A reexamination of the role of dreams (from a person-centered perspective):

Practical... De: Barrineau, Phil, Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 10402861,

Jan96, Vol. 18, Fascículo 1

Base de datos:
Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection

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A REEXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF DREAMS (FROM A PERSON-CENTERED

PERSPECTIVE): PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR MENTAL HEALTH
COUNSELORS
Contenido
1. DREAMS
2. PERSONAL GROWTH
3. ROGERS'S CONTRIBUTIONS
4. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: USING DREAMS IN MENTAL HEALTH
COUNSELING
5. DREAM WORK EXAMPLE
6. CONCLUSION
7. REFERENCES

Sección: Practice

The self-actualizing individual is characterized as increasingly open to knowing and

understanding self, including openness to emerging data and material previously
denied to awareness. This article suggests that honoring the messages and
meanings from one's unconscious mind, idiosyncratically represented in dreams, is
one way to enhance personal growth and development. It includes a survey of the
literature on the person-centered approach and suggests how elements of the
approach can be applied in dream work. Also indicated is how a humanistic
approach to dream work is compatible with positions of several writers in the field
of mental health counseling (i.e., Ginter, 1989; Hershenson, 1993; Ivey, 1989).

One of the rudimentary descriptors of self-actualizing individuals is that they are

increasingly open to knowing and understanding themselves. They have an
openness to emerging data and material about the self, including feelings and
cognitions previously denied to awareness (Gladding, 1992). These persons "live in
close and confident relationship to [their] own ongoing organismic processes,
nonconscious as well as conscious" (Rogers, 1977, p. 248). Such individuals know
themselves "inside out," creating symbols for material that is both conscious and
nonconscious, attempting to know all that can be known. Simply stated, the more
that individuals know, experience, and understand the self, the greater the
possibility for healthy growth and development (Gladding, 1992).

I contend that counseling, as a discipline, has generally concurred that a

comprehensive knowledge of one's self is not often readily available in conscious
awareness. Frequently, individuals (including counselors) "block" aspects of the self
from awareness. Many theorists (e.g., Ginter & Bonney, 1993) have held that an
abundance of relevant material is contained in the mind, hidden from awareness,
yet obtainable via various therapeutic strategies. I agree with Ginter and Bonney's
theoretical stance and believe that one way in which hidden or unknown material
becomes consciously known is through one's dreams. Classic therapeutic literature
abounds with examples that support my position. Jung (1934/1978), for example,
aligned himself with the aforementioned view (i.e., the importance of revealing
what is hidden) and eloquently expressed this position in the following statement:
"The dream is specifically the utterance of the unconscious. Just as the psyche has
a diurnal side which we call consciousness, so also it has a nocturnal side: the
unconscious psychic activity which we apprehend as dreamlike fantasy" (p. 56).
Jung (1916/1978) further stated that "the dream is a spontaneous self-portrayal, in
symbolic form, of the actual situation in the unconscious" (p. 57). Thus, according
to Jung, it seems that focusing attention on a client's dream(s) promises to offer a
worthwhile path to achieve developmental growth.

Ivey (1989) argued that a commitment to developmental growth is what

distinguishes mental health counseling from both psychology and social work.
Furthermore, he called for the "integration of many differing types of helping tools,
but with a new frame of reference" (p. 33). I believe that a humanistic (i.e.,
person-centered) perspective on, and approach to, dream exploration is
congruent with the essential ingredients necessary to achieve what Ivey has
outlined. Thus, if a client mentions a dream during a session, rather than dismiss
the occurrence as relatively unimportant, a mental health counselor (MHC) should
ascertain the real contextual meaning or significance of the reported dream. Simply
stated, paying attention to clients' dreams may provide one more way of enhancing
their personal growth and development.

DREAMS

Individuals in all cultures have had an interest in dreams and the role that dreams
play in their waking lives. The history of dreams and dream theory has been
chronicled extensively over the last five decades (e.g. Born, 1948; Capuzzi & Black,
1986; DeBecker, 1968; Diamond 1978, Gollub, 1992; MacKenzie, 1965; McCurdy,
1946; Ullman & Zimmerman, 1979; Van de Castle, 1971; Van den Daele, 1992;
Wolff, 1952; Woods, 1947). On the basis of the work by the aforementioned
authors, it seems that individuals throughout recorded history have viewed dreams
as significant. The significance that dreams have held for many is aptly depicted in
the wide range of commonly held beliefs that have been documented. Interestingly,
many of these beliefs foreshadowed the position taken by several dream theorists--
that dreams "reveal a message."

Freud (Capuzzi & Black, 1986; Faraday, 1972) was the first to call the attention of
therapists to the world of dreams in a manner that marked the advent of a new
approach to mental illness and self-awareness. Jung (MacKenzie, 1965; Ullman &
Zimmerman, 1979) was one of the first to differ with Freud's position, contending
that the dream is a vital aspect of the human psyche; rather than a symptom of
illness, it is an integral part of the wholeness of the mind for all individuals, both for
the normal person and for the person who is mentally disturbed. According to
Greene (1979), dreams, for Jung, reflected psychic material in the unconscious
mind, material perhaps denied to awareness. Jung believed that dream content
represented a compensable process for facets of the dreamer's personality that
have been neglected in waking awareness and may therefore be guides for insight
in waking life.

Since the contributions of Freud (1900/1953) and Jung (1934/1978), there has
been a steady flow of dream theorists and practitioners. More recently, writers who
have identified with Rogerian thought (Barrineau, 1989, 1992; Gendlin, 1986;
Jennings, 1986) have articulated approaches to dream work that are consistent
with the principles of the person-centered approach. There has been little
disagreement among these recent theorists that dreams can be a valued part of
individual organismic experience (all that is experienced by an individual,
regardless of whether these experiences are consciously perceived) and may
provide significant material and opportunity for personal growth.

PERSONAL GROWTH
Because my approach to dream work is intimately tied to the concept of self-
actualization, a brief overview of this concept, and indication of how the concept
might be linked to mental health counseling theory, are essential. Organismic
theorist Goldstein (1939) introduced the term self-actualization as a modem
concept in personality theory. Hall and Lindzey (1978) noted that whereas other
theories argued that human beings are motivated by a number of drives, Goldstein
(1939) insisted that individuals are motivated by "one sovereign drive" (p. 243).
Goldstein called this motive self-actualization. The tendency for the organism to
self-actualize is seen as the creative trend of human nature and is claimed to be
universally present in individuals. It is the striving of individuals to realize their
inherent potential.

Szent-Gyoergyi (1966), a biochemist, agreed with Goldstein (1939) and concluded

that in all life forms there is the innate drive for self-perfection. Rogers's (1942,
1957, 1959, 1977, 1980) theory of personality and counseling rested on the
assumption of the "formative," directional tendency of actualization. Similarly, Jung
(1939/1959, 1950/1959) espoused a postulate of "individuation," in which a
developmental process is seen as directed toward achieving wholeness. For Jung,
dreams contained unconscious material that, when understood by the individual,
fueled the individuation process. Lecky (1961) saw this tendency (i.e., self-
actualization) in terms of the need for self-consistency. Adler's (1927,1935)
concept of the individual's "creative self," with power to order and direct his or her
life, reaffirmed the central position of this tendency in personality development.

Although many writers have included some notion of an actualizing tendency in

their theory, it is Maslow (1954, 1968) with whom mental health professionals most
readily associate self-actualization theory (Hershenson, 1993). Maslow contended
that there is in all humanity an active will to strive toward wholeness and
realization of inherent potential, a movement that is both creative and positive.
Welch, Tate, and Madeiros (1987) asserted that the self-actualization concept (as
defined by Maslow) can be credited with four major accomplishments:

1. Self-actualization as a theory and philosophy challenges and stands in

opposition to "adjustment" as the major posture of mental health.
2. It describes psychological health in terms that are universal and that
transcend time and culture.
3. It presents a new image of human beings that moves beyond determinism.
4. Self-actualization theory provides the impetus for a different force--
humanism--in counseling.

These four major accomplishments are consistent with Hershenson's (1993)

delineation of key components of the practice of mental health counseling and they
seem to generally agree with Ginter's (1989) position concerning the importance of
"developmental growth movement." Finally, the accomplishments form the
foundation on which I use dream work in counseling sessions.

ROGERS'S CONTRIBUTIONS
Rogers's theory of personality and psychotherapy rests on the foundational
principle of self-actualization. Essentially, this concept holds that every individual
human being possesses the unique potential to develop and move in directions that
are inherently healthy and positive. Rogers (1980) concluded as follows:

Organisms are always seeking, always initiating, always "up to something." There is
one central source of energy in the human organism. This source is a trustworthy
function of the whole system rather than some portion of it; it is most simply
conceptualized as a tendency toward fulfillment, toward actualization, involving not
only the maintenance but also the enhancement of the organism. (p. 123)

Given the circumstances of their lives, and given the quality and quantity of data
about self available to awareness, individuals are always actualizing, becoming their
own best selves, growing and moving in ways that are positive and healthy. Rogers
(1957), in his seminal article on the client-centered approach to therapy, asserted
that when one individual (e.g., an MHC) provides the appropriate interpersonal
climate for another individual (e.g., a client), the self-actualization potential will be
fostered.

Rogers (1961) also delineated a seven-stage process that tracked successive

phases of effective functioning as he observed them in his work with clients. He
described the stages as a continuum ("scale") of developmental growth, noting that

It commences at one end with a rigid, static, differentiated, unfeeling, impersonal

type of psychologic functioning. It evolves through various stages to, at the other
end, a level of functioning marked by changingness, fluidity, richly differentiated
reactions, by immediate experiencing of personal feelings, which are felt as deeply
owned and accepted. (p. 33)

Rogers's scale may be seen as a reflection of movement in the process of self-

actualization, because the higher levels relate to more optimal counseling. Seeman
(1984) defined the most primitive stage as being marked by rigidity and
remoteness of experiencing, a lack of communication with one's inner experience
and feelings. The successive stages were all in the direction of movement toward
communication of self, capacity for immediacy of experience, and full living in the
present. (pp. 133-134)

At higher levels "feelings which have previously been denied to awareness are now
experienced with immediacy and acceptance ... not something to be denied, feared,
or struggled against" (Meador & Rogers, 1973, p. 146). Material that is unconscious
is adequately symbolized in the awareness of individuals so that they experience it
in the present moment. These data are potent for the individual and according to
Meador and Rogers, "this experiencing is often vivid, dramatic, and releasing....
There is full acceptance now of experiencing as providing a clear and usable
referent for getting at the implicit meanings of the individual's encounter with ...
life" (p. 149). Rogerian theory has set the stage for why dreams may be important
and also explained how an MHC might effectively work with a client to discover the
"hidden message" of a dream.

Although there are few references to the concept of dream exploration in the client-
centered and person-centered literature, there are references to a category of
data "which have previously been denied to awareness [and which] are now
experienced with immediacy and acceptance" by the self-actualizing individual
(Meador & Rogers, 1973, p. 146). Furthermore, Rogers (1963) noted that the
higher self-actualizing individual is able to live fully in and with each and all his
feelings and reactions. He is making use of all his organic equipment to sense, as
accurately as possible, the existential situation within and without. He is using all
the data his nervous system can thus supply, using it in awareness, but recognizing
that his total organism may be, and often is, wiser than his awareness. (p. 21)

Thus, the self-actualizing tendency is enhanced by individuals' experience of their

full and complete selves, including conscious and nonconscious material.

I contend that dream material, once unsymbolized in awareness, can be known and
understood by an individual, and that to pay attention to this richness of data is to
promote or enhance self-understanding and, by extension, the developmental
growth process (i.e., Ginter, 1989). Although the literature supports the notion of a
self-actualization tendency, there is little to suggest how this positive, inherently
healthy movement occurs. I assume the position that honoring the messages and
meanings from one's nonconscious mind, idiosyncratically represented in dreams, is
one way to enhance an individual's self-understanding.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: USING DREAMS IN MENTAL HEALTH

COUNSELING

In previous works (Barrineau, 1989, 1992) I have outlined an approach to dream

exploration that honors the canon of person-centered thought and philosophy.
This method represents one way in which dream work may be incorporated into
mental health counseling. Verbatim excerpts of dream work using this model,
including a client's actual reported dream, are featured toward the end of this
section. The client granted permission for this material to be used; names have
been changed to guarantee anonymity.

Dream work, in this approach, is viewed as a process of open and shared inquiry
into the dream world (messages and meaning) of the client. The client essentially
says to the MHC: "Here is my dream. I don't know what to make of it. Please help
me explore it."

The dream work process includes exploring the meaning of a client's dream (past
event) in waking life (present experience). An MHC typically encourages the
process by employing different types of questions and responses. The two types of
questions used most frequently are "clarification" and "exploratory." The purpose of
the clarification question is to illuminate the MHC's understanding of the elements
of the dream, as presented by the dreamer. This stance assumes that an empathic
understanding of the client and his or her dream is not possible until the MHC's own
understanding is clear. The exploratory type of question is aimed at enhancing the
client's exploration of the waking-life meaning of the dream. I assume that dreams
are symbolic portrayals of some reality in the inner world of the dreamer, so that
the key to the dream's meaning likely rests in the client's translation of the
symbolic language into his or her personal, waking awareness.

The MHC should view the clarification and exploratory questions as invitations for
the dreamer to explore further; the questions spring from the MHC's knowledge of
the process of dream work and from his or her intuitive, therapeutic skills.
Occasionally an MHC is, as Rogers (1980) asserted, "a step ahead [of the client]
when I see more clearly the path we are on" (p. 25). As an MHC attempts to
understand a client's dream, the use of a series of questions helps to achieve
immersion into both the dream and the client's present experience of it.

Although the directive nature of the use of questions would seem to be

contradictory to the person-centered approach, because of the traditional
insistence on client locus of control, I have contended (Barrineau, 1989, 1992) that
this tension is resolved by the assumption that when there is an explicit consensus
between the MHC and the client to do dream work, the client has invited the MHC
to enter the dream and to become, with the dreamer, a coinquirer of its meaning.
Furthermore, the MHC, as dream work facilitator, possesses expertise about the
process of dream exploration, whereas the client retains the expertise about the
content.

In addition to clarification and exploratory questions, certain types of responses are

employed by the MHC to encourage the exploration of a dream. One of these
response types is "reflective" of what is presented by the dreamer and is perhaps
most similar to the traditional reflective response associated with Rogerian
counseling.
Another type of response is the "idiosyncratic" statement (Barrineau, 1989, 1992),
in which MHCs communicate their own individual feelings about, and understanding
of, the dream and the dream work process itself.

Idiosyncratic statements are seen as a function of (a) an empathic understanding of

the dreamer-dream and (b) therapist genuineness. Often MHCs are not aware of
the origin of these types of statements, only that they exist in their intuitive
interaction with the client. Purton (1989) asserted that an MHC's intuition is "largely
a matter of perceiving the pattern and significance of things, and is not essentially
mysterious" (p. 414). I view dream work as a natural addition to the MHC's
repertoire of intuitive skills.

As Jennings (1986) suggested, dream work commonly proceeds through the

elements of a dream chronologically, because the dream is considered as a story
told to the MHC. The client-dreamer, as "playwright," has scripted the chronology of
the dream; one assumes, therefore, that the dream is best understood just as it is
told to the MHC. Esentially, MHCs immerse themselves in the dream, exploring,
inquiring, and verifying their understanding along the way. From a person-
centered perspective, this process demands discipline on the part of the MHC who
is, presumably, committed to honoring the dream as presented by the client.

The elements of a dream should be examined in detail for two reasons. First, the
dream, as noted earlier, is a symbolic depiction of something in the client's inner
world. Although dreams do not have a plot in the conventional literary sense, they
have their own logic and order. Dreams do not have to make sense to the dreamer;
most often, it seems, they do not. Though the client may not understand the dream
initially, the exploration process is designed to find waking-life meanings for dream
symbols and events, however bizarre or unlikely.

The second reason for exploration is that the dreamer often does not remember all
of a dream's elements at its first telling; often it is only as the discovery proceeds
that the dreamer remembers them.

During a dream work session, when a potential interpretation begins to emerge,

either for the client or the MHC, the test of its validity rests with the dreamer alone.
Thus, consistent with person-centered thought, the dreamer is viewed as his or
her own best expert and retains the locus of control.

DREAM WORK EXAMPLE

The following dream was presented by a client (C) for exploration. The dream
included a character, "Mary," whom the client later determined represented "Linda,"
the former girlfriend of her fiance, "John."

C: It started out, I was at my grandparents' house. It was really funny, my brother

and his girlfriend and John and my parents and my grandparents and my sorority
sisters were all staying at my grandparents' house. And, uh, it was like early in the
morning and we were all sitting and watching TV and lazing around, and I realized
that I had to go to work and it was my job that I had in Germany, and I had
thought I had the day off but didn't. And it's about six o'clock at night by this time,
and that's what time the store closes, and so I called in and said--I talked to this
girl that was at the main switchboard. She doesn't usually work at the switchboard;
she works down on a register or something. And I talked to her and she was like,
"Oh, no one missed you today. Don't worry about it." And she put my call through,
down on the floor where I worked, and this guy that I worked with that I was really
good friends with said, "Oh, we're training people to take your place anyway, since
you're leaving. So don't worry. You didn't miss anything." So I said, "Well, where's
Mary?" because she was my supervisor. And Mary was asleep! [laughs] Which
makes no sense whatsoever, but Mary was asleep. But she hadn't noticed I wasn't
there. Mary's kind of a stickler, and I was worried that she would notice. So I felt
great about that. And then it was back at my grandparent's house and that was the
end of the dream.

Neither the MHC nor the client had any sense, at the beginning of the session, that
Mary represented a waking-life character. In the following excerpt, near the
beginning of the session, the client talked with the MHC about Mary.

C: The guy that answered the phone was a really close friend of mine. Everybody
that was in [the dream] was a really close friend of mine. There was nobody in
there that I didn't like. And the person I was scared of was Mary. And she was
asleep.

MHC: Could you talk about Mary? (exploratory question)

C: She was my supervisor. She was like, she was real laid back but she was a
stickler at the same time. And she put a lot of responsibility on me, in my
department, because everybody else I worked with, besides this other guy, uh,
were pretty irresponsible. And so, I, a lot of times I felt pressure from her.

MHC: So, how would you characterize your relationship with her? (clarification
question)

C: We had a pretty good relationship. She depended a lot on me. Sometimes her
dependence would pressure me, or would put a lot of stress on me, so I would feel
like I had to do everything just perfect just to make sure she, that I didn't let her
down.

MHC: What was it like for you to feel that way? (exploratory question)

C: It got old! [laughs] I mean, it wasn't bad, I didn't mind, but after a while I felt
like I was having to do everything.

MHC: It was stressful for you. (reflective response)

C: After a while, yeah.

MHC: So, in your dream, the one who's the source of all this stress is asleep. That's
interesting that you did that, that you put her to sleep. When you were working
there, were there times when you would just as soon she was asleep? (exploratory
question)

C: There was a lot of time when she wasn't around. She was in the hospital for a
month one time. And everything ran much better while she was gone.

MHC: So, in your dream you worked things out the way it would have been nice in
waking life. (reflective response)

C: Uh-huh, uh-huh. That's exactly right.

The following excerpt, taken from near the end of the session, occurred after the
client realized that Mary, in the dream, represented Linda, the former girlfriend of
her fiance, John. Linda, it turned out, had been around a few days before the
client's dream and was still, in the client's judgment, interfering with her
relationship with John.

MHC: Our time is nearly gone. Do you have any better feel than at the beginning
about what the dream is about for you? (exploratory question)

C: I think probably the reason why John is at my grandparents' house is because

things are really comfortable between us right now.
MHC: So, in the dream you put yourself in a comfortable place. (reflective
response)

C: Exactly! Even though last week there was a little bit of tension, with Linda, and
things were going on and I think, after this weekend, you know, everything is real
even and real comfortable. I made it comfortable this weekend.

MHC: Last week had been real stressful for you. (reflective response)

C: Yeah. Real vulnerable or something.

MHC: Did something specific happen that caused you to feel vulnerable?
(clarification question)

C: Well, we had a long talk on the phone the other night late, all about [Linda] and,
you know, I just wanted to say how I felt about her and how she was sticking her
nose in where she didn't belong.

MHC: This was last week? (clarification question)

C: Yeah.

MHC: In your relationship with John, you'd say that Linda was a source of stress?
(clarification question)

C: Yeah, but I don't think it was stress between us, I think a lot of it was on me.

MHC: An outside influence. (reflective response)

C: Yeah.

MHC: That really didn't have to do with you and John except for their history.
(reflective response)

C: Right.

MHC: So, it's interesting that in the dream you put Mary to sleep. (idiosyncratic
response)

C: [chuckles] Yeah.

MHC: And as you describe Linda ... (reflective response)

C: I put her to sleep, too! [long pause]

MHC: That seems like it's something you hadn't thought of until now. (reflective
response)

C: Yeah. You're right.

MHC: Are they alike in some way? (exploratory question)

C: Yeah, a little bit.

MHC: That's intriguing, isn't it? (idiosyncratic response)

C: Yeah! It is. And especially if you think about Linda and her pressure on me.

MHC: You worked this out with John and now you've sort of reached a new point.
(reflective response)

C: Yeah. I put her to sleep!

MHC: Linda is gone and the pressure is off and you can go back to John and get
comfortable. (reflective response)
C: Yeah. That's wild. That's really wild.

CONCLUSION

Even though various theories hold in common the importance of the individual's
openness to new experiences and data that become available to awareness, the
role of dreams in relation to developmental growth is too often ignored in the
literature. (For example, in Welch et al.'s [1987] comprehensive review of the
literature there is no mention of dreams and their place in the process of self-
actualization.) Still, there is agreement among various practitioners, researchers,
and theorists that dreams can represent a valid and valuable part of an individual's
experience and may provide significant material for personal change via counseling
(Anderson, 1974; Barrineau, 1989, 1992; Boss, 1958; Capuzzi & Black, 1986;
Foulkes, 1978; Gendlin, 1986; Hall & Nordby, 1972; Jennings, 1986; Purton, 1989;
Van de Castle, 1971).

I believe it is time to reexamine the role that therapeutic dream work can play in
the developmental growth process. In fact, some writers (Jennings, 1986; Purton,
1989) have called counselors' attention to the notion that dream work within
certain theoretical frameworks (e.g., person-centered) is not only possible, but
may enrich our therapeutic effectiveness with clients. I have concurred (Barrineau,
1989, 1992) with these writers and believe that paying attention to dream material,
to the extent that such material is viewed as one more piece of the therapeutic
puzzle, can enhance the process and the outcome of mental health counseling.

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~~~~~~~~

By Phil Barrineau

Phil Barrineau is the director of Career Services at St. Andrews Presbyterian

College, Laurinburg, North Carolina. He is a national certified counselor and a North
Carolina licensed practicing counselor. Correspondence regarding this article should
be sent to Phil Barrineau, St. Andrews Presbyterian College, Laurinburg, NC 28352.

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