LECTURE 2: HOMEOSTASIS

 Homeostasis is the relatively constant internal condition required for life. Physiological
variables of the internal environment are carefully regulated within set point ranges.
Significant deviations in the internal health environment are dangerous to health.
 Normal values of arterial blood pH is 7.35-7.45. Fasting blood glucose is 80-100 mg/dl
 Plasma electrolytes: 1. Calcium – necessary for muscle contraction, nerve function,
blood clotting, cell division, healthy bones and teeth. 2. Chloride – maintains fluid balance in
the body. 3. Potassium – regulates heart contraction, helps maintain fluid balance. 4.
Magnesium – necessary for muscle contraction, nerve function, heart rhythm, bone
strength, generating energy, and building protein.
 Cholesterol is a biomarker of cardiovascular disease. A total cholesterol below 200 mg/dl is
desirable, between 200-239 mg/dl is borderline high, and from 240 mg/dl and above is high.
 Sensors (receptor) monitor the variable and responds when it deviates from its normal set
point. Control center coordinates a response to a variable that is out of balance. Effectors
carry out the response that brings the variable back to its normal set point. The interaction
of these components is called a negative feedback loop.
 Nervous System participates in homeostasis by using electric impulses to 1. Relay signals
from sensors to command center in brain, 2. Regulate responses of the effectors (muscles
and glands), 3. Response time is very rapid.
 Endocrine system participates in homeostasis by using chemical signals. Signals are in the
form of chemicals called hormones. Effectors are called target cells. Endocrine regulation of
homeostasis often relies on two antagonistic hormones, one that raises the variable and
one that lowers it. Endocrine regulation tends to be slower and more prolonged.
 [variable is too high – receptor – signals may be nerve impulses or chemicals – control
center – effector – effector may be a muscle or a gland]
 Thermoregulation: The control of Body Temperature (36-38 oC/98.6oF): Hyperthermia is
abnormally elevated body temperature. Hypothermia is abnormally low body temperature.
Both life-threatening conditions that result when thermoregulatory mechanisms fail.
 How do we respond to cold temperatures?: shivering – rapid muscle contractions generate
heat. Peripheral vasoconstriction – move blood away from skin to conserve heat. Changes in
behavior include seeking heat sources and changes in clothing.
 How do we respond to hot temperatures?: sweating – evaporation of sweat reduces the
temp of skin. Peripheral vasodilatation – move blood to skin to dissipate heat. Changes in
behavior include seeking shade, fanning air, and changes in clothes.
 Temperature receptors (sensors) are located in the skin and spinal cord. The control center
in the hypothalamus of the brain. Effectors are muscles(shivering, movement), sweat
glands, and blood vessels in skin. The homeostatic mechanism for controlling body
temperature is regulated by the nervous system.
 Regulation of blood glucose: Normal set point range is 80-100 mg/100 ml blood.
Hyperglycemia is the higher than normal levels of glucose in the blood, experienced
typically after a sugar-rich meal. Hypoglycemia is the lower than normal levels of glucose in
the blood, experienced typically after a fast. Both can be life threatening conditions.
 Response to Hyperglycemia: Sensor and control center for glucose regulation are cells in the
pancreas called B(beta) cells of the islets of Langerhans. Hormone called insulin is released.
Effectors are all cells, but mostly muscles, liver and fat. Causes increase in uptake of use of
glucose for energy and storage (glycogen and fat). Blood glucose levels fall.
 Response to Hypoglycemia: Sensor and control center for glucose regulation are cells in the
pancreas called A(alpha) cells of Islets of Langerhans. Hormone is called glucagon is
released. Effector target is liver. Liver breaks down glycogen to glucose and releases it.
Glucose levels rise. Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones.
 Two types of feedback loops: A negative feedback loop reverses the direction of the change
of the variable – it stabilizes a condition to maintain homeostasis. An increase in the
variable causes a response that decreases the variable. A positive feedback loop accelerates
a change in the same direction – it destabilizes a condition. An increase in the physiological
variable causes a response that further increases the variable.
 Positive Feedback Loop: Anti-homeostasis – does not stabilize a condition. The change
(stimulus) initiates the loop. The response intensifies the stimulus, which in turn intensifies
the response. The condition accelerates away from a set point. The loop ends only when
there is removal of the original stimulus and the cycle is broken. (Think of childbirth)