ARISTOTLE’S POLITICAL THOUGHT

ARIATOTL
E’S
THEORY
ON OF STATE IDEA OF
EDUCATI GOLDEN
ON MEAN

ARISTOTL
THEORY E’S
OF JUSTIC GOVERN
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ARISTOTLE’S
POLITICAL
THEORY
THEORY ARISTOTL
OF E’S
REOLUTIO CONSTIT
N UTION

ARISTOTL
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PROPERTY
CITIZENS
ARISTOTL HIP
E’S
SLAVERY
Aristotle’s Life
• Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira in northern Greece. Both of his parents were members of traditional medical families, and
his father, Nicomachus, served as court physician to King Amyntus III of Macedonia. His parents died while he was young, and he
was likely raised at his family’s home in Stagira.

• At age 17 he was sent to Athens to enroll in Plato's Academy. He spent 20 years as a student and teacher at the school, emerging
with both a great respect and a good deal of criticism for his teacher’s theories. Plato’s own later writings, in which he softened
some earlier positions, likely bear the mark of repeated discussions with his most gifted student.

• Aristotle's surviving works were likely meant as lecture notes rather than literature, and his now-lost writings were apparently of
much better quality. The Roman philosopher Cicero said that "If Plato's prose was silver, Aristotle's was a flowing river of gold."
• When Plato died in 347, control of the Academy passed to his nephew Speusippus. Aristotle left Athens soon after, though it is
not clear whether frustrations at the Academy or political difficulties due to his family’s Macedonian connections hastened his
exit.
• He spent five years on the coast of Asia Minor as a guest of former students at Assos and Lesbos. It was here that he undertook
his pioneering research into marine biology and married his wife Pythias, with whom he had his only daughter, also named
Pythias.

• In 342 Aristotle was summoned to Macedonia by King Philip II to tutor his son, the future Alexander the Great—a meeting of great
historical figures that, in the words of one modern commentator, “made remarkably little impact on either of them.”

Aristotle and the Lyceum

• Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 B.C. As an alien, he couldn’t own property, so he rented space in the Lyceum, a former
wrestling school outside the city. Like Plato’s Academy, the Lyceum attracted students from throughout the Greek world and
developed a curriculum centered on its founder’s teachings.
• In accordance with Aristotle’s principle of surveying the writings of others as part of the philosophical process, the Lyceum
assembled a collection of manuscripts that comprised one of the world’s first great libraries.
Aristotle’s Works
• It was at the Lyceum that Aristotle probably composed most of his approximately 200 works, of which only 31 survive. In style, his
known works are dense and almost jumbled, suggesting that they were lecture notes for internal use at his school. The surviving
works of Aristotle are grouped into four categories.

• The “Organon” is a set of writings that provide an effective material for use in any philosophical or scientific cosmology, the
“Physics” (a basic inquiry about the nature of matter and change) and the “Metaphysics” (a quasi-theological investigation of
existence itself).

• Third are Aristotle’s so-called practical works, notably the “Nicomachean Ethics” and “Politics,” both deep investigations into the
nature of human flourishing on the individual, familial and societal levels. Finally, his “Rhetoric” and “Poetics” examine the
finished products of human productivity, including what makes for a convincing argument and how a wellwrought tragedy can
instill cathartic fear and pity.

Aristotle’s Death and Legacy

• After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., anti-Macedonian sentiment again forced Aristotle to flee Athens. He died
a little north of the city in 322, of a digestive complaint.

• He asked to be buried next to his wife, who had died some years before. In his last years he had a relationship with his slave
Herpyllis, who bore him Nicomachus, the son for whom his great ethical treatise is named.
• Aristotle’s favored students took over the Lyceum, but within a few decades the school’s influence had faded in comparison
to the rival Academy. For several generations Aristotle’s works were all but forgotten.

• The historian Strabo says they were stored for centuries in a moldy cellar in Asia Minor before their rediscovery in the first
century B.C., though it is unlikely that these were the only copies.

• In 30 B.C. Andronicus of Rhodes grouped and edited Aristotle’s remaining works in what became the basis for all later
editions. After the fall of Rome, Aristotle was still read in Byzantium and became well-known in the Islamic world, where
thinkers like Avicenna (970-1037), Averroes (1126-1204) and the Jewish scholar Maimonodes (1134-1204) revitalized
Aritotle’s logical and scientific precepts.

Aristotle’s Methodology

• Aristotle’s methodology was different from Plato. While Plato adopted the philosophical method in his approach to politics.
Aristotle followed the scientific and analytical methodology. Plato’s style is almost poetic whereas that of Aristotle, prose-like.
• Scientific as Aristotle’s method of study is, it is, at the same time, historical, comparative, inductive, and observational. Barker
comments that Aristotle’s methodology is scientific; his work is systematic, his writings are analytical. Aristotle’s each essay
begins with the words: “Observation shows it is said that Aristotle had employed over a thousand people for reporting to him
anything of scientific nature.
• He did not accept anything except which he found was proven empirically and scientifically. Unlike his teacher Plato who
proceeded from the general to the particular, he followed the path from the particular to the general. Plato argued with
conclusions that were pre-conceived while Aristotle, in a scientific way arrived at his conclusions by the force of his logic and
analysis. Empiricism was Aristotle’s merit.
• Aristotle’s chief contribution to political science is to bring the subject matter of politics within the scope of the methods, which
he was already using to investigate other aspects of nature. Aristotle the biologist looks at the developments in political life in
 much the same way that he looks at the developing life of other natural phenomena.” Abraham Edel identifies features of
scientific in Aristotle.

Aristotle’s methodology can be briefly explained as under:

Inductive and Deductive:

• Plato’s method of investigation is more deductive than inductive where Aristotle’s methodology is inductive than deductive. The
deductive features of Aristotle’s methodology are quite visible; though shades of Plato are reasoning remain in the margins.
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics does contain ideals of normative thinking and ethical life.
• Same is true about his Politics as well. Like Plato, Aristotle does conceive ‘a good life’ (his deductive thinking) but he builds,
‘good’ and ‘honourable life’ on the inductive approach about the state as a union of families and villages which came into
existence for satisfying the material needs of man. His inductive style compels him to classify states as he observes them but he
never loses sight of the best state that he imagines.

Historical and Comparative:

• Aristotle can claim to be the father of historical and comparative methods of studying political phenomena. Considering history
as a key to all the secrets, Aristotle takes recourse in the past to understand the present. The fact is that all his studies are based
on his historical analysis: the nature of the causes and description of revolution, which Aristotle takes up in the Politics, have
been dealt with historically.
• Aristotle also follows the comparative method of study both intensively and extensively. His classification of states together with
the consequent cycle of change is based on his intensive study of 158 constitutions of his times. Through comparative analysis he
speaks about the ‘pure’ and ‘perverted’ forms of states.
Teleological and Analogical:

• Aristotle pursued teleological and analogical methods of analysing and investigating political phenomena. His approach was
teleological using the model of craftsmanship. Aristotle insisted that nature Works, like an artist and in the process it seeks to
attain the object for which, it exists.
• Nature, Aristotle used to say, did nothing without a purpose man lives in society to attain his development; state helps man to
achieve his end. Following his teacher Plato, Aristotle found much in common between a ruler and an artist, between a
statesman and a physician.

Analytical and Observational:

• Aristotle’s methodology was both analytical as well as observational. In his whole thought-process, he observed more than he
thought; all his studies were based on data and facts, which came under his keen observation. Through study, experiments and
observation, Aristotle analysed things and, therefore, reached conclusions.
• Regarding state as something of a whole, for example, Aristotle went on to explain its constituents – families, and villages. He
declares man, a social animal by nature, considers family as the extension of man’s nature, village as the extension of family’s
nature, and state as the extension of village’s nature

Diferences between Plato’s and Aristotle thought :

• Plato's Republic is a utopian work depends on what one means by “utopia,” a word with a notoriously wide range of
meanings. It shall simply stipulate that by “utopia” It means a description of an imagined society put forward by plato as
better than any existing society, past or present. The limiting case (relevant to the Republic) is the portrayal not just of a
better society but of the best society. He call a “mere utopia” a description of an ideal society meant or recognized - a
society in some sense better than any historical society, but which could never actually exist.

On the other side, Aristotle has a practical approach his,phronēsis, the excellence of the practical intellect, is two-fold,
consisting of a true conception of the end to be achieved by action and correct deliberation about the means to achieve
that end. Three accounts have been given as to how that true conception of the end is acquired: i) by virtue of character, ii)
 by dialectic, i.e. critical reasoning concerning authoritative beliefs, and iii) by induction from data of experience. Virtue of
character is the proper responsiveness of the appetitive element in the soul to reason; it is itself a rational state,
presupposing a prior grasp of the end by the intellect. Dialectic and experience are each required for the attainment of that
grasp, the role of the former being apparently to formulate more or less indeterminate principles that it is the task of moral
experience to make determinate.

• Plato believed that concepts had a universal form, an ideal form, which leads to his idealistic philosophy. Aristotle believed
that universal forms were not necessarily attached to each object or concept, and that each instance of an object or a
concept had to be analyzed on its own. This viewpoint leads to Aristotelian Empiricism. For Plato, thought experiments and
reasoning would be enough to "prove" a concept or establish the qualities of an object, but Aristotle dismissed this in favor
of direct observation and experience.
• In logic, Plato was more inclined to use inductive method, whereas Aristotle used deductive method. The syllogism, a basic
unit of logic (if A = B, and B = C, then A = C), was developed by Aristotle.
• Both Aristotle and Plato believed thoughts were superior to the senses. However, whereas Plato believed the senses could
fool a person, Aristotle stated that the senses were needed in order to properly determine reality.
• An example of this difference is the allegory of the cave, created by Plato. To him, the world was like a cave, and a person
would only see shadows cast from the outside light, so the only reality would be thoughts. To the Aristotelian method, the
obvious solution is to walk out of the cave and experience what is casting light and shadows directly, rather than relying
solely on indirect or internal experiences.
• Plato was an extremist whether he was talking about justice,state or the idea of philosopher king or anyother notion his
approach seems to an extremist whereas Aristotle believe in the idea of Golden mean or the middle path,Aristotle says
that golden middle way is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency.
• Plato was Socratic in his belief that knowledge is virtue, in and of itself. This means that to know the good is to do the good,
i.e., that knowing the right thing to do will lead to one automatically doing the right thing; this implied that virtue could be
taught by teaching someone right from wrong, good from evil. Aristotle stated that knowing what was right was not
 enough, that one had to choose to act in the proper manner—in essence, to create the habit of doing good. This definition
placed Aristotelian ethics on a practical plane, rather than the theoretical one espoused by Socrates and Plato.
• Socrates believed that happiness could be achieved without virtue, but that this happiness was base and animalistic. Plato
stated that virtue was sufficient for happiness, that there was no such thing as "moral luck" to grant rewards. Aristotle
believed that virtue was necessary for happiness, but insufficient by itself, needing adequate social constructs to help a
virtuous person feel satisfaction and contentment. It is worth noting that Greek views on these issues were more attuned
to Aristotle's views than either to Plato's or Socrates' during their lifetimes.
Aristotle’s Theory of State

Origin of State
• Aristotle, the father of political science, says that person is a social animal
and is different from the other animals because of his civilized nature or
nature of going from good to better and from better to the best.
STATE
• Human progress and cultured status is impossible without interrelations.
So, man prefers to live with the others to get various basic needs that
cannot be achieved lonely.

• To get the very basic needs, man and women, roaster and slaves came
TRIBES
together and as a. result, the first institution of human civilization, family,
was formed.
• When families increased, they made villages and tribes to solve some VILLAGE
greater needs. Due to some other greater problems and needs, the tribes
and villages united in a single and greater institution, the state.
• Aristotle State concept shows that he believed in evolutionary or historical
theory of the origin of state. Therefore his approach in this connection is
correct. FAMILY
• Man as a civilized individual cannot survive without state and if he claims,
then it means from human beings, he is nation-less, lawless, and homeless.
He is either above or below humanity.
Nature of Aristotle State
• Aristotle’s concept of “Social or Political animal” can be explained from the two aspects:
• Firstly, the growth or development of all kinds of animals is natural and evolutionary. They develop from single and simple to
complex through stepwise progress.

• Similarly, state is the result of an evolution. Individuals’ natural tendency compels them to be organized through families,
families unite in villages/tribes and expanded form of a tribe or village is state. Therefore formation of the state is not a
designed activity but this is the outcome of human needs and a result of gradual development.

• Secondly, Aristotle seems to believe in the organic theory that means state is like an individual and individual has a body which
is made of certain organs like head, arms, legs and face etc.

• Aristotle drew a comparison between the symmetry of the state and symmetry of the body and believed that the individual is
an intrinsic part of the society
• In the same way, state is a body and individuals are its organs. Aristotle does not like too much state interference in the affairs
of its citizens and gives certain liberties tend rights to individuals.

• The civilized life of individuals start from the family reaches its top in the form of state. Therefore family is the starting point and
state is the last point of human development.

• Most of the needs are fulfilled in family, villages and tribes but the super sufficient life is not possible without state. Therefore
state is a natural need of human uplift. Aristotle explains the concept of government and divided government in various organs
i.e. legislature, executive and judiciary.
ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF STATE REVOLVES AROUND THESE FIVE MAJOR PRINCIPLES:
The best way to understand Aristotle’s theory of
State is to go through these major principles which
are very well define his idea of State.These following
are:
• Man is naturally a political and social animal,if social &
Political then man,if not then animal.
Man is by nature
• State is the higest among all associations. State is a self a Political animal
sufficient entity. its only state who can fulfil all the needs
of a man and provide a better environment for his well
being.
• Aristotle believes that man by nature must live in the State comes into
community. Those who can`t live in the community is State is the existance for the
either God or the beast. highest of all sake of Good life and
Associations STATE continues for the
• Aristotle, the father of Political Science had said that state sake of good life
is a “union of families and villages”. Family is the basic OR
unit of society, which is the foundation of state itself.
Happy families create a healthy society and healthy society POLIS
is a prerequisite of strong political order in democratic
societies.
• State comes into existance for the sake of Good life and Those who can`t
continues for the sake of good life. live in the State is the union
1.MAN IS BY NATURE A POLITICAL ANIMAL community is of family and
either God or the villages
1.In his Politics, Aristotle believed man was a "Political beast.
animal" because he is a social creature with the power of
speech and moral reasoning.
Humans have speech, which can be used to communicate their ideas about what is right or wrong as well as just and unjust. If
the nature of man is not revealed then the man itself is an animal without any potential. Speech serves man as a weapon to
protect himself from what is just or unjust.
2.Aristotle believes that man by nature must live in the community because he was a political creature or zoon politikon.
Nature has not made Man in such a way that he can live without a state A man naturally belongs to the city because that is where he
can exercise his sociability and can debate with others upon his virtue.
Virtues are habits of the soul by which one acts well. Virtuous actions express correct, high reasoning, which are acquired through
practice and habituation.
3.The city is prior to the individual because the individual apart from the city is not self-sufficient and therefore he has to be
something else rather than a human being.

A man has potential to do good, but if he is not capable to use his virtue and is without any boundaries, he can be worse than any
animal.
In Aristotle's point of view the city is self-sufficient because it contains all the necessities for humans to lead a good life.
The city provides humans with partnership with others, which plays a big role in the sake of basic survival, but it exists for the well
being of human kind.

4.Man is naturally sociable and that they are naturally drawn to various political associations in order to satisfy their social needs
and the process is impossible if human doesn’t have a power of speech
2.State is the highest of all Associations

• Aristotle State provides a safe and sound environment to enable its people to use their capabilities and potentials for the
common good and welfare.

• State is a self sufficient entity not the family or village,they further depends.Its only state who can fulfil all the needs of a man
and provide a better environment for his well being.

• State deserve the highest attention and obligation of man because it played a key role in his life by maintaining a law and order
and such and environment so that man can grow and make his life more happy.
3.Those who live alone are either God or Beast
• Aristotle believes that man by nature must live in the community because he was a political creature or zoon politikon. Those
who can`t live in the community is either God or the beast.

• Aristotle even approaches the psychological analysis of the man who is socially accomplished and mentions his psychological
pathology. He talks about the need for another being, which is central issue in his teaching

• In the first place there must be a union of those who cannot exist without each other; namely, of male and female, that the race
may continue (and this is a union which is formed, not of deliberate purpose,

• But because, in common with other animals and with plants, mankind have a natural desire to leave behind them an image of
themselves, and of natural ruler and subject, that both may be preserved.

• For that which can foresee by the exercise of mind is by nature intended to be lord and master, and that which can with its body
give effect to such foresight is a subject, and by nature a slave; hence master and slave have the same interest.

• Now nature has distinguished between the female and the slave. For she is not niggardly,she makes each thing for a single use,
and every instrument is best made when intended for one and not for many uses. But among barbarians no distinction is made
between women and slaves, because there is no natural ruler among them: they are a community of slaves, male and females.

• Man as a civilized individual cannot survive without State and if he claims, then it means from human beings, he is nation-less,
lawless, and homeless. He is either above or below humanity.
4.State is the union of family and village

•Man prefers to live with the others to get various basic needs that cannot be achieved lonely. To get the very basic needs, man and
women, roaster and slaves came together and as a result, the first institution of human civilization, family, was formed.

•When families increased, they made villages and tribes to solve some greater needs which they are unable to do. Due to some other
greater problems and needs, the tribes and villages united in a single and greater institution, the state.
•Hence it can be said that these all institutions have different purposes,

Family
DIFFERENT PURPOSES,AND
Village NATURE OF AUTHORITY
POLITICAL
AUTHORITY OR
State RULE

5. State comes into existance for the sake of Good life and continues for the sake of good life
• Good life is a moral concept. So it is not possible to describe it without the analysis of Ethical theory. Aristotle’s concept of
good life can be found in the thorough study of his ethical theory described in Nicomachean Ethics which is teleological in
nature.
• There he considered the nature of desire to achieve
happiness, described the operation of human volition STATE OR POLIS
and moral deliberation, developed a theory of each
virtue as the mean between vicious extremes, discussed
the value of three kinds offriendship and defended his
conception ofan ideal life of intellectual pursuit.
• In his ethics, Aristotle seeks to define the guidelines for POSITIVE
human beings to achieve happiness as a community. CIRCUMST
Aristotle declares that all human life consists of activity. ANCES

• He further claims that human beings engage in these

activities to arrive at some end and this end to be good POSITIVE TERMS POSITIVE
because otherwise we would not partake in the OR CONDITIONS ENVIORNMENT
endeavour.
• Aristotle then declares that the most complete end that
all activity aims at is happiness, although most people HUMAN
disagree about what exactly happiness is. Ethics, for BEING
Aristotle means the cultivation of habit of the soul, it is
a disposition towards the passions that is conducive to
virtuous action.
• Ethics is not the same as morality or right conduct. In
ethical theory Aristotle discusses the condition under HAPPY AND
which moral responsibility may be as ascribed to PROSPEROUS LIFE
individual agents, the nature of virtues and vices
involved in moral evaluation, and the method of achieving happiness in human life.
• The central issue for Aristotle is the question of character or personality
— ‘what does it take for an individual human being to be a good person’ He applies his idea of moderation, the golden mean in
an attempt to discover the constituents of good life and the good man.
Criticism of Aristotle’s Theory of State:
• Aristotle’s theory of state has been variously criticized. The first criticism against his theory of state is it is totalitarian in
character. His concept of the state is all- embracing. The individuals in his state have no separate status. They are completely
merged with the state. Its organic nature reveals the totalitarian feature.

• If the individuals are separated from the state they will lose their importance as the separated parts of human or animal body
lose their activity. Critics are of view that this contention of Aristotle about the relationship between the state and individuals is
unacceptable.

• Secondly, in Aristotle’s theory of state, associations or communities have no separate importance or position. The state or polis
embraces all other communities. They owe their existence to the state. It means that all the communities are merged in the
body of the state.

• It implies that the polis has absolute control over all communities. He observes—”all forms of community are like parts of
political community”. It is now quite obvious that both the individuals and the community are integral parts of the polis. This
view of state is anti-democratic. We do not regard individuals or associations as mere appendix parts of the state. In modern
times, the community plays the important part in the field of developing the personality of individuals.

• Thirdly, it is not true that the state or polis is the greatest manifestation of supreme good. It aims at some good no doubt but not
the supreme good. By supreme good he means complete human good, the good life of all members of the polis as distinct from
the lesser goods or partial welfare of the individuals.

• In real life, the state in no capacity can mould or determine the character of individuals in an absolute way. The state has a role,
but it shares with numerous other communities. By denying giving importance to the community he has done injustice to it.

• When he says that the polis is the manifestation of supreme good he wants to assert that it is an institution of supreme
authority. The state, in practical life, is never the holder of supreme authority.
 • Although Aristotle does not talk about sovereignty in its absolute sense, his analysis indicates that he had developed a
fascination about absolute nature of sovereignty. The absolutist character of a state is always inimical to the balanced
development of human personality.

• In spite of these criticisms something need to be said in support of his concept. According to Aristotle the state is not the
product of any contract. It is natural. This does not mean that man has no role behind the creation of the state. The evolution of
man’s consciousness and intelligence has helped the creation of state.

• It has not been made by certain individuals all on a sudden. Efforts of centuries lie behind the creation of a state. This is the
evolutionary theory of state. It is also called the scientific theory.

• Family, community and state—all are perfectly natural. We all agree with this contention of Aristotle. Even modern thinkers are
of opinion that the state is the final form as a political organization.

Idea of Golden mean

• The concept of Aristotle's theory of golden mean is represented in his work called Nicomachean Ethics, in which Aristotle
explains the origin, nature and development of virtues which are essential for achieving the ultimate goal, happiness (Greek:
eudaimonia), which must be desired for itself.
• It must not be confused with carnal or material pleasures, although there are many people who consider this to be real
happiness, since they are the most basic form of pleasures.
• It is a way of life that enables us to live in accordance with our nature, to improve our character, to better deal with the
inevitable hardships of life and to strive for the good of the whole, not just of the individual.
• Aristotle says that,Moral behavior is the mean between two extremes - at one end is excess, at the other deficiency. Find a
moderate position between those two extremes, and you will be acting morally.
• The golden mean represents a balance between extremes, i.e. vices. For example, courage is the middle between one
extreme of deficiency (cowardness) and the other extreme of excess (recklessness). A coward would be a warrior who flees
from the battlefield and a reckless warrior would charge at fifty enemy soldiers.
• This doesn't mean that the golden mean is the exact arithmetical middle between extremes, but that the middle depends on
the situation. There is no universal middle that would apply to every situation. Aristotle said, "It's easy to be angry, but to be
angry at the right time, for the right reason, at the right person and in the right intensity must truly be brilliant." Because of
the difficulty the balance in certain situations can represent, constant moral improvement of the character is crucial for
recognizing it.
• This, however, doesn't imply that Aristotle upheld moral relativism because he listed certain emotions and actions (hate,
envy, jealousy, theft, murder) as always wrong, regardless of the situation at hand. The golden mean applies only for virtues,
not vices. In some ethical systems, however, murder can be justified in certain situations, like self-defense.
• The people in modern society need to overcome their pride and arrogance and look in nature for guidance, because we all
depend on it. Staring into the sky and imagining ourselves in heaven will not accomplish anything; it is better instead to
accept our role in the world and appreciate the beauty of life, and death, which gives meaning to it.
• We don't need "new" and "progressive" ways of life when the ancient wisdom of the world's greatest thinkers is in front of us,
forgotten in the dusty shelves in some crumbling library. The balance, the golden mean of which Aristotle talked about must
be recognized as beneficial and important, as it is in nature itself.
Classification of the Governments of Aristotle:
• Some writers do not make any distinction between state and government. They use government and state in one and the
same sense while giving a classification of states. Modern writers do not agree with this type of classification.

• According to them, there can be no classification of states, as all the states are equal in so much as the four attributes-
population, territory, government and sovereignty-are essential for all the states.

• American writer Willoughby is of the view that there can be no classification of states; the states can be classified only on the
basis of administration.

• In fact, the classification of the governments is the classification of the states. State expresses its will through the
government. Leacock and Gilchrist also agree that there should be the classification of governments.
Aristotle’s classification of states is based on two principles:
1.The number of persons who exercise supreme power;
 2.The ends they seek to serve self-interest or benefit of the community.
Aristotle was of the view that when the rulers aimed at the good of the community, the states would be a pure form of state. When
the rulers in such a state became selfish, the state would be called a perverted state.

NO. OF RULERS GOOD BAD

ONE MONARCHY TYRANY

FEW ARISTOCTACY OLIGARCHY

MANY POLITY DEMOCRACY

• According to Aristotle, if sovereignty resides in one person, it is Monarchy. Its perverted form is Tyranny.

• If sovereignty resides in a small minority of the population, it is Aristocracy. If this small minority uses the sovereignty for its own
selfish ends, it is Oligarchy.

• If the sovereign power resides in a large proportion of the population, it is polity. Its perverted form is Democracy.
Aristotle’s Cycle of Political change:

• Aristotle has not only given the classification of states or governments, he has also tried to investigate their development and
cycle of change. According to him, change has taken place in all the forms of administration as a natural process, because the
forms of state revolve like the wheels of a cycle.
• According to him, “The first governments were kingships; probably for this reason, in olden times, when cities were small, men
of eminent virtues were few.

• They were made kings because they were made benefactors and hence benefits could only be bestowed by virtuous men. But
when many persons equal in merit arose, against the pre-eminence of one, they formed a Commonwealth and set up a
constitution.

• The ruling class soon deteriorated and enriched themselves out of the public treasury. Riches became the path to honour and
hence oligarchies grew up.
ARISTOTLE’S CONSTITUTION
The constitution which determines the identity of a state, and when the constitution changes, the state also changes. We, therefore,
see that in Aristotle’s view polis, citizenship and constitution are closely connected with each other.

The state is the supreme association and has certain purpose. He has defined constitution in the following words:

• By the constitution we mean the organization of the various authorities and in particular the sovereign authority that is above all
the others.

• In Book IV Chapter One Aristotle has given an elaborate definition of constitution. Constitution is the arrangement which states
adopt for the distribution of offices of power, and for the determination of sovereignty and of the end which the whole social
complex in each case aims at realizing.

• He has distinguished laws from constitution. Laws prescribe the rules by which the rulers shall rule and shall restrain those that
transgress the laws. Constitution is original and prime law for the distribution of offices and determination of sovereignty.
Whereas laws regulate the day-to-day affairs of the administrators.
• Aristotle has analyzed the constitution in the background of ethics. But, at the same time, he has not made any attempt to
bypass the descriptive aspect. Every community has its own values, ideals objective and, in the light of these, a constitution is
framed.
• Therefore, the aims and values of particular constitution are not to be judged in any absolute sense but in the background of the
membership of the constitution.

• If the constitutions of different polities differ then it is a fact that the values and goodness will also differ. Again the goodness
and values which the citizens uphold will also be of different kind. In this way, Aristotle has described the nature of a
constitution.

Kingship and Tyranny:

• According to Aristotle, both kingship and tyranny are rule of one and in spite of this basic similarity there is difference between
the two.

• The oft-repeated difference is: a king looks after the interest of his subjects and the tyrant considers his personal gain. But other
differences are: a tyrant captures power by force, but the power of the king is based on law.

• Tyrant’s power is exercised over the unwilling subjects. But people of the king are willing subjects. Even absolute power may be
acquired either by heredity or by election.

• Aristotle has distinguished five different types of kingships. The first variety is Spartan kingship. This is not absolute monarchy.
King’s power is limited. They are vested with the power to command in war. They have the right of dealing with matters of
religious observance. They can be called constitutional kings with limited sovereignty.
• The second type of kingship is common among the barbarians and is a mixture of kingship and tyranny. The kings have complete
power equal to that of tyrannies but they are legally established and hereditary. The relationship between the ruler and the
ruled is that of master and slave. The non-Greek kingships derive their stability from hereditary succession.

• The third type is elected tyrant. It used to exist among the ancient Greeks and goes by the name of dictatorship (or aesymnetes).
This is an elective form of tyranny. It differs from barbarian kingship. The rulers held office sometimes for life, sometimes for a
fixed period. They had to discharge fixed duty.

• The fourth type of kingship existed in heroic ages. It was both hereditary and legal and willingly accepted by subjects. These
kings started their rule by launching welfare programmes and also making discoveries in arts and peace. These activities made
the king popular among his subjects. Originally these kings enjoyed unlimited power but gradually their power eroded and
ultimately their power was confined in discharging certain religious functions.

• Aristotle speaks of a fifth type of monarchy and, in his opinion; it is different from other forms. The king is absolute and controls
everything. Aristotle compares his rule to that of the head of a household.

Aristocracy:

• Aristocracy as defined by Aristotle is the rule of the few best men. These few best men rule for the common interest of the
people. They are generally virtuous and the virtues of good men and good citizens are identical. In Book 4, Chapter 7 Aristotle
has described three forms of aristocracy on the basis of practical experience.

• The first species combines both wealth and numbers. The second species is of Spartan type. It is the combination of virtue and
democratic principle of freedom. The third includes those varieties of polity which incline more to oligarchy.

• Some species combine oligarchic principle and democratic principle of wealth and freedom. But ultimately it gives weight to
wealth.
• His description of aristocracy suffers from certain problems. The ideal aristocracy and ideal kingship may be indistinguishable.
Because, in both cases, virtue is the supreme quality.

• The only difference will be in number. But if in aristocracy one man takes the leading part and in kingship the king is advised by
few virtuous persons, then what is aristocracy and what is kingship will be a problem.

• He is not clear about the true nature of ideal aristocracy. In several places he has discussed aristocracy. What is the ideal form
we do not know.
Oligarchy:

• Oligarchy is one of the perverted forms of government. The rulers of oligarchy always give priority to private interest and, as a
result of it, common good is neglected.

• Another feature of oligarchy stated by him is that only the wealthy persons dominate the politics as well as administration of the
state. Sometimes noble birth and education are regarded as features of oligarchy. But it is on rare occasions.

• In Book 4 Chapter 5 Aristotle has described four different types of oligarchy. The first type of oligarchy is based on property
qualification. But this is not restrictive. Participation in the affairs of the government is open to persons who acquire property.
This property qualification is not very high.

• The first type of oligarchy is nearer to polity. For second type of oligarchy a high property qualification has been recommended.
In a sense, the rulers of the second form of oligarchy are richer and, naturally, fewer.

• When persons of high property qualification are not available, the deficiency is met by the process of cooption. The third type is
narrower still and includes the further restriction that membership of the governing class is hereditary.

• Finally, officials and not law exercise the sovereign power. An oligarchy of this type is sometimes called a “power group.”
Democracy:
• In the perverted form of government there are three types and democracy is one of them. Both Plato and Aristotle did not see
this form of government with favour.

• Both of them saw the degrading and pernicious features of this form of constitution.

• However, democracy prevailed in Athens for over a century and Aristotle got the opportunity to see this form of government
from a very close distance. So his observation of democracy is based on practical experience.

• According to Aristotle, the foundation of democratic constitution is liberty. Everyone will have the freedom to rule and is legally
entitled to all privileges. There is another principle. Democratic principle is based on numerical justice.

• That is, the decision of the majority is final and to accept it is justice and its denial is injustice. To put it in other words, in
democracy, people are sovereign.
ARISTOTLE’S CITIZENSHIP
• Aristotle define state as a collective body of citizens.it is not determined by residence It is a cohesive citizen body where
everybody would know one another intimately.
• A good citizen is someone who could live in harmony with constitution and had sufficient leisure time to perform the
responsibility of the citizen
• A good citizen posses moral goodness.he pleaded for proper education for citizen controlled by a state Who is citizen ?
• A person who participated in the administration of justice and in legislation as a member of the deliberative assembely is citizen.
• Who posses the capacity to rule and be ruled at the same time.
• Possession of leisure.
• Possession of property and owenershp of slaves helping to attain citizenship.
• Based on hereditary.
Who can’t be a citizen ?
• Aristotle firmly believe, that those are not contributing in the growth and in the decision making of the the state can not be
attain the citizenship,he believes that citizenship means responsibility and it can not be given to all an sundry.
• According to Aristotle Slaves,resident aliens,foreigners,labourers and mechanics.
• Women is intellectually inferior to man So even She can not be a citizen.
• Children and old people also can not be a citizen as one is immature and another is infirm respectively.
Critisism

• It encourages the class rule and neglect welfare of the society.

• It is against the organic nature of the state.

• It is not justicable to exclude children ,women, workers and oldman from citizenship.

• It ,ll infuse a feeling of disinterests among non citizens in the affairs of state,whereas they represent majority class in a state.

• Its also unfair that mere the property holders and possesses the citizenship

• Its also a great injustice with non-lesiured class.

• Its against the modern notion of citizenship.

• Its also not suited the modern notion of Nation-State.

Good Citizen and Good Man:
• According to Aristotle, a good citizen and a good man must work towards not only the welfare of the state, but also perform
various other duties. According to Jewett, a good citizen may not be a good man; a good citizen is one who does good services to
the state and this state may be bad in principle.
• In a constitutional state, a good citizen should know how to rule as
well how to obey. The good man is one who is fit to rule. But the EACH POLITICAL
citizen in a constitutional state learns to rule by obeying orders. SYSTEM

• Therefore, citizenship in such a state is a moral training.Aristotle

strongly believed that the middle class have a powerful role to play
in the state.
PRINCIPAL,LAWS •.
• One of the greatest values of Aristotle’s theory of citizenship was ,RULE
the salvation of political society lies in the enthronement of rulers
of that salutary middle class, which represents the happy mean
between wealth and poverty.
PEOPLE
• His preference was decidedly for what might be termed FOLLOWING
THESE LAWS
‘aristocracy of the middle class’. Like the founders of the American
Republic, he would severely exclude the propertyless masses a share
in the government and would, with equal severity, hammer down
the privileges and immunities of the rich.
GOOD CITIZEN
Slavery

• Aristotle strongly believed and justified the institution of slavery.

He opined slaves as the possession of the family or, in other words, was considered the property of the master or the family. He
stated that slavery is natural and beneficial to both the masters as well as the slaves.

• He was of the belief that the slaves have no reasoning power despite the ability to understand and follow their intellect.
Therefore, according to Aristotle, natural slaves are those who understand reason but possess no reasoning ability.
 • The logic given by him was that those who were not virtuous were slaves and that it was possible to determine who is virtuous
and who is not.

• He further stated that as there are inequalities with reference to their capabilities and capacities, all those who had higher
capacities were called masters and the rest are slaves. He also categorically stated that slave belonged to the master and not
vice versa

Aristotle justified the institution of slavery on the following grounds:

Natural:
• Slavery is a natural phenomenon. The superior would rule over the inferior just as
the soul rules over the body and reason over appetite. In other words, people with
superior reasoning powers would rule over those inferior in reasoning.
NATURAL
• The masters are stated to be physically and mentally strong than the slaves. So,
this set-up naturally makes the former the master, and the latter the slave.
Necessary:
• Slaves are considered necessary because they provide leisure that was most
essential for the welfare of the state. Aristotle stated that slavery benefited the
slaves as well. NECESSARY SLAVERY
• Because by being a slave, he would be able to share the virtues of the master and
elevate himself.
Expediency:
• Aristotle was of the opinion that slaves have sustained the Greek social and
economic system, and they helped Greece against social disorder and chaos. He
stated that slavery is a social necessity. EXPEDIENCY

• It was complementary to the slaves as well as the masters and that it aids in
perfection.
Aristotle approved Slavery only under certain conditions, as follows:

• Only those who were mentally deficient and virtuously not superior should be enslaved. Aristotle, however, never agreed to the
enslavement of prisoners of war because victory in the war does not necessarily mean intellectual superiority of the victor or the
mental deficiency of the vanquished. He was against the idea of slavery by force.

• Aristotle insisted that masters must treat their slaves properly, and strongly propagated that cruel masters must be subjected to
legal punishments.

• He advocated the liberation of only those slaves whose conduct was good and who developed capacity for reasoning and virtue.

• Slavery was essential for the all-round development but the master has no right to misuse his power. Slaves are only assistants
but not subordinates.

Criticism of Aristotle’s Theory of Slavery:

• Classification of individuals on the basis of capacities is wrong and Aristotle never provided any logical method to be adopted to
classify individuals.

• He rejected historical origin of slavery and justified it on philosophical rationalization.

• His views on slavery reflect his conservatism and primitive outlook towards life.

• His theory is highly prejudicial and contradictory to the human dignity and niceties of life.

• It is prejudicial, in the sense it presupposed that Greeks were fit to rule the world and they could not be enslaved even if they
were defeated by the barbarians
Aristotle’s Theory of Revolution: Causes and Methods to Prevent Revolution

• Aristotle explained in great detail the theory of revolution. It is his study of nearly 158 constitutions that helped him understand
the implications of revolutions on a political system. In his work, Politics, he discussed at length all about revolutions.
• Based on his study, Aristotle gave a scientific analysis and expert treatment to the subject of revolutions. He gave a very broad
meaning to the term ‘revolution’ which meant two things to him.

• Firstly, it implies any major or minor change in the constitution such as a change in monarchy or oligarchy and so on. Secondly, it
implies a change in the ruling power even though it did not lead to a change in the government or the constitution.

• He further stated that a revolution could be either direct or indirect, thereby affecting a particular institution.
Causes of Revolution:
• According to Aristotle, the two categories of causes of revolution are general and particular The following is a brief explanation
of each of the causes of revolutions:
General Causes:
• According to Aristotle, revolutions take place when the political order fails to correspond to the distribution of property and
hence tensions arise in the class structure, eventually leading to revolutions. Arguments over justice are at the heart of the
revolution.

• Generally speaking, the cause of revolution is a desire on the part of those who are devoid of virtue and who are motivated by
an urge to possess property, which is in the name of their opponents. In other words, the cause of upheaval is inequality

• Aristotle listed certain general causes of revolutions that affect all types of governments and states. They are: the mental state
or feelings of those who revolt; the motive, which they desire to fulfill; the immediate source or occasion of revolutionary
outburst.

• The mental state is nothing but a desire for equality and it is a state of disequilibrium. Another clear objective of those rebel or
revolt is to gain honour. Apart from these, Aristotle provided some more reasons, which are psychological as well as political in
nature that lead to revolutions. As far as psychological factors are concerned.
Aristotle Views on Education (Recommended for an Ideal State)

• Aristotle’s views on education, strongly believed that for an ideal state to exist for long, a careful attention had to be paid
towards education, as it is the only source of knowledge that produces goodness and felicity.

• Education, therefore, must include all the aspects of an entire life like action and leisure, war and peace.

• The policy of an ideal state must follow a principle, which states that war is a means to peace; action is a means to leisure. This,
however, does not mean that the general aim of education is war-oriented.

• Though war training is important, it is not to enslave others but a training that would prevent men from becoming enslaved.
Education must also aim at making men able leaders. Aristotle further provided an interesting note with regard to his respect for
time.

• He opined that all signs of appetite like anger, self-will and desires are visible even in children from their very birth, while
reasoning and thought appear as their rule as they grow old. On the basis of this argument, Aristotle stated that children must be
given importance than their souls and then there has to be a regulation of their appetite. But this regulation of their bodies and
appetites must be aimed at the benefit of their minds and souls.
• Aristotle stated that to have good children, there is a need for proper planning between the couple and must not have any
divergence in physical powers. The gap between the age of men and women should be neither too wide nor too narrow.

• Ideal gap, according to him was 20 years. After the birth of the children, up to the age of 5, they must be given prescribed diet
and carefully handled and protected from exposure.

• They should be made to play games that are neither too laborious nor effeminate, but that aim at becoming a freeman. The
superintendents of education must carefully select stories and tales. Aristotle strongly believed that there has to be segregation
from the slave community as those children contaminate the other by their vulgar habits.

• Children must be forbidden to abuse or use bad language or even hear the same, and they must not be exposed to indecent
pictures and plays, mimicries and comedies.
• From the age of 5-7, the children must learn from elders by watching their actions. From 7 to 14 and 14 to 21, are the next two
phases of education wherein the entire education system is controlled by the state through laws. Special emphasis must be given
to reading and writing, drawing, gymnastics and music.

• The first two are useful in practical life, gymnastics promotes courage and music enables them to have leisure, drawing enables
to judge the work of the artisans in the later stages and also gives an observant eye for beauty of form and figure.

• Aristotle further opined that there should not be any excessive physical training, as it would hamper the proper development of
the mind and the body.

• Until the age of puberty, he suggested no heavy exercise or dieting followed by the next phase wherein they study reading,
writing, music and drawing followed by hard exercise and strict diet.

• Music, according to him, was the only way of entertainment as well as amusement that relaxes the entire body.

• Though an interest has to be inculcated in children, they should not become professional singers or musicians. Thus, Aristotle
suggested a state-controlled education system as he viewed that only this can lead to social and political unity in the midst of
ethnic plurality.

• Education also inculcates obedience to law, as he who cannot obey laws cannot command others. Finally, education produces
virtue without which man is the most unholy and savage of animals, full of gluttony and lust

PROPERTY AND OWNERSHIP

• Aristotle’s Views are quite different from that of Plato’s views. He has drawn his views on property while he criticizing Plato’s
views. Plato stated that it is not good for the unity of state and restricted it from the guardian class. Whereas Aristotle reflects as
property as necessary for the normal functions of household and social growth.
• He explains the possession of property as follows. Property is a general term for rules governing access to and control of land
and other material resources. Because these rules are disputed, both in regard to their general shape and in regard to their
particular application, there are interesting philosophical issues about the justification of property

• Aristotle says that, “The institution of property is good for the individual and for the society. It gives individual encouragement to
work and donate to the social growth.

• Having property is basis of self-respect, pleasure and self-love. It can be used for the improvement of the society.

• The qualities like generosity, liberality, hospitality and righteousness can be encouraged by the property, which plays an
important role in the human personality.

• The usefulness of property has well-known due to its presence for long time and survived different disturbances in human
history.

• Owning of the private property supports in the improvement of virtues such as skills of management and vigilance and would be
useful in the management of state affairs.

• The owning of private property creates the sense of civic duty, and he will take interest in the state affairs, money raised from
taxes can be used correctly for the benefit of community. He would make sure for the protection of his own property, and the
people who do not have property would spent much money of the state.

• It is the natural character of man to have property, any effort to abolish the property shall result in disharmony.
Aristotle suggests very good explanation about the owning of property, he also asserted the holding and using property which
determines the healthy or unhealthy results of the property.There are three methods to hold and use of the private property like,
a.Some people may own but its produce must be used by the community
b.The use of property and common ownership
 c.Common ownership but private use of property.
Types of Property
Aristotle differentiated property into two groups:
1.Animate 2.Inanimate.
He referred slave as animate device, the other property as inanimate device. Whatsoever be the kind of property, it is healthy if it
helps person in leading good and healthy life. He did not favour the disproportionate amount of property, he asserted that acquire
sufficient wealth to lead good life.

• He also asserted about the two different methods of wealth

1. Natural and
2. Unnatural wealth.
• The natural methods are cattle rising, agriculture and hunting which helps in obtaining required maintenance, unnatural method
are procurement of property include trade, tenancy of life but endless growth of wealth.

• His views on property are very important, he justified for the holding private property and also stressed that endless amount of
wealth is bad for the society.

• But his views on property are not up to date. No one can deny that his views on private property are on the basis of complete
philosophical and logical. The justification given by him in this regard was 2000 years back and still it hold good even today.
Aristotle’s Theory of Justice

• The entire Greek political thought revolves around the important concept of justice. This is an abstract concept and is difficult to
define it in fixed terms, as it is viewed differently by different thinkers.

• But for Aristotle, justice is of two types,universal justice and particular justice. The former refers to obedience to laws—that one
should be virtuous.
• As far as particular justice is concerned, it is again of two types,distributive justice and remedial or corrective justice.

• Distributive justice implies that the state should divide or distribute goods and wealth among citizens according to the merit.

• Again remedial justice is divided into two, dealing with voluntary transactions (civil law) and the dealing with involuntary
transaction (criminal law). Further, Aristotle added commercial and cumulative justice to the above-mentioned types of justice.
ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF JUSTIC
• The entire Greek political thought revolves around the important concept of justice. This is an abstract concept and is difficult to
define it in fixed terms, as it is viewed differently by different thinkers.
• But for Aristotle, justice is of two types,universal justice and
COMMUTATIVE
particular justice. The former refers to obedience to laws—
JUSTIC
that one should be virtuous. PARTICULAR
• As far as particular justice is concerned, it is again of two
THEORY OF
JUSTIC
DISTRIBUTIVE
types,distributive justice and remedial or corrective justice.
JUSTIC JUSTIC
• Distributive justice implies that the state should divide or UNIVERSAL
distribute goods and wealth among citizens according to JUSTIC
the merit.
• The corrective justice is divided into two, dealing with voluntary transactions (civil law) and the dealing with involuntary
transaction (criminal law).
• Further, Aristotle added commercial and cumulative justice to the above-mentioned types of justice.
Distributive Justice:

• Aristotle was of the opinion that this form of justice is the most powerful law to prevent any revolution, as this justice believes
in proper and proportionate allocation of offices, honours, goods and services as per their requirement being a citizen of the
state.
• This justice is mostly concerned with political privileges. Aristotle advocated that every political organization must have its own
distributive justice.

• He, however, rejected democratic as well as oligarchic criteria of justice and permitted the allocation of offices to the virtuous
only owing to their highest contributions to the society, because the virtuous people are few.

• Aristotle believed that most of the offices should be allocated to those few only.
Corrective Justice:

• All laws related to commercial transactions are dealt within the remedial and corrective actions.

• It aims to restore what an individual had lost due to the injustice of the society. This justice prevents from encroachments of
one right over the other.

• Aristotle opined that corrective justice relates to voluntary and commercial activities such as hire, sale and furnishing security.
These actions involve aggression on life, property, honor and freedom.

• In brief, this justice aims at virtue and moral excellence of character and it is for this reason, it is called corrective justice.
WHY IS ARISTOTLE CALLED FATHER OF POLITICAL SCIENCE ?
• Aristotle is called as the father of political science is because of his empirical method of understanding politics. Basically
understanding of politics involves different approaches like say it can be normative approach, empirical approach, historical
approach, institutional approach, legal approach etc..His famous statements are “ Man is a Social and Political animal”.

• He studied and analysed 158 constitutions of the world and in this way he introduced the comparative method as well as
historical method to the arena of political study.

• Unlike his teacher Plato,he applied realistic approach to describe political concepts.Plato, a great Greek philosopher, is an
idealist thinker and the utopion. In his classic book “Republic”,he depicted the picture of an ideal state with his basic theory of
Justice and Communism ( of family and property).

• There are various reasons to honour Aristotle as the father of Political Science. He is considered as the pioneer of Inductive
method in the field of Political Science. Its primary features are observation and scientific aptitude. As a whole Aristotle has
applied realism, scientific method, comparative method, historical method and inductive method in his political research.
•
He is entitled as the first Political Scientist because for the first time scientific approach has been used in Politics by him only.

• Before him, almost all political study was speculative, philosophical,artistic, imaginative like. Prior to him, ethics was considered
as the part of Politics whereas Aristotle clearly made a concrete separation between the two.

• He maintained that the purpose of Politics to work out on the Best State for the overall development of its citizens. Thus he
termed Politics as the ' Master Science' as it studies the state which is the highest human association among all other social
associations. He focussed on 'what is' rather 'what should be'.His realistic and scientific knowledge seeking attude has provided
us his original and unique theories of slavery and citizenship.

• Besides he is also considered as the father of Constitutionalism because of his exhaustive analytical description of the
classification of Constitutions.

• Therefore he strongly advocated for the rule of law in the place of rule of reason.And now we can witness the entire
international political system is ruled by the law that me
Aristotle said that in democracies, for example, justice is considered to mean fairness, in oligarchies, again disparity in the
allocation of office is considered just.

• Plato sees the justice and law as something that sets the strategy for communal action.

• Plato and Aristotle are similarly two men who had thoughts on ways or method to advance the existing society.

• Plato, who was a political philosopher, was targeting the philosophical truth. Aristotle was troubled about the residents and the
proposition of political institutions. Both of them had good idea and plans on how to make a better society. They both have had
a wonderful impact on the present political scientists.

• In conclusion, they were great philosopher and thinkers. Their thoughts and ideas on society and freedom, and its purposes
were quite unusual, but they both had the same purpose, to build the best method of life for the societies they resided in and
for the upcoming societies in the near future.
•
• We just need to hope that someday people’s community will find a way of having good leaders and a better life.
Both Plato and Aristotle have the same opinion that there is justice in an intentional way, that is, it state an idea that the high-
quality life should be given to all people no matter how they are or how high/low their social status.

• Aristotle said that in democracies, for example, justice is considered to mean fairness, in oligarchies, again disparity in the
allocation of office is considered just. Plato sees the justice and law as something that sets the strategy for communal action.

• Plato and Aristotle are similarly two men who had thoughts on ways or method to advance the existing society. Plato, who was
a political philosopher, was targeting the philosophical truth. Aristotle was troubled about the residents and the proposition of
political institutions. Both of them had good idea and plans on how to make a better society. They both have had a wonderful
impact on the present political scientists.

• In conclusion, they were great philosopher and thinkers. Their thoughts and ideas on society and freedom, and its purposes
were quite unusual, but they both had the same purpose, to build the best method of life for the societies they resided in and
for the upcoming societies in the near future. We just need to hope that someday people’s community will find a way of having
good leaders and a better life.