International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Transportation

Science and Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijtst

Application of permeable pavements in highways for

stormwater runoff management and pollution prevention:
California research experiences
Masoud Kayhanian a,b, Hui Li b,c,⇑, John T. Harvey a,b, Xiao Liang c
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, United States
b
University of California Pavement Research Center (UCPRC), Davis and Berkeley, United States
c
College of Transportation Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the future, permeable pavements including the full depth permeable pavement (FDPP)
Received 22 October 2018 will be part of an integrated sustainable transportation program. When designed properly,
Received in revised form 15 January 2019 FDPP can be used as an alternative best management practice (BMP) for stormwater runoff
Accepted 17 January 2019
management. From a practical point of view, FDPP must maintain specific characteristics
Available online 2 February 2019
throughout the life of the pavements: (1) have adequate subgrade reservoir capacity to
capture runoff volume, (2) surface pavement remain highly permeable and unclogged,
Keywords:
(3) allowing minimum permeability of subgrade soil to infiltrate the captured runoff,
Stormwater runoff management
Permeable pavement
and (4) assuring no adverse impact on underground water. During the past ten years the
Hydraulic performance University of California Pavement Research Center (UCPRC) conducted numerous research
Water quality studies to address some of the above critical questions related to the application of perme-
Clogging able pavement with respect to the highway stormwater runoff management. The focus of
this paper is to discuss and summarize the major findings of these collective studies related
to: (1) hydraulic performance evaluation of permeable pavement, (2) permeability mea-
surement of porous asphalt and pervious concrete paved surfaces, (3) clogging evaluation
of permeable pavement surfaces, and (4) water quality and pollution control issues.
Ó 2019 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

In many parts of the world, direct discharge of stormwater runoff generated from urban roads and highways into natural
water bodies is prohibited in order to protect their quality. For this reason, the municipalities including the transportation
agencies are obligated to use the ‘‘best management practices” (BMPs) to collect the road runoff and treat it before discharg-
ing it into the environment. The implementation of commonly available BMPs on urban highways is challenging and some-
times impractical due to the lack of adequate right-of-way land availability. Even when space is available, collecting and
treating large volumes of polluted runoff generated from impermeable urban highways is often cost prohibitive. Hence,
the current conventional stormwater runoff management in urban areas will not be practical or sustainable. In addition, with

Peer review under responsibility of Tongji University and Tongji University Press.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hli@tongji.edu.cn (H. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2019.01.001
2046-0430/Ó 2019 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372 359

more stringent environmental regulations in the future, many municipalities in urban areas may be forced or encouraged to
switch from the current impermeable paved surfaces to a greener urban surface evolution through the implementation of
permeable paved surfaces (Weiss et al., 2017). Compared to conventional impermeable paved surfaces, permeable pave-
ments (particularly full depth permeable pavement) provide multiple sustainability benefits including environmental,
socioeconomic, and human health benefits (see Table 1).
To advance the knowledge gap and to fulfill their ultimate objective of implementing permeable pavements in the high-
way environment, the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) performed numerous research projects through
the Pavement Research Center and the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of California,
Davis. While multiple research projects were conducted on materials property, including cool pavements and the structural
evaluation of permeable pavements, the focus of this paper is the summary findings and knowledge gained on research
topics related to permeable pavements pertinent to stormwater runoff management and water quality issues. Specific topics
assessed in this paper include: (i) role of permeable pavements with respects to stormwater runoff management, (ii) hydrau-
lic performance evaluation of permeable pavement, (iii) permeability measurement of porous asphalt and pervious concrete
paved surfaces, (iv) clogging evaluation of permeable pavement surfaces, and (v) water quality and pollution control issues.

2. Role of permeable pavements with respects to stormwater runoff management

Permeable pavements reported in the literature, generally refers to the ‘‘full depth permeable pavement”. It is also com-
mon to construct a thin layer (5–8 cm) of permeable pavement (usually asphalt) on top of an existing conventional imper-
meable paved surfaces; known as porous friction course (PFC). PFC pavements are usually used for noise reduction in urban
areas, while it might also provide safety benefits during rain events, and some water quality benefits. In PFC pavements how-
ever, nearly all runoffs are laterally discharged to roadways right-of-way through sublayer of permeable pavement without
any stormwater runoff volume management.
Full depth permeable pavement (FDPP) consist multiple permeable layers and the subsurface layers have the ability to
capture and store stormwater until it infiltrates into the subgrade native soil and eventually into the groundwater. FDPPs
are designed and constructed as porous asphalt, pervious concrete, or interlocking concrete pavers with some variations
in mixed design and layer’s depth as shown in Fig. 1. As can be noted, a typical cross-section generally consists of the surface
permeable pavement (asphalt, concrete or interlocking pavers) on top of a choker coarse conforming to AASHTO No. 57 spec-
ifications and/or a filter course of poorly graded sand, a stone subbase reservoir bed, and uncompacted or moderately com-
pacted (light to medium) subgrade. In some FDPP construction, non-woven geotextile fabric is added to separate the
reservoir bed with subgrade soil and occasionally (if needed) an underdrain pipe may be added to discharge the overflow
to a nearby storm drain or ‘right-of- way’ hydraulic infrastructure. Because FDPP retain the stormwater runoff volume
and the related pollutants mass within the pavement system, it is considered as a best management practice (BMP) and/
or as a low impact development (LID) design for stormwater management. The function of FDPP with respect to hydrologic
performance, surface permeability and clogging issues, and water quality benefits are discussed below.

3. Hydraulic performance evaluation

An optimal FDPP design is one that is strong enough to handle design traffic loads at the design speed while at the same
time assuring an adequate storage capacity for capturing the runoff volume and infiltrating it within designed drawdown
time per stormwater management objectives. From the hydrological point of view, if the surface of FDPP is well maintained,
infiltration through the surface of the pavement will not be limiting. Thus, hydrologic design is typically based on the storage
capacity provided by the FDPP to temporarily store the required designed stormwater event runoff volume. The storage
capacity of the entire FDPP system includes the capacity within the permeable pavement layer, the capacity within the base

Table 1
Comparison of various parameters related to full depth permeable pavement (FDPP) and conventional pavements.

Parameter Impacting factor Full depth permeable pavement (FDPP)a Conventional pavement
Construction Structural capacity Low High
Hydrologic Vertical permeability High Very low
Water storage High Very low
Surface over flow Low High
Environmental Pollution type Point and non-point sourceb Point and non-point sourceb
Pollution level Low High
Noise level Lowc High
Energy Heat island effect Medium High
Economic Initial cost Medium/highd Lowd
a
Include full depth permeable pavement for highway shoulder retrofit.
b
Point and non-point source pollution generated from transportation and non-transportation activities, respectively.
c
Pervious concrete pavement will be noisier compared with porous asphalt.
d
Based on life-cycle cost analysis (initial cost may be higher, but overall cost for the life of pavement is low).
360 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372

Pervious conrete paved surface Porous asphalt pave surface

Small stone open-graded granular base Small stone open-graded granular base

Large stone open-graded granular base Large stone open-graded granular base

Medium or light compacted subgrade Medium or light compacted subgrade

To underground water To underground water

(a) Pervious concrete (b) Porous asphalt

Bedding layer
Impermeable
cocrete paver
Small stone open-graded granular base

Large stone open-graded granular base

Gravel between
pavers
Medium or light compacted subgrade

To underground water

(c) Permeable interloking concrete pavers

Fig. 1. Typical cross sections of different permeable pavements with various mixed design and depth layers constructed in different parts of the world.

course and, in some circumstances, it may also include underground storage tanks. In general, the hydrologic design process
determines the required thickness of the layers within the permeable pavement system so that the pavement system will
have the capacity to temporarily store runoff volume from the design storm event. Once obtained, the subgrade aggregate
layers thickness is compared to the thickness obtained from the structural design procedure and the more conservative value
(i.e. thicker) is selected for final design. Additionally, permeable pavement systems should also be designed so that they can
infiltrate or drain the design runoff volume from the system within the desired drawdown time (e.g. 48 hrs). The infiltration
capacity of the subgrade is therefore an important design factor because it could be the limiting rate in the performance eval-
uation of the FDPP system. Another important factor in the hydrologic design process that may be considered in colder areas
is the concern associated with freeze–thaw damage. In this case the minimum required design thickness of subbase to pro-
tect against freeze–thaw damage is that which allows the maximum water surface elevation to be contained within the sub-
base when the design storm is routed through the system.
While FDPPs have been used in parking lots and light traffic and low speed roads in urban and non-urban areas, their
application for high volume traffic with heavy vehicles load and higher speeds in the highway environment has not been
fully tested. In the future, as part of a sustainable transportation system, it is expected that some transportation agencies
may adapt the use of FDPPs for highway shoulders; especially for a more efficient and cost-effective methods of stormwater
runoff management for highways. Under FDPP shoulder design concept, the highway traffic lanes are designed and con-
structed based on the impermeable conventional pavement, but the shoulders are designed as FDPP and separated by a
non-permeable fabric to prevent the movement of captured stormwater into the subgrade of highway traffic areas (see
Fig. 2). Several studies were performed by the University of California Pavement Research Center for the California Depart-
ment of Transportation (Caltrans) to determine the technical feasibility of the application of FDPP for highway shoulders. To
fulfill the primary objective of the study, both laboratory and simulation studies were performed to evaluate the structural
design and hydraulic performance of porous asphalt and pervious concrete pavements under medium speed and heavy
 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372 361

Impervious concrete
or Full depth
asphalt pavement permeable
pavement
shoulder

Underground water
Native soil

HMA-O, PCC-O
or ICP-O
Li Lp

Semi-compacted or
Conventional compacted soil
Impervious concrete or
asphalt pavement Impermeable
geomembrane barrier Open graded
aggregate

Fig. 2. A conceptual full depth permeable pavement shoulder design for urban roads and highways stormwater runoff management (note: for simulation
study, the width of permeable shoulder (Lp) is assumed to be the same width of a single highway lane (Li).

traffic loads (Kayhanian et al., 2010; Li et al., 2012; Jones et al., 2010). The main focus of the study was to determine the
minimum required aggregate depth to retain the specific design stormwater runoff volume. The results obtained from sim-
ulations studies is summarized in Table 2. As shown, minimum of 0.15 m to maximum of 2.9 m aggregate base thickness
would be sufficient to capture all rainfall volume over the course of a rainy season in all three geographical regions of study
areas in California. The required minimum aggregate thickness in high rainfall regions (northern California) is about 50 per-
cent more than the minimum aggregate thickness required for medium rainfall regions. (central California). Similarly, longer
recurrence periods (50- and 100-year) require thicker bases compared with 2-year recurrence periods. The change in aggre-
gate thickness for 50- and 100-year recurrence periods was insignificant.
Other significant findings were: (i) subgrade soil saturated hydraulic conductivity be higher than 3.6 m/h, otherwise it
would require larger aggregate thickness which will make it impractical, (ii) increase in highway surface area [(represented
by a geometric parameter q, (q = 4 means 3 highway lanes being drained)] from two to four lanes increases the required
aggregate thickness by 100 percent, (iii) the difference in levels of subgrade soil compaction was less significant than sub-
grade soil conductivity and saturated soil moisture content, (iv) the initial water content of the various layers (including the
subgrade) must be factored into the calculation of critical aggregate base thickness and failure to do this will result in poten-
tial overflows during prolonged rainfall events, (v) FDPP designs should be based on a minimum of one-year simulations and
not 24-hour simulations to limit the number of potential overflow events, (vi) void contents in the surface and aggregate
base course need to be carefully designed for actual storm events (not maximum possible permeability) to ensure a balance
between permeability and structural bearing capacity.
Based on the simulations results obtained from the UPRC (Jones et al., 2010; Kayhanian et al., 2010; Lin et al., 2012) and a
separate study performed by Hein et al. (2013), Izevbekhai and Akkari (2011) and Lebens and Troyer (2012), the technical
feasibility and the suitability of FDPP for highway shoulders as an alternative to traditional stormwater BMP was conformed.
In addition, life-cycle cost analysis of FDPP for highway shoulders compared to conventional stormwater BMPs showed that
fully permeable pavements for shoulder retrofits are cost-effective. It is important to note that the simulation results alone
may not be used as a basis for designing a new or retrofitting full depth permeable pavement shoulder. For practical purpose,
the simulation results must be verified with a pilot testing under realistic load and traffic condition.
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Table 2
Summary of critical aggregate thickness for 24 hrs natural rainfall under various scenarios.

Rainfall region Subgrade soil permeability (m/hr) Storm return period (yrs) Rainfall total volume (mm)a Critical aggregate
base (stormwater
storage reservoir)
thickness, (m)
q valueb
3 4 5
Northern California 0.36 2 114 1.00 1.33 1.65
3.6 0.90 1.27 1.57
36 0.65 0.85 1.20
0.36 50 152 1.33 1.75 2.15
3.6 1.27 1.72 2.10
36 0.85 1.30 1.77
0.36 100 203 1.75 2.30 2.90
3.6 1.72 2.28 2.85
36 1.30 1.89 2.50
Central California 0.36 2 58 0.55 0.70 0.78
3.6 0.45 0.60 0.70
36 0.18 0.25 0.42
0.36 50 97 0.78 1.05 1.30
3.6 0.70 1.00 1.25
36 0.42 0.68 0.95
0.36 100 109 0.90 1.15 1.47
3.6 0.80 1.10 1.43
36 0.50 0.75 1.07
Southern California 0.36 2 52 0.40 0.58 0.70
3.6 0.38 0.48 0.68
36 0.15 0.32 0.40
0.36 50 115 0.86 1.30 1.60
3.6 0.84 1.18 1.55
36 0.70 0.95 1.35
0.36 100 130 1.05 1.50 1.80
3.6 1.02 1.30 1.75
36 0.85 1.20 1.45
a
Design storm total rainfall data source: NOAA Atlas 2 and 14.
b
q = 1 + Li/Lp (for example, q = 3, 4, or 5 represent highways with 2, 3 or 4 lanes, respectively).

4. Permeability measurements

Until recently, there was no standard method available to measure the permeability of permeable pavements. However,
national Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) developed a permeameter (see Fig. 3a) that is commonly used for the per-
meability measurement of porous asphalt pavements. In 2009, the ASTM developed the standard method ASTM C1701
(see Fig. 3b) to measure the permeability of pervious concrete. Detail description of the both methods for the measurement
of permeable pavements can be obtained from Kayhanian et al. (2009) and Li et al. (2013). Findings of permeability measure-
ments from various studies performed at UCPRC is summarized below.

Fig. 3. NCAT and ASTM C1701 permeameters used for field permeability measurements of permeable pavements (note: the NCAT permeameter usually
come with two additional smaller cylindrical tiers on top of the two-cylinder tiers shown, but that is only used for impermeable conventional asphalt
pavements and hence is not needed for highly permeable pavements).
 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372 363

4.1. Comparison of permeability measured by NCAT permeameter and standard method C1701

The principal objective of this part of the study was to compare the permeability values of field test sections comprised of
porous asphalt and pervious concrete pavements using both the ASTM C1701 and NCAT methods (Kayhanian et al., 2008).
The permeability tests were performed on 4 m by 4 m test sections constructed at the UCPRC test facilities in Davis, Califor-
nia. The test sections include open-graded asphalt concrete and pervious concrete. For each permeable pavement surface
type, two different designs were constructed. Both of the porous asphalt sections had the same surface material; the differ-
ence was in the thicknesses of the layers. The two pervious concrete sections had different thicknesses and different concrete
surface material mix designs and the aggregate gradations. Permeability measurements were performed at five different
locations on each section (upper left corner, upper right corner, lower left corner, lower right corner and in the center). Three
permeability measurements were performed at each location for both methods.
It is important to note that an accurate permeability measurement under field conditions is required to have a tight and
secure permeameter with pavement surface to ensure that there is no water leakage. Both the NCAT and the ASTM C1701
methods specify the use of plumbing putty to prevent water leakage. However, our initial field measurements verified that
plumbing putty does not adequately prevent water leakage (Kayhanian et al., 2009; Li et al., 2013). To effectively seal the
interface between the permeameters and the permeable pavements we found Ecoflex 5 silicone rubber by Smooth-OnÒ
to be a better alternative for preventing water leakage.
The results obtained from this part of the study showed that: (1) both the ASTM C1701 and the NCAT methods can effec-
tively be used to measure the permeability of all pavement surface types. Hence, mix design and binder type will not sig-
nificantly impact the measurement precision. (2) permeability measured with the ASTM C1701 method was more
conservative and generally the measurement values were at least 50 lower than the values measured with the NCAT method.
While both ASTM and NCAT methods can be used for permeability measurements regardless of the pavement surfaces, the
results were not the same and these differences may be attributed by a number of fundamental differences in measurement
methods. Two notable differences were the permeameter ring size that have contact with pavement surfaces and whether
the operation is under constant head or falling head. Several experiments were performed to address these questions and the
results showed that when the ASTM C1701 permeameter cylinder diameter was reduced to 150 mm (closer to the diameter
of the lower ring size of NCAT permeameter), comparable permeability values were measured. Moreover, operating the rec-
ommended ASTM C1701 permeameter configuration under falling head (similar to the NCAT permeameter method) also
resulted in a comparable permeability values. Based on these findings, it is possible to obtain a better correlation of results
between the two methods when the bottom ring size in the NCAT permeameter and in the ASTM C1701 method is the same.
One additional notable constraint associated with the NCAT method during field permeability measurement is related to the
advance knowledge of pavement thickness that is needed as an input for permeability calculation. The pavement thickness
may not always be known or practical to measure under field condition. Even if the thickness is known, experience has
shown that the as-built pavement thickness may not always be uniform and hence the permeability measured within a spec-
ified pavement area may not be the same due to variation in pavement thickness. This problem is not an explicit issue with
the ASTM C1701 method.

4.2. Permeability measurements of porous asphalt and pervious concrete in parking lots

The objective of this part of the study was to measure permeability of selective porous asphalt and pervious concrete
pavements within parking lots throughout California. For this study 23 parking lots were selected in which 20 were porous
asphalt and 3 were pervious concrete. The reason that more porous asphalt parking lots were selected is due the fact that
majority of the permeable parking lot installations were the asphalt type. A total of five locations were tested within each
parking lot. The permeability was measured using NCAT permeameters as described in Section 4.1. For each parking lot, a
representative parking space was selected, and the permeability was measured on three locations within each parking space.
These three locations include the left wheel path (LWP), right wheel path (RWP) and the center of the same parking space
but shifted towards the back of the parking space to minimize interference from consecutive permeability tests. For each
location, three permeability measurement were made, and the average is recorded.
The average of all permeability results for each parking lot is summarized in Table 3. As shown, the field permeability
within parking lots varied widely. For example, the permeability in site PL17 is nearly 600 times greater than the permeabil-
ity in site PL6. Multiple factors can contribute to the variation in permeability results and these factors may include: traffic
volume, parking lot maintenance, level of cracking, amount of vegetation and debris, level of erosion, total sediment mass,
fine sediment (<38 lm) mass, average rainfall, and average temperature. The data associated with these factors were inde-
pendently collected from each site or obtained from existing sources. A regression statistical analysis was performed to
assess the influencing parameter on permeability measurement. The result of statistical analysis showed that the pavement
age and the fine particles (particles less than 38 lm) mass found to be a major factor that significantly influences the pave-
ment permeability value. In a few newly constructed parking lots, however, the permeability measurement was lower, and
this low permeability may be attributed by to their failed field construction due to a lack of standard design. Therefore,
proper pavement design and construction with regular maintenance may maintain the high permeability throughout the life
of parking lot.
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Table 3
Average permeability vales measured from different parking lots.

Parking lot Lot size (m2) Lot age (years) Average permeability within parking space (cm/s)
Pervious concrete
PL1 418 0.67 0.225
PL2 279 1.00 0.855
PL3 557 3.00 0.170
PL4 4645 3.00 0.023
PL5 4088 4.00 0.005
PL6 2787 4.00 0.003
PL7 557 4.50 0.037
PL8 1858 2.00 0.435
PL9 372 2.50 0.000
PL10 2323 6.50 0.003
PL11 2323 6.50 0.001
PL12 1524 8.00 0.001
PL13 492 0.92 0.476
PL14 186 1.50 0.632
PL15 465 0.17 0.187
PL16 465 1.60 0.037
PL17 279 3.00 1.817
PL18 4645 3.00 1.528
PL19 743 3.50 0.175
PL20 111 3.50 0.311
Porous asphalt
PL21 7432 4.00 0.560
PL22 465 2.00 0.700
PL23 1858 1.50 1.281

4.3. Permeability measurement of open-graded pavements operated under HVS

The objective of this part of the study was to determine the permeability of different open-graded friction course (OGFC)
pavements before and after heavy vehicle simulator (HVS) operation. The OGFCs were constructed based of different binder
materials and thickness and HVS simulations were performed under different load and repetition. The permeability was
measured using both the NCAT permeameter and standard ASTM C1701 method. The permeability was measured on differ-
ent locations within each HVS site. Three permeability measurements were made for each location and the average of the
three measurement was calculated.
To see the changes in permeability before and after HVS operation more clearly, the average permeability measurement
before and after HVS operation were presented graphically for each OGFC test track site. An example permeability measure-
ment for test track 653HB and 663HB operated under HVS with dual wheel path and single wheel path is shown in Figs. 4
and 5, respectively. From these two example results and other results (not shown here) obtained from this part of the study,
it was concluded that: (1) the individual permeability values measured under ASTM was generally lower than NCAT, (2) the
average permeability values after HVS testing were generally decreased in the range of 27–92% compared to the pre HVS
testing, (3) the majority of the reduction in permeability after HVS testing occurred within early loading repetition (500–
2000) and further reduced to near zero after 30,000 repetitions, and (4) the reduction in permeability was found to be mostly
due to rutting affect by vehicular loading as was simulated by HVS.

5. Clogging evaluation

To address the clogging issue, two separate investigations were performed at UCPRC. The first clogging investigation was
performed by evaluating core samples obtained from parking lots investigation described in Section 4.2. The second clogging
investigation was performed by evaluating core samples obtained from the field HVS test section of OGFC described in Sec-
tion 4.3. The results and discussions associated with these two clogging investigations are summarized below.

5.1. Parking lots core samples clogging evaluation

To evaluate the possible clogging of permeable pavements in parking lots, two representative core samples were obtained
from five parking lots that their permeability ranged from very low to high. Core samples were obtained using a portable
coring machine, which drilled 4-inch inner-diameter cores as shown in Fig. 6. Because these cores are from parking lots,
the typical core depth was between 4 to 6 inches. The conventional coring method was modified for these samples by sub-
stituting air for water to cool the drill bit. This modification was made in order to prevent the creation of slurry that may
interfere with the clogging investigation. To further reduce the effects on the void pathways by either the removal or the
introduction of particles, a non-permeable paper patch was glued to the pavement surface over the cored area so that the
air used to cool the drill bit could not pass through the cored sample and would pass around the core instead. The core sam-
 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372 365

Fig. 4. Permeability measurements for section 653HB before and after HVS testing based on single wheel path operation (BHVS = permeability before HVS
operation; AHVS = permeability after HVS operation; LWP = left wheel path; RWP = right wheel path; L = length of wheel path; W = width of wheel path).

ples were shipped to laboratory for computed topography scanning (CTS) evaluation. Each sample was scanned and analyzed
for determining the void ratio profile on the entire core sample depth.
Example porosity (void ratio) profile obtained from the scanning results analysis for two core samples is shown in Fig. 7.
From these porosity profiles, it can be clearly noted that there is slight difference between the porosity of upper surface com-
pared with the subsurface of the pavement. In general, the scanning profile of these and additional core samples obtained
from four parking lots showed that the porosity of the top surface was generally lower and there may be an indication of
clogging. While clogging generally appeared to be limited to the top layer (50 mm), in a few core samples the evidence of
clogging has been noticed in the mid layer (Manahiloh et al., 2012). Majority of the clogging in parking lots was associated
with small particles and debris. Although, it was not the focus of this study, however, because most reduction in porosity is
related to particles accumulation in upper pavement surface, the particles trapped in the top layer can be removed through
routine maintenance by vacuuming.

5.2. OGFCs core samples clogging evaluation

The objective of this part of the clogging investigation was twofold: (1) to evaluate the surface clogging of open-graded
asphalt friction course under rainfall simulation without subjecting them to traffic activities, and (2) to evaluate the clogging
of OGFCs operated under heavy vehicle simulator (HVS). For both clogging investigations, core samples were obtained, and
each core sample were scanned, and each scanning image was analyzed to prepare the porosity profile for clogging assess-
ment (see Fig. 8). Like, previous core sampling described in Section 5.1, air instead of water was used for cooling of cored
samples to eliminate the possible clogging of the cores with water/sediment slurry usually associated with coring with water
cooling. Each core sample was scanned and replaced to its original location using epoxy and procedures outlined in Coleri
et al. (2012). Following the HVS simulation the core samples were cored again and re-scanned (see Fig. 8). The air voids
(porosity) profiles of these scanned core samples were then compared with the original porosity profile of scanned samples
to assess possible clogging.
Particle related clogging was evaluated by comparing the differences in porosity (air void content) distributions of core
samples before and after rainfall simulations with known particle size distribution (PSD). An example porosity (air-void con-
tent) profile distributions of two OGFC cores before and after rainfall simulations is shown in Fig. 9a. Any change in air void
content after rainfall simulation can be viewed as air void clogging due to the particle addition. As expected from Fig. 9a,
particles did not penetrate into the dense graded layer and hence did not change the air-void distributions. As shown, gen-
erally most reduction in air-void ratio occurred at the bottom 4–6 mm section of the open-graded layer while air-void con-
tent of the upper 12 mm layer did not significantly change. This result suggests that most penetrated particles accumulated
at the bottom of open graded and the top of the dense graded layer. The majority of particle accumulation occurred in the
366 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372

Fig. 5. Permeability measurements for section 663HB before and after HVS testing based on single wheel path operation (BHVS = permeability before HVS
operation; AHVS = permeability after HVS operation; LWP = left wheel path; RWP = right wheel path; L = length of wheel path; W = width of wheel path).

Fig. 6. Photo view of portable coring operation in a parking lot.

 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372 367

Fig. 7. Example CTS profiles for porosity (void ratio) of two core samples from parking lot 4 (PL4) and parking lot 12 (PL12) (Note: depth 0 denote surface of
the core sample).

lower pavement section (generally below 10–15 mm) and hence the added particles during the rainfall simulation did not
affect the functionality of the permeable layer. As mention previously, these accumulated particles can be removed by
through regular maintenance by vacuuming.
The clogging due to the rutting effect was investigated by comparing the differences between the air-void content distri-
butions of cores before and after HVS testing. An example porosity (air-void content) profile distributions of two OGFC cores
before and after HVS testing is shown in Fig. 9b. As shown, a noticeable reduction in open-graded layers’ air-void content was
observed. Generally, the highest levels of air-void reduction were accumulated at the base of the open-graded layers. The
reduction in air-void content of the open-graded layer after HVS testing ranges from 10% to 30%. This excessive reduction
in air voids can create an impermeable layer and it might explain the considerable amount of loss in permeability measure-
ment after HVS operation reported in Section 4.3. The mechanism of evaluating the impact of air-void reduction on perme-
ability was not investigated in this study but could be further investigated by a numerical model of flow in the pore network
of core specimens taken before and after the rutting test (Gruber et al. 2012).

6. Water quality evaluation

As indicated before, one of the major benefits associated with the application of a full depth permeable pavement is the
improvement of the runoff water quality. Another major benefit is the minimization of the discharge of harmful pollutants to
368 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372

Fig. 8. Representative core sample and the related scanning image before and after rainfall simulation of HVS operation (adapted in part from Coleri et al.
(2013).

surface water bodies. When full depth permeable pavement shoulder design is considered the shoulder is generally designed
to capture the average designed storm events volume from highway surface. However, during rainfalls above designed storm
event, full depth permeable pavement may not be able to capture the entire runoff flow volume and there might be an over-
flow water. Hence, the two questions to be addressed are: (1) what would be the characteristics of the subgrade overflow
water? and (2) is the surface permeable pavement itself a source of pollution? Addressing these two questions are the focus
of this section.

6.1. Pollutant characteristics of subgrade overflow water

As designed, most full depth permeable pavement systems (including the full depth permeable pavement highway shoul-
ders) are constructed and operated to capture the average design storm. The captured water is usually stored in a subgrade
aggregate base and eventually infiltrates into the subgrade soil and finally enters into underground water. As previously
noted, the time to retain the water within the subgrade until full infiltration to subgrade soil (e.g., design drawdown times)
usually ranges from 48 to 72 h. Occasionally, however, depending on the nature of rainfall events and subgrade soil infiltra-
tion capacity, perforated pipes (i.e. drain tiles) are installed within the aggregate reservoir layer (above native subbase soil)
to allow the extra water to discharge to surface hydraulic infrastructures (i.e., drain inlet, infiltration swale, etc. . .). Therefore,
a majority of water quality characteristics (physical, chemical, and biological) that have been investigated and reported in
the literature are based on the sampling and analysis of discharged subgrade overflow.
With a few exceptions, generally findings from these literatures showed that the discharged overflow is cleaner than sur-
face runoff generated from impermeable pavement (Imran et al., 2013; Scholz, 2013; Drake et al., 2013). Majority of the
water quality benefits for particulate pollutants are achieved through soil filtration or adsorption. Degradation of organic
pollutants are achieved through biological microbial activity in the subgrade soil. For example, Fan et al. (2014) investigated
the microbial structure and activity in soil under several permeable pavements and the results indicated that the versatility
of microbial activities was related to the total organic carbon content of the pavements. In another laboratory study,
Mbanaso et al. (2013) investigated the effect of adding glyphosate-containing herbicides on hydrocarbon retention and
biodegradation within permeable pavements. The authors noted that hydrocarbons stimulated populations of bacteria
and fungi and this increased the degradation of organic compounds.
 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372 369

Air void content Air void content

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
0 0

10 10

20 20

Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)
30 30

40 40

50 50

60 60

70 70
Before testing Before testing
After testing After testing
80 80

(a) Porosity profile of an (b) Porosity profile of an

example OFGC core sample example OFGC core sample
before and after rainfall before and after HVS
simulation simulation

Fig. 9. Example porosity profile of an OFGC core sample before and after HVS simulator operation.

Because of soil filtration and microbial activities within the subgrade soil, the transport of particulate pollutant and most
biodegradable organic contaminants to groundwater is unlikely. In addition, pervious concrete can raise the pH of infiltrated
water to values between up to 11. Because most metals are less soluble at higher pH’s, this may also cause metals to pre-
cipitate thereby protecting the quality of the underground water. Dissolved contaminants such as salt or nitrate that do
not appreciably adsorb to solids, however, may have an elevated potential for groundwater contamination. Salts can also
cause the leaching of metals through cation exchange. However, the good news is that with the application of permeable
pavements there will be none or less need for winter salt application.

6.2. Pollutants generated from permeable pavements itself

To address the question related to the type and concentration of pollutant generated from permeable pavement materials
itself, a controlled laboratory experimental apparatus was designed and fabricated (see Fig. 10). The experimental setup was
used to evaluate the leachate quality generated from a range of open-graded and dense graded asphalt and concrete pave-
ments specimens. Pavement surfacing materials tested include rubberized asphalt concrete open-graded (RAC-O), rubber-
ized asphalt concrete gap-graded (RAC-G), open-graded asphalt concrete (OGAC) and polymer-modified OGAC (two
binder sources each for OGAC and polymer-modified OGAC, resulting in four different binders), terminal-blend modified bin-
der gap-graded (MB-G), dense-graded asphalt concrete (DGAC), and portland cement concrete (PCC) mixes. For each of these
pavement materials, 9 specimens were prepared for testing at temperatures of 4, 20, and 45 °C with three replicates of each.
Additionally, one specimen of each asphalt pavement surfacing material was tested to address the influence of age on water
quality. A representative leachate sample was collected from the surface and subsurface and each leachate sample was eval-
uated for: pH, conductivity, turbidity, hardness as CaCO3, total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total
organic carbon (TOC), metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorous (TP), poly-aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs), oil and grease (O&G), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total organic carbon (TOC). In addition, a com-
posite leachate samples produced from all pavement specimens and was tested for toxicity.
The results of this control laboratory study showed that (Kayhanian et al., 2009): (1) the concentration of most organic
and inorganic chemical constituents generated from the leachate of specimens was below or within the reporting limit
(detection limit), (2) temperature did not significantly change the leachate pollutant concentration, (3) aging (heat treat-
ment) of the surfacing pavement materials did not contribute to additional pollutant concentration, (4) dissolved chemical
constituent concentrations (except concentrations of chromium) in leachate of all pavement types were generally negligible,
and (5) acute toxicity based on the survival of the waterflea species and Ceriodaphnia dubia was negligible for nearly all fresh
and aged leachate samples.
The dissolved chromium (Cr) detected in some concrete leachate samples was especially higher in the early-time leachate
samples and as the leaching testing continued, the concentration of Cr decreased to below or close to the detection limit. The
source of the chromium in concrete pavement was found to be cement as was further verified by a subsequent follow up
study (Kayhanian et al., 2010). This result from this part of the study indicated that the dissolved Cr concentration in hard-
ened pavement materials was substantially lower than the fresh specimen and hence the potential leachability of dissolved
370 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372

Fig. 10. Laboratory experimental apparatus used for the evaluation of the leachate characteristics produced from different open-graded and dense-graded
pavement specimens.

Cr from concrete pavement materials can be reduced through source control. The results also showed that the leachability of
dissolved Cr measured in actual highway runoff was found to be much lower than the Cr concentration produced from the
leachate produced under controlled laboratory study for both open and dense graded concrete pavement specimens.
The concentration of some selective water quality parameters measured during the controlled laboratory study from the
leachates of asphalt and concrete specimens are compared with the concentration of the same water quality parameters
measured from the actual highway runoffs and the results are shown in Table 4. As can be noted, the concentration of pol-
lutants from leachates of pavement specimens under controlled laboratory study is negligible compared to highway runoff
pollutant concentration. The findings corresponding to the controlled laboratory study (Kayhanian et al., 2009, 2010) and a

Table 4
Range of concentration for water quality parameters measured for pavement materials under control laboratory condition and during the rain events from
California highways.

Water quality parameters and constituents Symbol Unit Reporting Concentration (range) for Concentration (range) for actual
Limit (RL) pavement materials only highway runoff in California
Conventional
Electric conductivity EC lS/cm 0.1 RL-350 5–743
Hardness as CaCO3 mg/L 2 5–90 2–400
pH pH pH unit NA 7.5–11 4.5–10
Total dissolved solids TDS mg/L 1 RL-100* 4–1800
Total suspended solids TSS mg/L 1 RL-2 1–3000
Aggregate constituents
Chemical oxygen demand COD mg/L 1 <RL-10 1–500
Dissolved organic carbon DOC mg/L 1 <RL-5 1–283
Total organic carbon TOC mg/L 1 <RL-10 1–530
Oil and Grease O&G mg/L 5 <RL 5–14
Metals (total)
Arsenic As lg/L 1 <RL 0.5–70
Cadmium Cd lg/L 0.2 <RL 0.2–30
Chromium Cr lg/L 1 <RL-100* 1–94
Copper Cu lg/L 1 <RL 1.2–270
Lead Pb lg/L 1 <RL 1–2600
Nickel Ni lg/L 2 <RL 1–130
Zinc Zn lg/L 5 <RL 5.5–1680
Nutrients
Total Phosphorus Total P mg/L 0.03 <RL 0.03–4.7
Total Nitrogen Total N mg/L 0.1 <RL-1* 0.1–18
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs lg/L 0.05 <RL 1–25
Toxicity Toxicity %survival NA No toxicity was observed 30% of samples were toxic

Note: RL = reporting limit, NA = not applicable.

*
The higher range concentration was only detected for concrete specimens.
 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372 371

recent review of highway runoff characteristics prepared by Kayhanian et al. (2012) concluded that the major source of pol-
lutants from road surface runoff is anthropogenic and mostly associated with vehicles and airborne deposition. As an exam-
ple, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were not detected during the controlled laboratory study but were reported in
urban and highway runoff and found to be mostly related to the combustion of transportation fuels (Lau et al., 2009,
2005). Similarly, the toxicity of leachate produced from the controlled laboratory study was negligible, whereas the toxicity
in highway runoff was more pronounced; especially during the first flush period (Kayhanian et al., 2008).

7. Summary and future direction

7.1. Summary

Major findings for potential application of permeable pavements for sustainable transportation with respect to stormwa-
ter management are summarized below:

1. With respect to the hydraulic performance evaluation, it was determined that: (a) minimum of 0.15 m to maximum of
2.9 m aggregate base thickness is sufficient to capture all rainfall over the course of a rainy season, (b) the required min-
imum aggregate thickness in high rainfall regions is about 50 percent more than the minimum aggregate thickness
required for medium rainfall regions, (c) longer recurrence periods (50- and 100-year) require thicker bases compared
with 2-year periods, (d) the change in aggregate thickness for 50- and 100-year recurrence periods was insignificant.
(e) the subgrade soil saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil permeability is the most significant factor for design,
and it should be higher than 3.6 m/h to make the required aggregate depth more practical.
2. The findings related to the permeability measurements showed that: (a) both the ASTM C1701 and the NCAT methods can
effectively be used to measure the permeability of all pavement surface types, (b) permeability measured with the ASTM
C1701 method was generally at least 50 percent lower than the value measured with the NCAT method, (c) stronger cor-
relation between the two measurement could be obtained when the diameter of ring size in ASTM C1701 permeameter
was reduced to half of the original ring size, (d) permeability measured in permeable parking lots showed that the pave-
ment age and the fine particles (particles less than 38 lm) mass are among the most significant factors influencing the
pavement permeability value, (e) the average permeability values after HVS operation were generally decreased in the
range of 27–92% compared to the pre HVS testing, and the majority of the reduction in permeability after HVS operation
occurred within early loading repetition (500–2000) and further reduced to near zero after 30,000 repetitions.
3. The results of clogging assessments showed that: (a) the scanning of multiple core samples showed that air voids of the
top surface pavement was generally lower and there may be an indication of clogging due to particle accumulation, (b)
HVS testing showed that not all reduction in void space in surface pavement (porosity) is due to particles, but also can
happen from load and rutting effect, (c) the particles related clogging on surface pavement can be removed by vacuuming
through routine maintenance.
4. The results obtained from controlled laboratory leachate investigation on wide ranges of open graded and dense graded
asphalt and concrete pavements showed that: (a) the concentration of most organic and inorganic chemical constituents
generated from the leachate of specimens was below or within the reporting limit (detection limit), (b) temperature did
not significantly change the leachate pollutant concentration, (c) aging (heat treatment) of the surfacing pavement mate-
rials did not contribute to additional leachate pollutant concentration, (d) compared with the actual highway runoff, it
has been concluded that the majority of pollutants measured from storm drains (except chromium) in highways are attri-
butable to anthropogenic activities (i.e., transportation, air deposition, agriculture, industry, etc. . .), (e) the concentration
of Cr measured in concrete pavements is mostly associated with cement and will diminish after hardening soon after
construction.

7.2. Future direction

The increased use of permeable pavements is expected to be a growing part of ‘‘urban surface evolution” by shifting from
gray infrastructure to green infrastructure. Major benefits these pavements provide include reduction in roadway noise, run-
off, the urban heat island effect, as well as an improved water quality. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) characterizes permeable pavements as ‘cool pavements’ as it can potentially be used for urban heat island mitiga-
tion (Li, 2013). Until recently, a major portion of the applications of permeable pavements were focused on areas with low
vehicle loads and/or traffic volumes such as sidewalks, parking lots, and residential streets. In the future however, with
advancements in pavement technology and added stringent environmental regulations, it is anticipated that permeable
pavement will be used in the urban roads and highways. This transitional change from the current conventional imperme-
able to permeable pavement in urban areas may require policy shifts and cooperation among dischargers (e.g., municipal-
ities, highway transportation organizations) and state regulators. In addition, collaborative efforts between the agencies
related to collecting the scientific data and developing design and monitoring guidelines will be essential for successful shifts
in policy and program implementations. In addition to the shift in policy, there are numerous unresolved issues that must
also be addressed before permeable pavements can be fully integrated in urban roads and highways; especially those with
372 M. Kayhanian et al. / International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology 8 (2019) 358–372

higher speeds and loads. These broad issues that may deserve for further investigation may include, but are not limited to:
(a) a methodology to measure subgrade infiltration rates; (b) filling data gaps related to pavement characteristics that may
influence vehicle fuel consumption, noise reduction, improving safety, human comfort and fulfilling the future climate
change requirements; (c) determining optimal maintenance activities and frequencies; (d) a better understanding of the pro-
cesses related to the reduction of contaminant concentrations that can occur within permeable pavements; (e) a better
understanding of the performance of permeable pavements over a time frame that better corresponds with a life-span of
20 years.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

The research projects described in this paper were financially supported by the Division of the Environmental Analysis,
California Department of Transportation, United States and partially by grants from the National Key Research and Develop-
ment Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFE0108200), and Shanghai Committee of Science and Technology of China (Grant
No. 17230711300 and 16DZ1202004). The sponsorships are gratefully acknowledged. The contents of this study reflect the
views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the sponsors. This study does not represent
any standard or specification. Numerous graduate students and research staff worked on these projects and we are very
thankful for their efforts and contributions.

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