not speak because of
sudden hoarseness, and he lost consciousness at
times. The following day, he made some last instruc¬
tions regarding his manuscripts and personal papers.
He told his sister Ludwika that he wished his heart to
be taken to Warsaw and expressed a wish that
Mozart's Requiem should be sung at his funeral
mass.
During the night he was troubled with convulsions
(the nature and etiology of which are not clear) and
severe pain. At eleven o'clock he withdrew his hand
from Dr. Cruveilhier's and would not let him take his
pulse, saying, "It is not worth the trouble Doctor
.soon I'll rid you of me."11 Then he fell asleep until
midnight; when he awakenedstill.andThechoked with
coughing, his face was dark and doctor bent
over him with a candle and asked him whether he
He replied, "no more" in a barely
was in pain.
perceptible voice.11
A convulsive sleep came over him and lasted until
October 17th. At 2 am, a cold sweat ran profusely
from his brow, and after a brief loss of consciousness,
he asked who was near him and kissed the hand of
Gutmann after receiving his answer. Chopin died at
two o'clock in the morning on October 17th, 1849.
Dr. Cruveilhier confirmed the death. The cause of
death was given in his death certificate as "tubercu¬
losis of the lungs and larynx." Mr. Gavard reported
that "Chopin's face, which was blackened in the last
days, returned to its normal color soon after death."11
Later that day, a man from the art gallery named Mr.
Clesinge came and took casts of the dead man's face
and hands. Chopin's closest friends reported that the
physical condition of Chopin was not the outcome of
a newly contracted disease but only an acuter phase
of that old disease from which he had suffered for
over 12 years and which he probably inherited from
his father,1 who died of a chest and heart complaint.
His funeral was reported in Paris's Daily News on
November 2nd, 1849: "The doors of the Church of
Madeleine were opened at eleven o'clock on Tues¬
day 30th ofand at noon, the vast area was filled by an
assembly nearly four thousand people, all was ofwhom
received special invitation." Chopin's body bur-
CHEST/ 113/1 /JANUARY, 1£ 213
ied in the cemetery of Pere Lachaise; his heart was
sent back to Poland and placed in the church of
Sainte Croix at Warsaw.
Post Mortem
This analysis was carried out by Dr. Cruveilhier,
but this document was never found. Speculation
suggests that it might have been destroyed in the
great fires of Paris in 1871 or during the two world
wars.
Jane Stirling, response letter from Liszt,
in a to a
quoted Dr. Cruveilhier as saying that "the autopsy
did nothing to disclose the cause of death, but it
appeared
heart. It
that the lungs were affected less than the
is a disease that I have never encountered
before." Ludwika Chopin later reported Dr. Cru¬
veilhier as saying that "the autopsy did nothing to
disclose the cause of death. .nevertheless he could
not have survived. .diverse pathology. .enlarged
.
heart. .did not disclose pulmonary consumption
. .
.lung changes of many year duration. .a disease
was not previously encountered."9
.
Differential Diagnoses
Summary of Chopin s symptoms. (1) Recurrent
respiratory complaints (coughing, breathlessness, he¬
Figure 3. Cast of Chopin's
214
moptysis, cyanosis), which seem to have started in
the patient's teens; (2) Systemic complaints (poor
exercise tolerance, tiredness, emaciation, failure to
gain weight, pallor, pigmentation, peripheral edema,
muscle wasting, and icterus); (3) GI symptoms (di¬
arrhea, fatty food intolerance, hematemesis); and (4)
no finger clubbing (Fig 3). The most prominent
feature of Chopin's illness was the respiratory com¬
of his condition (adjunct to that is a possible
ponent
GI etiology).
conditions:
This could be caused by the following
Emphysema. (Dilation of air spaces distal to the
terminal bronchioles with destruction of their walls.)
The two common causes of this disease are smoking,
which is not applicable in Chopin's case because he
developed his condition early in life and as far as we
know did not smoke, and a1-antitrypsin (cqAT)
deficiency: this is a genetic metabolic deficiency
caused by the lack of the protease inhibitor c^AT.
The g^AT gene has been mapped to the distal
portion of the long arm of chromosome 14.12 It is
associated with degenerative lung disease (panacinar
emphysema, bronchiectasis, chronic bronchitis, and
recurrent bronchopulmonary infections), liver cir¬
rhosis, neonatal hepatitis, failure to thrive, and pan¬
creatic insufficiency. The common deficiency is as¬
sociated with the ZZ phenotype,13 but only 70 to
hand, taken after his death, shows no finger clubbing.
Special Report
80% of homozygotes develop symptomatic respira¬
tory disease.14 The incidence ofthe presence of this
phenotype is around 1:1,000 in Western Europe,
while the number of heterozygous carriers is around
4% ofthe population; both are at an increased risk of
developing respiratoryis problems.
This, we believe, a very credible diagnosis. It
would explain Emilia's death at the age of 14 from
massive upper GI hemorrhage secondary to portal
hypertension caused by liver cirrhosis. It would also
account for Chopin's recurrent chest infection,
weight loss, and GI symptoms, all of which were
chronic and early in onset.
However, it is worthy of note that a history of
chronic diarrhea associated with axAT deficiency-
induced pancreatic insufficiency was not obvious.
Furthermore, should oqAT deficiency be the cause
of Chopin and Emilia's deaths, it is surprising that
portal hypertension giving rise to variceal bleeding
was not associated with jaundice or ascites. However,
the absence of these signs does not exclude the
possibility of this diagnosis.
Rronchiectasis. This is a pathological dilatation of
the airways associated with respiratory infections in
childhood, especially whooping cough, measles, and
TB. The following are causes of bronchiectasis:
1. axAT deficiency (see above).
2. Cystic fibrosis (CF): this is a multi-system disorder
associated with bronchial obstruction due to inspissated
mucus. It is one of the most common autosomal
recessive diseases (incidence of 1:2,000, with 1:22 of
the general population being carriers).16 This condition
commonly is associated with recurrent pneumonia.
Death from overwhelming infection and cor pulmonale
(right heart failure) occurs in the first decade of the
child's life. This was especially true in the pre-antibiotic
era. The exocrine gland dysfunction leads to pancreatic
insufficiency, causing diarrhea (steatorrhea). Liver cir¬
rhosis, polyarthropathy, and infertility are uncommon
complications of CF. and It is possible to explain most of
Chopin's symptoms signs by CF, but it seems
unlikely that Chopin had CF, since survival of patients
with this disorder beyond a very early age was very rare
in the pre-antibiotic era. It is worthy of note, however,
that CF is a disease of variable severity, and therefore
it is possible that Chopin had a milder form of this
disease.
3. Hypogammaglobulinemia (congenital and ac¬
quired), the primary form of which is an X-linked
autosomal recessive disease, characterized by selective
deficiency of B lymphocytes, resulting in immunoglob¬
ulin deficiency. The patient tends to be susceptible to
recurrent bacterial infections, which may explain
Chopin's recurrent chest infections, but not his GI
symptoms. Furthermore, one would expect patients
with this disease to develop other infections involving
the skin, the soft tissues, the throat, and other areas
susceptible to bacterial colonization. We do not believe
that Chopin had this disease, because his disease was
invariably limited to the chest and the GI tract.
4. Pulmonary TB: it could be argued that Emilia
(Chopin's sister) suffered from TB, though that
would not explain her death from massive GI hem¬
orrhage. This may have resulted in transmission to
her brother. However, it seems unlikely that with no
treatment, someone would have over 24 years of
recurrent tubercular infection. Chopin's hemoptysis
could have been caused by TB, but the lack of finger
clubbing and recurrent hematemesis tend to suggest
a different diagnosis. Chopin's doctors, including Dr.
Cruveilhier, seemed to be convinced that he suffered
from consumption, but it is worthy of note that
although Dr. Cruveilhier's post mortem report was
never found, the second hand reports of its contents
seem to suggest that he was persuaded that his
patient did not have TB. If this was the case, his
belief must be taken seriously because he was an
authority in pathological anatomy and TB.
5. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, a disease
that occurs due to sensitivity to the fungus Aspergillus
fumigatus: this organism thrives in warm, wet condi¬
tions, and therefore its symptoms tend to occur in
Autumn. This disease may occur as simple, asthmatic¬
like attacks, but eventually it leads to eosinophilic
infiltrates with consolidation. Mucus impaction can
lead to proximal bronchiectasis and upper zone fibrosis.
It often occurs early in a patient's adult life as worsen¬
ing asthma associated with production of rubbery
brown or green sputum plugs and is treated in modern
medicine by prednisolone. This disease would explain
Chopin's respiratory symptoms well, but may not ex¬
plain his other disorders or easily explain his early
demise. Moreover, wheezing appeared not to have
been prominent in Chopin's complaints and would
have been in a patient with allergic aspergillosis. There
are other, less common causes of bronchiectasis (Kart-
agener's syndrome and pulmonary fibrosis) that we do
not believe Chopin had.
Long-term complications of chronic lung disease
Pulmonary
1. hypertrophic osteoarthropathy: this
is clubbing of the fingers, painful swelling of distal
joints, and soft tissue swelling. may
It be caused by
bronchial cancer, emphysema, or bronchiectasis.
This condition may explain Chopin's pains in his
hands, ankles, and feet, but it is worth noting that
finger clubbing was not evident in the casts made of
Chopin's hands.
2. Infertility: despite Chopin's several sexual en¬
counters and a relationship with George Sand lasting
11 years, Chopin never fathered a child.
CHEST/113/1 /JANUARY, 1998 215
 3. Poor exercise tolerance, failure to gain weight.
All of the above signs and symptoms were present
in Chopin's illness, but it is fair to note that such
complaints are also commonly associated with
chronic states of ill health of different etiologies and
are not necessarily specific to respiratory disorders.
Other explanations of Chopin s symptoms
Mitral stenosis. This is almost always the conse¬
quence of rheumatic fever (which Chopin could have
had during childhood, though we have no evidence
to that effect). This disease may result in poor
exercise tolerance, recurrent chest infections,
breathlessness, orthopnea, palpitations, weight loss,
and cachexia. We cannot conclude that Chopin had
mitral stenosis from the evidence we have; it is
unlikely thatItthis disease occurs as early a patient's
teen years. is also difficult to believe that one
would survive 22 years of pulmonary hemorrhage
secondary to mitral stenosis. It is also difficult to
account for Chopin's GI complaints if he only had
mitral stenosis.
Tricuspid valve incompetence. This often presents
with distended pulsatile tender liver, portal hyper¬
tension (which Chopin could have had and which
would account for his hematemesis) secondary to
esophageal varices, gastric varices, or portal hyper¬
tensive gastropathy and with fatigue, peripheral
edema, abdominal pain, and jaundice.
We do not believe that Chopin had tricuspid valve
incompetence because the natural history of this
disease is not compatible with his case presentation,
and the lack of jaundice or ascites adds more doubt
to this diagnosis.
Churg-Strauss syndrome, chronic lung abscess
formation, pulmonary hemosiderosis, and pulmonary
arteriovenous malformation are all rare but possible
diagnoses.
Conclusions
We believe that Chopin's diagnosis could be nar¬
rowed down to either a mild form of CF or axAT
216
deficiency because these two conditions could ex¬
plain his chronic ill health and early death. They may
also explain his sister's death at the age of 14. The
argument for the latter disease is a little more
persuasive than the former. Ultimately, readers will
have to make up their own minds about the real
causes of Chopin's illnesses and early death, but we
hope that this review will shed more light on the
matter.
The name of Chopin conjures up an image of a
sentimental artist, one of the giants of the musical
Romantic Period. His music became a symbol of his
personal tragedy and sometimes a protestation
against the restraints that his chronic ill health
inflicted upon him.
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London: William Reevers Publisher, 1877; 28-66
3 Murdoch W. Chopin: his life. New York: McMillan, 1934
4 Marek G. Chopin. New York: Harper and Row, 1979
5 Karasowski M. Life and letters of Chopin. London: William
Reevers Publisher, 1879
6 Bone A. Sir James Hedderick. Glasgow: John Smith Publish¬
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7 Wierzynski C (translated by Nortbert Guterman). The life
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9 Heldey A. Selected correspondence of Chopin. London:
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