UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING GEOMETRICS

AND DRAWING

1.1 DRAWING TOOLS

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.2 ESSENTIAL INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT FOR
ENGINEERING DRAWING
1.2 ENGINEERING DRAWING
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2.2 ENGINEERING DRAWING
1.2.3 DIMENSIONS OF DRAWING SHEETS
1.2.4 BASIC LINE TYPES
1.3 PROJECTIONS
1.3.1 LINE OF SIGHT
1.3.2 TYPES OF PROJECTION
A. AXONOMETRIC(PICTORIAL) PROJECTION
B. DIMETRIC PROJECTION
C. ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
D. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
E. GLASSBOX APPROACH
1.3.3 NAMING OF VIEWS
1.3.4 STANDARD ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
A. THE 1ST ANGLE PROJECTION
B. THE 3RD ANGLE PROJECTION
1.3.5 SECTIONING

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I.1 DRAWING TOOLS
I.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Drawing is the one of the language for communicating ideas, designs and
thoughts to others. Drawing is the non-verbal form of communication which
is the most simplest and efficient way of communication. It is graphical
representation of physical objects and their relationship.

Table 1.1 Essential Instruments and Equipment for Engineering

Drawing

S.no Materials How it looks like

1 Drawing board and stand

2 Tee square

2
3 Mini drafter

4 Set square

5 Protractor

6 Instrument box

3
7 French curves or irregular
curves

8 Pencil

9 Eraser and erasing shield

4
10 Blade, pocket knife, or pencil
sharpener

11 Drawing pins, adhesive tape, or

clips

5
12 Drawing paper

13 Dusting brush

14 Sand paper

6
 15 Scales (engineering scales)

16 Sketch book

The above materials are more commonly used materials for drawing. For
engineering drawing, some uncommon material and highly precise materials are used as
given below.

Table 1.2 Essential Instruments and Equipment for Engineering Drawing

S.no Materials How it looks like

1 Large size compass

(150 mm long) with
inter-changeable
pencil and pen legs

7
2 Large size divider
(150 mm long)

3 Small bow compass

(95 mm long)

4 Small ink bow

compass (95 mm
long)

8
5 Small bow divider
(95 mm long)

6 Lengthening bar

7 Pin point, Ink point

9
8 Ruling pen or liner

9 Holder croquill (for

lines)

10 Lead case (for storing

lead)

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I.2 ENGINEERING DRAWING
I.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering drawing is the language of engineers. Engineering
drawing is the starting point of the producing a product for all the
form of engineering departments. Like all other languages,
engineering drawing also has its grammatical rules and conventions.

I.2.2 BASIC DRAWINGS AND METHODS

A. Bisect a given segment of a line AB
 Draw a line AB of given length.
 Draw arcs using A as the centre with the compass set more than half the
length of AB.
 Draw arcs using B as the centre with the compass set as above.
 Connect the intersection (C and D) by a line.
 The connecting line bisects AB in point M

.
Fig 1.2.1 bisecting a line

B. Bisect a given angle

 Draw any acute angle.
 Draw an arc with S as the centre, thus A and B are obtained.
 Draw any arcs with A and B as the centres which intersect in C
 The connecting line C − S bisects the angle.

Fig 1.2.2 bisecting an angle

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C. Construct an angle of 60°
 Draw a straight line and mark point A on it.
 Open compass of suitable length, place needle on point A and draw an arc,
intersecting the line at B.
 Keeping the compass opening same, place needle on point B and intersect the
arc at point C.
 Join AC. Angle BAC is required angle of 60°.

Fig 1.2.3 construct and angle of 60°

D. Construct an angle of 30°

 Construct an angle ABC of 60°.
 Open a compass, placing the compass needle at point C draw an arc. Similarly
draw an arc from the point B intersecting the arc at point D.
 Join AD, Angle DAB is of 30°, i.e. half of 60°

Fig 1.2.4 construct and angle of 30°

E. Construct an angle of 90°
 Draw a straight line and mark point A on it.
 Open compass to a suitable length, place needle at point A draw an arc
intersecting the line at B. Do not change the opening of compass in the next
steps.
 Place the needle at point B and intersect the arc at point C.
 Similarly placing the needle at point C intersects the arc at point D.
 Taking centre C and D draw arcs intersecting at point E. Join AE.
 Angle BAE is of 90°.

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 .
Fig 1.2.5 construct and angle of 90°

F. Construct an angle of 45°

 Construct an angle BAE of 90°.
 Open a compass and with centre point as B and F, draw arcs intersecting at
point G.
 Join AG. Angle BAG is of 45°.
 It is bisector of 90°.

Fig 1.2.6 construct and angle of 45°

G. Draw a line perpendicular to the line AB in A
 Draw a line AB and the perpendicular is to be drawn at point A.
 Set the compass to any radius and do not change it in further steps.
 Draw an arc about A as centre, thus obtain a point C on the line AB.
 Draw an arc about C as centre, thus obtain point D.
 Draw an arc an arc about D as centre, thus obtain point E and it also touch
line at point A.
 Draw an arc about E as centre, thus obtain point F.
 Connecting line F to A is the perpendicular.

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 Fig1.2.7 draw a perpendicular line

H.Divide a given line into 5 equal parts.

 Draw a line AB which is to be divided in equal parts.
 From A of this line draw a second line at any convenient angle.
 Open a compass and divide the second line into 5 equal spaces (points C − G)
without altering the compass opening.
 Connect G with B.
 Draw parallel lines to GB from all the points (points F-C)
 Thus the line AB gets divided into 5 equal parts.

Fig 1.2.8 divide the line into 5 parts

I. Draw a parallel line by compass
 Draw a straight line AB with ruler and extend to both sides.
 Open compass to a desirable length and place needle at point A on the line
and draw an arc.
 Keeping the same compass opening draw an arc from the point B on the line.
 Mark the highest points on the arcs as C and D.
 Join points C and D and extend the line to both sides. The line CD is parallel
to line AB.
 In case the parallel line is to be drawn passing through the point C, then draw
perpendicular from point C to the line meeting at A, open compass equal to
the length of perpendicular CA, draw an arc from the point B and mark
highest point or point of tangency on the arc D and join CD.
 Alternatively a perpendicular can be drawn from point B and cut this
perpendicular to same length as CA to obtain point D.
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 Fig1.2.9 draw a parallel line
J. Draw a parallel line by corresponding angle methods
 Using a straight edge, draw a horizontal line. On this line put two points P and
Q.
 Draw a diagonal line that goes through point P (approximately a 45 degree
angle). Along this new line, add a point R.
 Using a compass, draw an arc, from point P, that is approximately half way to
point R. Where the arc crosses PR and PQ, label a point S. Do not move the
compass after making this arc.
 Put the compass at point R. Repeat the arc that goes through PR and an
imaginary line parallel to PQ. Label the point where the arc crosses PR as
point T.
 Take the compass and put the endpoint at point S. Draw an arc that has radius
SU and marks the intersection between arc SU and PQ. Do not move the
compass after making this mark.
 With the compass at the same distance as you mark you used in Step 5, put
the compass end at point T. Draw another arc that goes below line PT and
label this intersection point X.
 Draw a straight line that goes through points R and X. You have now
constructed parallel lines. Use the corresponding angles postulate and a
protractor to check if lines RX and PQ are parallel.

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 Fig1.2.10 draw a parallel line by corresponding angle
method

K. The two legs of a right angle have to be connected by a circular arc with
a radius of 30 mm.
 Draw a line SB equal to 30 mm and construct a right angle at S and mark the
point A on the line at a distance of 30mm.
 Draw two parallels lines with respect to SB and SA respectively, which
intersect at point M.
 Therefore AM is parallel to SB and BM is parallel to SA.
 Open the compass to 30 mm and with centre M draw an arc which will touch
the sides of right angle at point A and B.
 Arc AB is the required arc.

Fig1.2.11 circular arc connecting two right angles

L. Find the centre of the circle

 Draw any two chords AB and CD.
 Draw lines perpendicular to the two chords or bisect the two chords and
extend the lines.
 The intersection of these two perpendiculars is the centre (M) of the circle.

Fig1.2.11 centre of the circle

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 M. Construct the tangents to a circle having a diameter of 40 mm. The
tangents have to pass through the common intersection A. The distance
AM is 55 mm. Connect A with B and A with C. AB and AC are the
tangents.
 Find the centre M.
 Draw circle with M as the centre and a radius of 20 mm.
 Draw horizontal and vertical lines passing through M, the lines should be
perpendicular to each other.
 Extend the horizontal line to point A so that AM = 55 mm.
 Bisect AM, thus obtaining M' (AM' =M’M).
 Draw arcs with M' as the centre and AM' as the radius, thus intersecting the
circle at points B and C.
 Join AB and AC.
 AB and AC are tangents to the circle at points B and C.

Fig1.2.12 construction of tangents

TRIANGLES:

1. A triangle is a closed curve which is formed by 3 line segments.

2. Three line segments are connected through which it forms three angles and
hence it is called as triangle.
3. A scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal sides and three unequal
angles.
4. An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two sides, and hence two angles,
equal.
5. An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all the sides, and hence all the
angles, equal.

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 6. A right-angled triangle is a triangle containing one right angle. The side
opposite the right angle is called the ‘hypotenuse’.

A. Equilateral Triangle:
1. Draw a line AB, equal to the length of the side.
2. With compass point on A and radius AB, draw an arc as shown.
3. With compass point on B, and with the same radius, draw another arc to
cut the first arc at C.
4. Triangle ABC is equilateral.

Fig1.2.13 Equilateral Triangle

B. Isosceles triangle:
1. Draw a line AB to a given length.
2. Open a compass more than the length of AB, place the compass needle at
point A and draw an arc.
3. Keeping the same compass opening, place the compass needle at point B
and draw an arc, intersecting at point C.
4. Join AC and BC.
5. ABC is the isosceles triangle in which AC=BC

Fig1.2.14 Isosceles Triangle

C. Scalene triangle with side lengths of 6cm, 5cm and 4cm:

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 1. Use a ruler to draw a 6cm line. Label one end A and the other B.
2. Open the compass to a radius of 5cm.
3. Place the compass needle at point A and draw an arc above the line.
4. Open the compass to a radius of 4cm.
5. Move the compass needle to point B and draw an arc above it.
6. Join each end of the line to the point where the arcs cross.

Fig1.2.15 Scalene Triangle

QUADRILATERAL:

1. Quad means four and lateral means sides. All closed figures with four sides
are called quadrilaterals.
2. A square is a quadrilateral with all four sides of equal length and one of its
angles (and hence the other three) a right angle.
3. A rectangle is a quadrilateral with its opposite sides of equal length and
one of its angles (and hence the other three) a right angle.
4. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides equal and therefore
parallel.
5. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
6. A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.
7. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with all four sides and angles unequal.

A. Square
 Draw the side AB.
 From B erect a perpendicular.
 Mark off the length of side BC.
 With centres A and C draw arcs, radius equal to the length of the side of the
square, to intersect at D.
 ABCD is the required square.
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 Fig1.2.16 Square

B. Diagonal for the square

 Draw the diagonal AC.
 Bisect AC.
 With centre O and radius OA (OC), draw a circle to cut the bisecting line in
B and D.
 Join AB, BC, CD, and DA.
 ABCD is the required square.

Fig1.2.17 Square with diagonals

C. Parallelogram
 Draw AD equal to the length of one of the sides.
 From A construct the known angle.
 Mark off AB equal in length to the other known side.
 With compass point at B, draw an arc equal in radius to AD.
 With compass point at D, draw an arc equal in radius to AB.
 ABCD is the required parallelogram.

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 Fig1.2.18 Parallelogram

D. Trapezium
 Draw one of the parallels AB.
 Construct the parallel line
 Construct the known angle from B to intersect the parallel line in C
 Mark off the known length CD. Join DA.
 ABCD is the required trapezium

Fig1.2.19 Trapezium

E. Rhombus
 Draw the diagonal AC
 From A and C draw intersecting arcs, equal in length to the sides, to meet at B and D.
 Join AB, BC, CD, and DA
 ABCD is the required trapezium.

21
 Fig1.2.20 Rhombus

POLYGON:

A polygon is defined as a plane figure bounded by straight lines. When the

polygon has equal sides and equal angles, it is known as regular polygon. It can be
inscribed in or circumscribed around a circle.

TYPES OF REGULAR POLYGON:

S.No Name Sides Picture

1. Triangle 3

2. Square 4

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3. Pentagon 5

4. Hexagon 6

5. Heptagon 7

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6. Octagon 8

7. Nonagon 9

8. Decagon 10

A. HEXAGON:
 Draw a circle, radius equal to the length of the side.
 From any point on the circumference, step the radius around the circle six
times. If your construction is accurate, you will finish at exactly the same
place that you started
 Connect the six points to form a regular hexagon.

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 Fig1.2.21 Hexagon

B. HEPTAGON:
 Draw a line AB equal in length to one of the sides and produce AB to P
 Calculate the exterior angle of the polygon by dividing 360 ° by the number of
sides. In this case the exterior angle is 360° /7
 Draw the exterior angle PBC so that BC = AB.
 Bisect AB and BC to intersect in O
 Draw a circle, centre O and radius OA (OB = OC).
 Step off the sides of the figure from C to D, D to E, etc
 ABCDEFG is the required heptagon.

Fig1.2.22 Heptagon

C. CONSTRUCTION OF ANY POLYGON:

 Draw AB = given length of polygon
 At B, Draw BP perpendicular and = AB
 Draw Straight line AP
 With centre B and radius AB, draw arc AP
 The perpendicular bisector of AB meets straight line AP and arc AP in 4
and 6 respectively.
 Bisect the distance between point 4 and 6 to get the point 5.
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  Draw circles with centres as 4, 5, and 6 and radii as 4B, 5B, and 6B and
inscribe a square, pentagon, & hexagon in the respective circles.
 Mark point 7, 8, etc. with 6-7, 7-8, etc. = 4-5 to get the centres of circles of
heptagon and octagon, etc.

Fig1.2.23 Construct any Polygon with this method

I.2.3 DIMENSIONS OF DRAWING SHEET

The ISO most recommended paper sizes for technical
drawings are known as A-FORMATS. One can select the correct
size of the drawing sheet according to the scale of the drawing and
size of the object to the drawn. The following are the sizes of
drawing sheets recommended by IS1071-1983.

S.no Sheet designation Width x length

1. A0 841 x 1189

2. A1 594 x 841

3. A2 420 x 594

4. A3 297 x 420

5. A4 210 x 297

6. A5 148 x 210

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I.2.4 BASIC LINE TYPES
In engineering drawing, different types of lines are used for
various purposes prescribed as per by the Bureau of Indian Standards.
Each line in a drawing has a specific meaning.

Type of Illustration Name as Function

line per
Applicatio
n
Continuo Visible Features
us thick line that can be
seen in the
current
view

Continuo Dimension To indicate

us thin line, the sizes
extension and location
line, leader of features
line on a
drawing

Continuo Irregular To show

us thin boundary the irregular
wavy lines boundary of
the object

Continuo Invisible To show

us thin or interior the interior
break surfaces hidden
lines lines outlines and
edges

Chain Centre line To

thin represent
symmetry,
path of
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 motion,
centres of
circles, axis
of
axisymmetr
ic parts

Long Cutting To
chain thin plane lines represent
the location
of an
imaginary
cut has
been made,
so that the
interior of
the object
can be
viewed

Dash Hidden Features

thick line that cannot
be seen in
the current
view

Continuo Long To
us thin break lines represent
with imaginary
zigzag cut, so that
the interior
of the
object can
be viewed

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 Fig1.2.4 Different types of lines

EXERCISES
A. FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. The proper use of geometric constructions requires a basic of
understanding of ----------.
2. The triangle is a plane figure bounded by ------------------ sides.
3. A scalene triangle is a triangle with three unequal ------- and
three -------------- angles.
4. The quadrilateral is a plane figure bounded by ------------------
sides.
5. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all ------------ equal.
6. A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than ----------------
sides.
7. A heptagon is a plane figure bounded by ----------- sides.
8. A decagon is a plane figure bounded by ----------- sides.
B. SHORT ANSWERS
1. Why geometric constructions are important in making drawing?
2. What are the steps required for dividing a straight line into seven
equal parts?
3. Difference between triangle and quadrilateral.
4. Difference between and quadrilateral and polygon.
5. Steps for making polygon having 10 equal sides.
6. Drawing tangents from a given point lying on the diameter of
circle to the circle.

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I.3 PROJECTIONS
I.3.1 Line of sight
Line of sight or projection is the view of an image to be formed by
rays of sight taken in particular direction from an object to a picture plane.
The plane in which the image is conceived is known as the plane of
projection.

Fig1.3.1 Line of sight

I.3.2 Types of projections

I. AXONOMETRIC(PICTORIAL) PROJECTION
The three dimensions that is length, width or breadth and thickness
or height of an object may be shown by means of a single view namely
isometric, oblique, perspective are called as axonometric projection.

II. DIMETRIC PROJECTION

In diametric projection, all dimensions along two axes are drawn to
true size. The dimensions along the third axis are halved. This projection
is preferred when one view of the object is to be emphasized than the
other two views (i.e. when that one view is of more interest than the
other views).
III. ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
In isometric projection, all dimensions along all the three axes are
drawn to true size. Isometric projection is preferred when the three

30
 views of the object are of equal importance for accurate presentation of
the object.

Fig1.3 Pictorial Projections

IV. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

In an orthographic projection, there are two or more views. Each
views show any two dimension of an object.

Fig1.3.1 Orthographic Projections

V. GLASSBOX APPROACH

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 Consider an imaginary glass box inside which the object is placed.
Views of the object are projected onto the sides of the box to create the
principle views. The front is the primary plane, and the other sides are
hinged and rotated into position

Fig1.3.2 Glass box approach

Fig1.3.3 Glass box approach 2

I.3.3 Naming of views

Front view : When the object is viewed from the front, the
projection obtained on the vertical plane is known as the front view or
elevation.
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 Top view : When the object is viewed from the above,
the projection obtained on the horizontal plane is known as the top view
or plan.

Side view : When the object is viewed from the sides, the
projection obtained on the auxiliary vertical plane is known as the side
view.

Fig1.3.4 Different types of views

1.3.4 STANDARD ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

1) FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
When the object is placed in the first quadrant of graph and
projected on the horizontal plane and the vertical plane, the projection is
known as the first angle projection. In this method, the object lies
between the observer and the plane of projection. While drawing the
views, the front view is drawn on vertical plane and top view is drawn on
the horizontal plane.

33
 Fig1.3.5 First angle projection

2) THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

When the object is placed in the third quadrant and projected
on the Horizontal plane and the vertical plane, the projection is
known as the third angle projection. In this method, the picture plane
lies between the observer and the object. While drawing the views,
the front view is drawn on the vertical plane and top view is drawn on
the horizontal plane.

Fig1.3.6 Third angle projection

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 Fig1.3.7 the symbol used for first angle and third angle projections

1.3.5 SECTIONING
We have come across large number of complex components
which have inner cavities, hidden objects, etc. In order to know the
inner details, the section view is used.

Purpose of the sectional views

 To show the internal details
 To show the dimensions of the hidden features more
clearly
 To avoid hidden views, which make the orthographic
views more complicated.

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 Fig1.3.8 Sectioning of an isometric view

EXERCISES
A. FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. A drawing is a ------------------ representation of a real object.
2. Engineering drawings do not portray the objects the way they ---
--------- to the eye.
3. A scale has no ----------- as it is simply a ratio.
4. The scale of 1:1 implies the object has been drawn to -------- size.
5. Hidden lines represent features that cannot be seen in the ----------
-view.
6. A view of a part for -----------------is known technically as a ------
--------.
7. A system of views of an object formed by projectors from the
object perpendicular to the desired planes of projection is known
as -------------- or ------------ projections.
8. Line of sight is an imaginary ray of ------------ between an
observer’s eye and an object.
9. Plane of projection is an imaginary -------------- on which the
image is created.
10. In isometric projection, all dimensions along all the --------- are
drawn to ------- size.

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 B. SHORT ANSWERS
1. Why engineering drawing are important in manufacturing and
assembly?
2. What are the steps required for making engineering drawing?
3. What is importance of scale in making engineering drawing?
4. Difference between and diametric and isometric projection.
5. Different formats of paper sizes in making engineering drawing.

1.4 DIMENSIONING TECHNIQUES

1.4.1. INTRODUCTION

Drawings in additions to shape description, Must furnish the size description for
correct production of parts. The size production consist the following information.

1. Distance between surfaces

2. Location of holes
3. Surface finish required
4. Tolerance
5. Types of materials
6. Quantity required etc
The expression of the above information on the drawing by means of lines, symbols,
figures and notes is Known as dimensioning.

1.4.2. DIMENSIONING TERMS AND NOTATIONS

The different terms, lines, symbols, figures and notes in dimensioning are shown
in figure

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Fig 1.4.1

1.4.2.(a). Dimensions lines

They are thick continues lines used to show the shape of the object

1.4.2.(b). Projection lines

These are thin continues lines extending from points, lines or surface to indicate
the measurement given by dimension line. The arrow head placed at the end of
dimension line touches projection line. These lines extend about 3mm beyond
dimension line.

1.4.2.(c). Termination and origin indication

Each end of the dimension line has an arrow head (or) oblique stroke (or) origin
indication (fig 1.4.2)

The ratio of depth and length of arrow head is 1:3

38
 Fig 1.4.2

Only one type of arrow head termination should be used on a single drawing. But
where space is insufficient for arrow head, The oblique stroke of the dot may be
used (fig 1.4.3)

Fig 1.4.3

1.4.2.(d). Leader line

A leader is a thin line connecting a descriptive note with the features. It consists of
a arrowhead touching line features and the other end is terminated by a small
horizontal line(about 3mm length)

39
 Fig 1.4.4

1.4.3. GENERAL HINTS ON DIMENSIONING

 NOTE that all “rules “ on dimensioning are just guidelines. Use common
sense depending on circumstances
(i.e.there are no strict rules/regulations on dimensions)
 In metric system, all leaner dimensions are considered to be in millimeter.
 Show full size dimensions regardless of the scale used in the drawing.
 Dimension in a manner that makes it unnecessary to calculate any required
size information.

Fig 1.4.5

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1.4.4. DRAWING SHEET LAYOUT

Standard layouts of drawing sheets are specified by the various standards

organizations. Fig 1.4.6 , shows layout of a typical sheet, showing the drawing
frame, a typical title block, parts list and the space for orthographic projections.

Fig 1.4.6

1.4.4.(a). Title Block

In every engineering drawing, a Title Block is included at the bottom right-hand

corner. The Title Blocks are locally standardized but should be designed in such a
way that it can be easily understood. The information needed in any standard Title
Block is normally

 Name of the student

 Name of the school
 Number of the drowning
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  Roll Number of the Student
 Class of the Student
 Dimensioning unit
1.4.4.(b). Spacing of Views

Spacing of views on the drawing paper is extremely important. The general

appearance of the drawing is significantly affected if the different views are poorly
spaced. Spacing of views requires us to place the views on the drawing paper such
that the spaces between the views and between the views and the limits of the drawing
space are roughly equal (horizontally and vertically).

Steps

1. Decide on the views to be drawn (i.e. front view, left hand side view and top
view).
2. Determine the extreme dimensions of the different views to be drawn.

Fig 1.4.7

42
 3. Determine the required space, based on the scale to be used, both along the
horizontal and vertical directions.
4. Divide the “free space” into three equal portions, both horizontally and vertically.
This determines X and Y as shown in the Fig- .

Horizontal Free Space = (Horizontal Drawing Space) – (Occupied Space) = d – (c + b)

Horizontal spacing (X) = (Horizontal Free Space)/ (Number of Spaces) = {d – (c + b)}/3

Vertical Free Space = (Vertical Drawing Space) – (Occupied Space) = e – (a + b)

Vertical spacing (Y) = (Vertical Free Space)/ (Number of Spaces) = {e – (a + b)}/3

Problems : Read the dimensioned drawing shown below, Redraw the figure in full
size and dimension as per Indian standard

Problem 1

43
Problem 2

44
Problem 3

Problem 4

45
Problem 5

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 UNIT 2: FASTENER
LEARNING OUTCOME

 To study about Fasteners, their types, and its uses

 To study various procedure used for removal of fasteners in a vehicle
 To study the various special tools for handling of fasteners
 To study the Importance of specified torque values for tightening the fastener

2.0. INTRODUCTION

A fastener is a mechanical part, which is used to join to or more parts/objects to form an

assembly or sub-assembly. An automobile vehicle is a combination / assembly of large
number of sub-assemblies and components, it is not a single component. There are two
types of joints used in manufacturing a vehicle. They are:

 kinematic joint – components or sub-assemblies can move with respect to each

other;
 rigid joint - components are physically fixed together, with no relative motion
possible;

Above types of joints are used to create two kinds of joints in a vehicle called permanent
joints and non-permanent joints.

In general,

Fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints - joints that can be removed or
dismantled without damaging the joining components.

Weldingis an example of creating permanent joints.

Automotive fasteners are the mechanical parts or components like bolts, nuts, screw,
stud, rivets, shims, pin, tie rods, etc., used for holding or connecting two or more objects
together in an assembly.

Automotive fasteners are made up of variety of metals such as stainless steel, iron, brass,
aluminium, nickel etc.

The parts or components, which need to be dismantled for repair and replacement, are
joined by mechanical fasteners. If the parts or sub-assemblies malfunction, they can be
repaired or replaced by opening the fasteners.

47
2.1 Fasteners, their types, and uses

2.1.1 Fasteners

Fastener is a device that is used to mechanically join (or fasten) two or more objects
together.

There are many different types of mechanical fasteners.

In general, fasteners can be divided into two main categories;

Permanent fasteners (assembled parts cannot be disassembled without destroy or damage

joining components as well as the joint itself.)

Non-permanent fasteners (they enable parts to be assembled and disassembled

repeatedly)

2.1.2 Types of Fasteners

Based on the application area and usage, the fasteners are classified into many types;
 Bolts
 Screws
 Nuts
 Washers
 Rivets
 Concrete
anchors
 Inserts
 Threaded Rods
 Retaining
Rings
 Nails

48
Bolts:

A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread. Bolts are very closely
related to screws. The bolt consists of a head and a cylindrical body with screw threads along
a portion of its length. The nut is the female member of the pair, having internal threads to
match those of the bolt. Washers are often used to prevent loosening and crushing. Bolts use
a wide variety of head designs, to engage with the tool used to tighten them. A bolt is defined
either in Inch or Metric. The machine screw or bolt is described by length, the type of head
and the thread.

Fig. 2.1.1 Parts of standard bolt Fig. 2.1.2 ISO Metric Bolts

Thread on the bolt:

A thread is a ridge of uniform section in the form of a helix on the internal or external surface
of a cylinder or it could be described as a sloping plane curled around a cylinder.

Fig. 2.1.3 Thread on the bolt

A thread is a continuous helical ridge formed on the inside (nut) or outside (bolt) of a
cylinder. This ridge is called the crest. Between each crest is a space, called the root.
Threads are set at an angle to the axis of the bolt or nut. This slope is called the helix angle.
The angle must be sloped, either upward to the right (for right-hand threaded screws) or
upward to the left (for left-hand threaded screws). The thread forms a “V” shape between
crests. The angle of this “V” is called the thread angle, and is determined by fastener
engineers.

49
Pitch diameter: The pitch diameter (often called the effective diameter) of a parallel thread
is the diameter of the imaginary co-axial cylinder which intersects the surface of the thread in
such a manner that the intercept on a generator of the cylinder, between the points where it
meets the opposite flanks of a thread groove, is equal to half the nominal pitch of the thread.

Major diameter: The major diameter of a thread is the diameter of the imaginary co-axial
cylinder that just touches the crest of an external thread or the root of an internal thread.

Minor diameter: The minor diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that just
touches the roots of an external thread and (or) the crests of an internal thread.

Flank: The flanks of a thread are the straight sides that connect the crest and the root.

Thread angle: The angle of a thread is the angle between the flanks, measured in an axial
plane section.

Thread pitch is the distance from the crest of one thread to another crest measured along the
length of the thread. Pitch is best measured using a thread pitch gauge.

Type Shape Features

Available in roll thread as well as cut thread
Anchor bolt and "J" shaped Anchor bolts: Available in roll
thread as well as cut thread.
A type of threaded fastener designed to be used
Carriage bolt with wood, although specialized versions can
be used to fasten metal components.
This type of threaded fastener designed to be
Elevator bolt used with wood, although specialized versions
can be used to fasten metal components.
An Eye Bolt is a screw with a loop on one end
Eye bolts and threads on the other end. Eye bolts are
commonly used to attach cables to objects.
The large bearing surface of Flange Bolts
distributes clamping force over a large area,
Flange bolt
allowing them to be used with irregular and
oversized holes.
This bolt that is used in truck frames. The
Frame bolt flange eliminates washers and helps
compensate for a misaligned hole.

50
 Hanger Bolts are threaded at both ends. One
Hanger bolt end is a lag screw thread for wood; the other
end has a bolt thread.
It has wider head than standard Hex bolt. It
Heavy hex
offers greater wrenching area, also used in
bolt
heavy duty industrial work.
This type of Bolts is common throughout the
industry. They are available in different grades
Hex bolt
of steel, stainless, brass, silicon bronze and
other types of material.
A Hex Socket Head Screw with an enlarged,
unthreaded, cylindrical shoulder under the
Socket
head. For rotation or sliding applications such
shoulder bolt
as pulley shafts in punch and die works or for
use as a bearing pin.
A Lag Bolt or screw is a full-bodied bolt with a
hex head, spaced threads, and a gimlet point.
Lag bolt
For use in wood applications such as fences,
patio covers etc.

Socket screw have an enlarged, unthreaded,

Socket screws cylindrical shoulder under the head. Allen head
wrench is used for tightening the screw.

Square headed bolts are the same as the Hex

Square head Cap screw except the head is square instead of
bolt hexagonal. They have the Roll thread and come
in the Lag screw thread as well.
A U-Bolt is a U-shaped bolt with two threaded
arms protruding from a curved base. U-bolts are
used as framing fasteners and anchors for
U-Bolt
foundations and roofs, pipe and conduit holders
and bolts for motor and engine shaft
components.
Knurled bolts This is a special bolt that is used in Electrical
Switchboards and or Panel Boards.
Plough bolts are used on many types of heavy
Plough bolt construction equipment, such as snowplows,
road graders, and scoop shovels.

51
 A type of bolt with a T-shaped head that
T-head bolt matches T-slots in a machine table. T-head
bolts are used for holding parts on a machine
table.
Table 2.1.1 Types of bolts

Screws:

A screw and a bolt are similar types

of fastener typically made of metal,
and characterized by a helical ridge,
known as a male thread (external
thread).

The nut is the female pair of bolts

having internal threads to fasten
materials. But Screws are often self-
threading, where the thread cuts into
the material when the screw is turned,
creating an internal thread that helps
pull fastened materials together and
prevent disassemble.
Fig. 2.1.4 ISO Metric Machine Screws
Machine screws are often used
as bolts with nuts, but also often
driven into tapped holes (without
nuts).

Type Shape Features

Pan heads are slightly rounded with short
Phillips pan
vertical sides. Phillips drives are X shaped for
head
a Phillips screw driver.

52
 Flat heads are countersunk (cone shaped
Slotted flat
under the head) with a flat top. Slotted drives
head
are simple slots for a flat bladed screw driver.
Oval heads are countersunk (cone shaped
Slotted oval
under the head) with a rounded top. Slotted
head
drives are simple slots for a flat bladed screw
Slotted truss Truss
driver. heads are wide with a low-profile
head rounded top. Slotted drives are simple slots
for a flat bladed screw driver.
Round heads are domed and look like half of
Slotted round
a sphere. Slotted drives are simple slots for a
head
flat bladed screw driver.
Pan heads are slightly rounded with short
Torx Pan head vertical sides. Torx drives are six pointed
type F recesses designed for maximum installation
torque.
Slotted hex Slotted hex washer heads are six sided for use
washer head with a wrench, have a slot for use with a flat
type F bladed screw driver and have a built in
Washer.
Flat heads are countersunk (cone shaped
Phillips flat
under the head) with a flat top. Phillips drives
head
are X shaped for a Phillips screw driver.
Oval heads are countersunk (cone shaped
Phillips oval
under the head) with a rounded top. Phillips
head
drives are X shaped for a Phillips screw
driver.
Truss heads are wide with a low-profile
Phillips truss
rounded top. Phillips drives are X shaped for
head
a Phillips screw driver.
Truss heads are wide with a low-profile
Combo truss rounded top. Combination drives have both a
head slot and an X shaped recess for use with
either a flat bladed or Phillips screw driver.
Round heads are domed and look like half of
Combo round a sphere. Combination drives have both a slot
head and an X shaped recess for use with either a
flat bladed or Phillips screw driver.
Flat heads are countersunk (cone shaped
Torx flat head
under the head) with a flat top. Torx drives
type F
are six pointed recesses designed for
Machine
maximumscrews with no
installation head for screwing all
torque.
Set screw
the way into threaded holes.

53
 Sheet metal A sheet metal screw having a self-drilling
screw point.

Table 2.1.2 Types of Screws

Nuts:

A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts

are mostly used as a opposite pair of bolts to fasten
multiple parts together. The two partners are kept
together by a combination of their thread’s friction, a
slight stretching of the bolt, and compression of the
parts to be held together. The nuts are made of the
same material as bolts which can be aluminium,
brass, copper alloy, plastic, steel, hardened steel,
stainless steel, super alloys, titanium etc.
Fig. 2.1.5 ISO Metric Nuts

Type Shape Features

Hex finish nuts are used for fastening to a hex
Hex Finish cap screw, socket cap screw or bolt. The hex
Nuts finish nuts are hex shaped with internal threads
and driven with a wrench
Larger, heavier, and thicker than a standard hex
Heavy Hex
nut. Heavy hex nuts are hex shaped. Often used
Nuts
with hex cap screws and carriage bolts.
The nylon material prevents loosening from
Nylon Insert
vibration and cross threads to stop the nut from
Lock Nuts
backing off the fastener.
A jam nut is often used when a nut needs to be
Hex Jam
locked in place without clamping to another
Nuts
object. They are thinner than hex finish nuts.

54
 A machine nut is hex shaped with internal
Hex
threads. Smaller than a hex jam or hex finish nut,
Machine
they are used with machine screws under 1/4"
Nuts
diameter.
Nylon Hex Nylon Hex Jam Nuts is like Nylon Insert Lock
Jam Nuts Nuts.It has low-profile than lock Nut
Wing nuts are threaded nuts with wings on each
Wing Nuts side of the body allowing for manual turning and
installation.
A knurled head thumb nut or thumb nut has a
Knurled
knurled outside surface, which facilitates
Thumb
tightening by hand. Often used in decorative
Nuts
finishes or applications

The cap nut has a domed top to prevent contact

Cap Nuts
with the external thread.

A flange nut has a wide flange at one end which

Flange
acts as an integrated washer that does not move
Serrated
or spin, also distributes the pressure of the nut
Nuts
over the part to prevent loosening.
T-Nut is used to fasten wood particle or
composite board leaving a flush surface. T-nuts
T - Nuts
often have 3 or 4 prongs that sink into the
surface providing better retention.
Structural hex nuts are comparable to finish nuts
Structural
but are made to be thicker and much stronger.
Heavy Hex
They are typically used in steel to steel structural
Nuts
connections.
A four-sided nut that may be flat or bevelled on
top. Square nuts provide a greater surface
Square Nuts contact area which provides more resistance to
loosening. Typically mated with square head
bolts.
Prevailing torque lock nuts have chamfered
Prevailing
corners and a conical top. The distortion in the
Torque Lock
top thread resists loosening from vibration. They
Nuts
can tighten from one end only also used in high
(Stover)
temperature since there is no nylon insert in it.
Shear nuts having hexagonal gripping point and
Break Away
protective cone. Hexagonal head breaks off once
or Shear
the maximum torque is reached but a protective
Nuts
cone cannot be easily removed.

55
 These nuts require a special gripping device to
Tri-Groove
install them making them more secure than a
Nuts
typical nut.
Keps or K-lock nut has an attached free spinning
Keps or K -
lock washer. Keps nuts are designed to make
Lock Nuts
assembly more convenient.
A coupling nut is a threaded fastener used for
Coupling joining two male threads. The outside of the
Nuts fastener is a hex so it can be driven with a
wrench.
Slotted hex nuts with portions cut out designed
to be used with a cotter pin to create a locking
Slotted Hex
mechanism. These nuts are like a castle nut but
Nuts
have a lower profile which makes them a better
option.
Used with cotter pins to prevent loosening. Used
Castle Nuts in low-torque applications such as holding a
wheel bearing in place.

Table 2.1.3 Types of Nuts

Washers:

Washer is a machine component that is used in

conjunction with a screw fastener such as a bolt and
nut and that usually serves either to keep the screw
from loosening or to distribute the load from the nut
or bolt head over a larger area.

Washers are usually metal or plastic. High-quality

bolted joints require hardened steel washers to Fig. 2.1.6 ISO Metric Washers
prevent the loss of pre-load due to brinelling after
the torque is applied.

Automotive washers are the small flat dishes having a hole in the centre. These
essential auto fasteners are generally made of metal, leather, plastic, and rubber. The
main function of the automotive washers is to hold or bear the load of a threaded
fastener or bolt.

Type Shape Features

Rivet backup washers are used to create a larger
Backup
install diameter giving the rivet a better hold and
Rivet
more support. Backup washers can help to prevent
Washers
pull-through of a rivet.

56
 A washer with a slight conical shape, which provides
Belleville
an axial force when deformed. The surface may be
Conical
serrated, which will have improved locking
Washers
capabilities
Dock washers are heavy duty washers, often used to
Dock
build docks. Also used in heavy duty construction
Washers
where a thick washer is needed.
Fender washers are round washers with a small
Fender
inside diameter hole. Fender washers provides
Washers
greater bearing surface under the fastener.
Extra thick fender washers are thicker than standard
Fender
fender washers and are used to prevent pull-through
Washers –
and provide a greater bearing surface under the
Extra Thick
fastener.

Finishing Finishing cup washers form a cup for the head of the
Cup screw or fastener to fit in, creating a finish flush with
Washers the top of the head.

Flat washers are used to distribute loads of threaded

Flat Washers bolts, screws, and nuts evenly as the fastener is
tightened.

Lock
High collar lock washers are designed to fit under
Washers –
the head of a socket cap screw.
High Collar
Split ring lock washers are used to prevent nuts,
Lock
bolts, and screws from vibrating loose. These
Washers –
washers are rings which are split at one point and
Split Ring
bent into a helical shape.
Lock
Round washers with teeth on the outside, used for
Washers –
maximum holding power. Must be used with
External
fasteners with adequate head diameter.
Tooth
Lock
A round washer with internal teeth, designed to
Washers –
prevent a nut or screw head from loosening with the
Internal
strut action created by the teeth.
Tooth
Square washers may be flat on both sides or flat on
one side and beveled on one side. Often used with
Square
square head bolts, square provide a larger surface
Washers
area and greater hold than standard round flat
washers.

57
 Structural washers are thick and strong, built for
Structural heavy duty applications such as construction. These
Washers washers can be found in steel beams and girder
fastener assemblies.

Table 2.1.4 Types of Washers

Rivets:

A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener.

Before fastening, a rivet consists of a smooth
cylindrical shaft with a head at the on one
end and tail in the opposite end. While using,
the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled
hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e.,
deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5
times the original shaft diameter, holding the
rivet in place.

To differentiate between the two ends of the Fig. 2.1.7 Rivets

rivet, the original head is called the factory
head and the deformed end is called the shop
head or buck-tail. Rivets are made from soft
aluminium alloy, steel (including stainless
steel), copper, and Monel.

Type Shape Features

POP Rivets, also known as blind rivets, are used to
POP Rivets connect two pieces of material in quick, efficient
(Open End) way. POP Rivets are tubular, comprised of a hat
and mandrel.

Closed End Closed End Rivets differ from a standard blind pop
POP Rivets rivet in that they feature a closed end which creates
(Sealed) a watertight seal.

Large flange, also called Oversize, pop rivets have

Large
a larger washer on the hat than standard POP
Flange POP
Rivets. They are used to connect two pieces of
Rivets
material in quick, efficient way.

58
 Countersunk, also called Flat. The hat of the rivet is
Countersunk
almost inverted, with a 120-degree countersink in
POP Rivets
the integrated washer.
Colored rivets are type of open-end pop rivets have
a hat that has been painted wither brown, black or
Colored white. These colors are used to hide rivets and
Rivets create a finished look or to make them extra visual
by using the opposing color from the installation
material.
Multi-grip rivets are often used to substitute
conventional rivets where the thickness of
Multi-Grip
installation materials can vary. The rivet simply
Rivets
expands to the size (within its range) and holds the
two materials together.
Structural rivets are used where a watertight,
Structural vibration resistant connection is of importance.
Rivets Typically used in manufacture or repair of truck
bodies.
A rivet that splits into three equal legs like a molly
Tri-Fold
bolt. Typically used in soft plastics where a wide
Rivets
footprint is needed at the rear surface.

Table 2.1.5 Types of Rivets

Inserts:

Type Shape Features

Dowel pins are manufactured on pneumatic dowel
equipment and come in pre-cut lengths and diameters.
Dowel
They are cylindrical with slightly beveled ends. Used
Pins
in industries such as aerospace, joint reinforcement,
shelf support, furniture building, etc.,
Helical Helical inserts are precision formed screw thread coils
Threaded worked into a diamond shape and wound into a spiral
Inserts coil which is installed into helical tapped holes
E-Z Lok E-Z Lok threaded inserts for metal are installed using
Threaded standard tools. Threaded Inserts are used for wood
Inserts and soft material applications.

59
 Table 2.1.6 Types of Inserts

Retaining Rings:

A retaining ring is a fastener that holds components or assemblies onto a shaft or in a

housing/bore when installed - typically in a groove - for one time use only. Once installed,
the exposed portion acts as a shoulder which retains the specific component or assembly.
Retaining rings are typically made from carbon steel, stainless steel or beryllium copper and
may feature a variety of finishes for aesthetics and corrosion protection depending on the
type of environment in which they are used.

Type Shape Features

External Bowed E radially assembled Rotor Clips or
Bowed-E retaining rings are designed to be installed into a
Retaining groove on a shaft. Once snapped into a groove, these
Rings clips exert a force or –preload on retained parts, in
order to compensate for accumulated tolerances.
Radially assembled retaining rings are installed
E-Style
externally into machined grooves on a shaft. These
Retaining
rings have no lug holes and must be installed using
Rings
applicators.
Axially installed External Rotor Clips or retaining
External
rings are designed to be installed into a groove or
Shaft
shaft. Once installed in a groove on a shaft, a portion
Retaining
of these retaining rings protrude from the groove in
Rings
order to create a shoulder to keep an assembly.
Axially installed Internal Rotor Clips or retaining
Internal
rings are designed to be installed into a groove on a
Housing
shaft. Once installed in a bore or housing, a portion of
Retaining
these retaining rings protrude from the groove in order
Rings
to create a shoulder to keep an assembly.

Table 2.1.7 Types of Retaining Rings

Threaded Rod:

A threaded rod is threaded with no head, available in many grades

and materials. Often referred to as redi-rod, fully threaded rod and
ATR, threaded rod is used for fastening anything from an anchor Fig.
bolt, to suspending electrical or plumbing equipment from a 2.1.8Threaded
ceiling. Often used in drop ceiling application Rod

60
 Unthreaded Rod:

Unthreaded rod, also called round rod, is used in framework, shafts,

braces, supports and axles
Fig.
2.1.9Unthreaded
Rod

Keystock:

Keystock is a solid rectangular shaped solid barstock. It is often

formed or machined into a machine key, Keystock usually serves as
a wedge or locking device in shaft keyways once it has been Fig.
formed into the proper shape. 2.1.10Keystock

2.1.3 Uses of Fasteners

Fasteners are used wherever a permanent joint or non-permanent joint is needed.

Steel Automotive fasteners include nuts, bolts, screws, retainers, spring clips or washers are
used in door panels, small engine parts, airbag housings, among many other parts of a
vehicle.

Some of the industrial application of fasteners are:

Military – Fasteners specially designed to withstand the stress of high temperature, high
wear, and corrosive environments such as engines, motors, heat exchangers and process
equipment.

Oilfield – Fasteners manufactured using stainless steel, tool alloys, nickel alloys and exotic
metals that will perform well in the high stress, corrosive environment found in oilfield and
mining applications.

Turbine & Power Generation – Fasteners used in electrical equipment, turbines, motors,
exhaust systems, pumping systems, and storage vessels.

Chemical Refining – Fasteners manufactured using stainless steel, tool alloys, nickel alloys
and exotic metals that will perform well in the high stress, corrosive environment found in
chemical processing applications

Marine – Fasteners that perform well in the harsh marine environment without corroding.
Copper alloys are ideal for the marine environment and bronzes perform well in saltwater
applications.

EXERCISE - ASSIGNMENT

61
  Make list of bolts used in a vehicle and explain their uses.
 Find the types of machine screws used in a vehicle and explain their uses.
 List the types of nuts used in a vehicle and state their features.
 Draw different types of washers used in automobile.
 List out the types of rivets used in automobile.
 List the types of studs used in a vehicle

EVALUATION

Fill in the blanks

1. Two types of joints used in manufacturing a vehicle are kinematic joint andrigid joint.
2. Fastener is a device that is used to mechanically joinorfasten two or more objects
together.
3. The bolt consists of a headanda cylindrical body with screw threads along a portion of
its length.
4. The flanks of a thread are the straight sides that connect the crestandthe root.
5. Pitch is best measured using a thread pitch gauge.
6. An Eye Bolt is a screw with a loopon one end and threads on the other end.
7. Knurled bolt is a special bolt that is used in Electrical Switchboards and or Panel
Boards.
8. Screws are often self-threading
9. A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole.
10. Washer usually serves either to keep the screw from loosening or to distribute the load
from the nut or bolt head over a larger area.
11. The original head of the rivet is called the factory head and the deformed end is called
the shophead.
12. The nut is the female pair of bolts having internal threads.
13. Threaded Inserts are used for woodandsoft material applications.
14. A retaining ring is a fastener that holds componentsorassemblies onto a shaftor in a
housing.

Explain Briefly

1. Explain fasteners and its categories

2. Explain different diameters in a thread of the Bolt
3. Differentiate between bolt and screw.
4. What is the use of threads in fasteners?
5. List out different types of Bolt Heads
6. List the common materials on which the Bolts and Nuts are made of
7. Differentiate between Hex Jam Nuts and Nylon Hex Jam Nuts
8. What are the uses of washers in automobile?
9. Explain how the reverts are working.
10. Explain types of Shaft Retaining Rings
11. List out the industrial uses of fasteners

62
Explain in Detail

1. Explain the threads on the bolt

2. Write any 5 types of Bolts and its features
3. Explain different types of machine screws and its features
4. Explain Each
a) Wing Nuts
b) Knurled Thumb Nuts
c) Flange Serrated Nuts
d) T – Nuts
e) Prevailing Torque Lock Nuts (Stover)
f) Castle Nuts
5. Explain different types of Rivets
6. Explain Retaining Rings and its varieties

Practical Questions

1. Identify various fasteners used in a vehicle.

2. Able to separate each type of fasteners
3. Able to loosen and tighten different types of bolts and screws using hand tools
4. Make a poster showing profile of ISO metric of each fastener
5. Able to locate Different fasteners in automobile and explain about that fastener

2.2 Removal of Fasteners in a Vehicle

When we try to remove the fastener from the vehicle? In an automobile, there is a possibility
for failure of the fastener.ie, inability to perform the assigned task. The failure is due to the
fracture of fasteners. There are various causes of failures: jerk & vibration, improper uses of
screw drivers, Overload, lack of Locking Mechanism, Metal Fatigue, Improper Torque,
Corrosion Failure, Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE), Galling.

Fig. 2.2.1 Damaged Fasteners

2.2.1 Method of removal of spoiled headed nut & bolts

63
1. Impact Force using a flathead screwdriver, and
hammer

A simple chisel, or large flathead screwdriver, and

hammer will solve the problem most of the time. Nuts or
Fig.2.2.2 Screwdriver
bolts that are extremely stuck may have to be removed
with an impact gun. and Hammer

Impact force given, helps to remove damaged bolts or

nuts from the threaded hole.

2. Using an Extracting Kit

Using a hammer, mark the centre of the broken bolt with

a centre punch. The extracting bit will have a tapered,
left-handed bit at one end and either a hex head or a T-
Fig.2.2.3 Extracting Kit
handle head at the other. Continue turning the extracting
tool counter clockwise until the broken bolt has been
completely removed from the surface

3. Using Drill and Tap

You need to choose the drill bit, which removes the stud
or bolt but leaves its threads. Continuously drill the hole
until the bolt removed fully. Then use a tap and die set Fig.2.2.4 Drill and Tap
several times to repair any damaged thread and use a new
bolt.

4. Pipe Wrench

This is a basic way to tackle a stripped bolt, and almost

everyone has a pipe wrench kicking around their shop.
Tighten the pipe wrench down on the bolt or nut. As you
Fig.2.2.5 Pipe Wrench
crank on the bolt with the pipe wrench, it grabs harder
onto the bolt head.

2.2.2 Methods for removing of damaged screw

64
1. Using a Manual Screwdriver with a Rubber Band

Place the rubber band over the screw driver bit and pull
tight enough that there's no slack, then gently insert the
driver bit into the stripped screw head and turn the screw
loose. If the screw isn't totally stripped the rubber band Fig.2.2.6 Manual
will help fill in the areas where the screw has been Screwdriver with a
stripped and provide friction where it's needed, allowing Rubber Band
the screw to be removed.

2. Using Vice-Grips or Pliers

This method is used if the screw isn’t fully tightened.

Just hold the head of the screw with plier and start to
turn. Loosen the screw gently to prevent damaging the Fig.2.2.7 Pliers
surrounding surface of threaded hole.

3. Cut a Notch Using a rotary tool

Using a rotary tool with a cutting wheel cut a single slot

into the head of the stripped screw. Then, use flathead
screwdriver to loosen damaged Screw. Fig.2.2.8 Pliers

2.2.3 Some important tools used in removal of damaged fasteners

1. Cordless Drill Nail Puller

The slotted nail-puller slips beneath the head of a nail and

draws it straight out of the wood into the metal shaft of the
attachment. And by extracting the nails straight out of the
wood without bending them, you can reuse the nails. Fig.2.2.9 Cordless
Drill Nail Puller

2. Nail Jack Tools

The design of the Nail Jack pliers provides the needed

leverage and gripping power for making nail extraction easier,
and even offers the ability to dig a nail out of the wood. The
digging action is aided by the thin cutting blades that slip Fig.2.2.10 Nail Jack
beneath the nail heads. Tools

65
3. Penetrating Fluids

Before you damage seized fasteners completely, use

penetrating fluids to remove them. The penetrant penetrates
the tiny cracks and fissures, between the threads, the rust, and Fig.2.2.11Penetrating
the mating hole. This Helps to remove damaged fasteners Fluids
easily.

4. Use of Heat

As heat is rapidly applied, it excites the molecules in the

metals, causing the expansion of stubborn, immovable
fastener, this helps to remove the fastener easily from its Fig.2.2.11 Use of
installed surface. Heat

5. Specialty Hex Nut & Bolt Removal Tools Fig

.2.2
A pair of tools that are designed to aid in the removal of .12
stripped hex headed fasteners and nuts. These removers are He
size specific and can usually fit both imperial and metric x Nut & Bolt
sizes. Removal Tools

2.2.4 Steps to remove Damaged Screw / Bolt using Screw Extractor

Step 1: Getting the Screw/Bolt Ready

Centre punch the broken Bolt/Screw as close to

the centre as possible.

Using a hammer, mark the centre of the broken bolt

with a centre punch. A centre punch is a metal
cylinder that looks like a pen. Fig.2.2.13 Centre Punch

Apply a drop of oil to the Screw/Bolt.

Cutting oil lubricates the metal, which means less

time spent drilling and less wear and tear for your
drill bit. Penetrating oil is needed for rusted fastener
attached to metal surfaces. It loosens the screw, Fig.2.2.14 Applying Oil

66
making it easier to remove.

Step 2: Drilling the Screw/Bolt

Drill a pilot hole into the centre of the broken bolt

with the left-handed drill bit.

Hold the drill bit slightly less wide than the

screw/bolt head. You want to use a left-handed bit
(which is threaded in the opposite direction) because
it will torque in the opposite direction as the broken
Fig.2.2.15 Left-handed
bolt, which will stop the bolt from being driven in
Drill bit
tighter.

Drill a hole for the extractor.

You will need to drill hole which size exactly equal to

the screw extractor we use. Hold up the extractor to
compare it to the hole we drilled on the head of
Fig.2.2.16 Drilling large
bolt/screw.
hole

Step 3: Selection of Perfect Extractor

There are many types of extractor available

in the market, we must choose a suitable
extractor with required size.
Fig.2.2.17 Types of Extractor

Step 4: Pulling out the Screw/Bolt

Insert the extractor into the drilled hole.

The spiral end of the extractor goes into the hole. You
can tap it with a hammer to make sure it’s in there,
Fig.2.2.18 Inserting
but don’t force it.
Extractor

67
 Twist the extractor with a wrench or drill.

Grip the top of the extractor with a wrench. Continue

to twist it counter clockwise until the screw pops free.
Fig.2.2.19 Twist Extractor
with Wrench

Heat the screw/bolt if it is stuck.

If you have a propane or butane torch, lightly heat the

screw for a minute or two. The heat expands the
metal, making it easier to pull out. Fig.2.2.20 Heating the Bolt

Pull the screw/bolt out with pliers.

Clamping pliers keep a better grip on the screw.

Twist the screw and try to pull it out. Heat also helps
Fig.2.2.21 Pliers to remove
here in making the screw easier to pull out
Bolt

Step 5: Remove metal filings.

During the bolt-removal process, it is likely that small

amounts of metal fillings will have come off the bolt.
If you plan to replace the broken bolt with a new one,
it is important to first remove all these fillings and
shaving. You can most easily accomplish this with Fig.2.2.22 Removal metal
either a magnet or compressed air. filings

2.2.5 Steps to remove welding a nut on a broken Screw, Stud / Bolt

1. First step is to grind off enough metal

68
 to expose bare steel to weld on 2. Place a washer on the broken stud

3. Weld the washer to the top of the

4. Place a nut that is as large as possible
broken stud. Be sure to grind off the
on top of the welded washer.
slag before the next step

5. After welding the nut is glowing red 6. After about a minute the stud has
hot, the heat helps loosen the broken cooled enough to use a wrench to extract
stud. the stud.

7. The finished product is an undamaged bolt hole that doesn’t have to be drilled
and tapped.

69
 EXERCISE - ASSIGNMENT

1. Write the methods of removing damaged Bolts and Nuts

2. Write the methods of removing damaged Screws
3. Write the procedure for removal of un-headed screw broken in the assembly.
4. Write a procedure to remove damaged Studs using Weld with Nut method.
5. Write the steps to remove damaged screws using screw extractor

EVALUATION

Fill in the blanks

1. The failure is due to the fracture of fasteners.

2. Impact force helps to remove damaged bolts or nutsfrom the threaded hole.
3. Use a tap and die setseveral times to repair damaged thread.
4. Loosen the screw gently to prevent damaging the surrounding surface of threaded
hole.
5. The digging action is aided by the thin cutting blades that slip beneath the nail heads.
6. After welding the nut is glowing red hot, the heat helps loosen the broken stud.
7. A centre punch is a metal cylinder that looks like a pen.
8. In left-handed drill bit the torque in the opposite direction helps to stop the bolt from
being driven tighter.

Explain Briefly

1. Give the possible reasons for the failure of fasteners.

2. Explain Cordless Drill Nail Puller.
3. Explain how Penetrating Fluids used to remove damaged fasteners.
4. Explain the Method of using a Manual Screwdriver with a Rubber Band for removing
of damaged screw.

Explain in Detail

1. Method of removal of spoiled headed nut & bolts.

2. Methods for removing of damaged screw.
3. Explain the uses of Penetrating Fluids, Heat, and Special Hex Nut & Bolt Removal
Tools in the removal of damaged fasteners.

Practical Questions

1. Identify the damaged Bolts and replace with the new one.
2. Able to replace un-headed screw broken in the assembly with the use of hand tools
3. Using Drill and Tap replace the damaged Studs or Bolts.
4. Able to remove damaged screws using screw extractor

2.3 Various special tools used in handling of fasteners

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Split a Nut

A nut splitter will crack any no-go nut without damaging

the threads of the bolt or stem that it's screwed onto. Just
slip the ring over the nut and turn the tooth into the nut until
it breaks.
Fig. 2.3.1 Split a Nut

Extension bar

An extension bar can be used with a socket to help reach into confined and
awkward spaces that you would not otherwise be able to access. Connect the
extension bar to the ratchet and connect a socket. You should hear a ‘click’ as the
ball bearing in the extension bar’s drive square locates into place on the internal
notch of the socket’s drive socket. To separate the socket and extension bar from the
ratchet, press the release button on the back of the ratchet head. This will free the
ball bearing in the ratchet’s square drive, allowing the extension bar to be removed.

Fig. 2.3.2 Extension Bar

Torque with Digital Accuracy

Tighten a bolt without a torque wrench and you can do

major damage to the vehicle. To control a torque applied a
digital torque adapter with a 1/2-inch drive ratchet or
breaker bar is used. Just set the specified torque and crank
away. The digital display shows the rising torque, and the Fig. 2.3.3 Torque
LED readout and audible signal let you know when you’re with Digital Accuracy
done.

Bent-handle flex ratchet

If you want to reach a nut or bolt in a difficult location,

Bent-handle flex ratchet is used. The flex head allows the
ratcheting mechanism to pivot “up and down,” giving you

71
access to locations that a straight ratchet cannot get to. Fig. 2.3.4 Bent handle
with ratchet

Alligator Rivet Fastener Tools

The Alligator Rivet Fastening System is specially designed for the abusive round
hay baling application, simplifying belt maintenance, and increasing uptime. Rivet-
attached for maximum resistance to pull-out.

Fig. 2.3.5 Alligator Rivet Fastener Tools

Pneumatic Nut Runner

Pneumatic nut runners are powered by compressed air and

vary in terms of air fittings and air consumption. These Nut
runners offer a reliable and dependable solution for the
installation and removal of heavy-duty fasteners in a variety
of industries that require high torque capability, accuracy,
power, and safety. A pneumatically powered nut runner is Fig. 2.3.6 Pneumatic
response to delivery of a pre-set torque to the work, such as Nut Runner
a bolt head or stud.

Torque wrench

A torque wrench is a tool used to apply a specific torque to

a fastener such as a nut or bolt. It is usually in the form of
a socket wrench with special internal mechanisms. A torque
wrench is used where the tightness of screws and bolts is
crucial. It allows the operator to set the torque applied to
the fastener so it can be matched to the specifications for a Fig. 2.3.7 Torque
particular application. Wrench

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Hex key

A hex key, Allen wrench or Allen key, is a simple tool used

to drive bolts and screws with hexagonal sockets in their
heads. The tool is usually formed of a single piece of
hexagonal rod of hard steel, with blunt ends that are meant
to fit snugly into the screw's socket, bent in an "L" shape
with unequal arms. The tool is usually held and twisted by
the long arm, creating a large torque at the tip of the short Fig. 2.3.8 Hex Key
arm.

Monkey wrench

The monkey wrench is a type of adjustable wrench, the monkey

wrench has a fixed upper jaw with a lower jaw that can move up and
down the wrench through a screw mechanism. The monkey wrench
can be used to clamp onto pipes and various fasteners such as lug nuts,
bolts, and screws Once both jaws of the monkey wrench firmly grip
the flat sides of the fastener, you can begin to apply pressure to either Fig. 2.3.9 Monkey
tighten or loosen the fastener. Wrench

Socket wrench

A socket wrench is a type of wrench that inserts into a socket to turn a

fastener, typically in the form of a nut or bolt. The ratchet keeps the
socket in place while you turn the wrench handle.

Fig. 2.3.10 Socket

Wrench

Screw pitch gauge

A thread gauge, also known as a screw gauge or pitch gauge, is

used measure the pitch or lead of a thread. Thread pitch gauges
are used as a reference tool in determining the pitch of a thread
that is on a screw or in a tapped hole. it allows the user to Fig. 2.3.11 Screw
determine the profile of the given thread and quickly categorize
the thread by shape and pitch.
Pitch Gauge

Clamp

A clamp is a fastening device used to hold or secure objects tightly

together to prevent movement or separation through the application of

73
inward pressure. Fig. 2.3.12 Clamp

EXERCISE – ASSIGNMENT

1. Write various fastening tools used in your house

EVALUATION

Fill in the blanks

1. To separate the socket and extension bar from the ratchet, press the release buttonon
the back of the ratchet head.
2. The digital display of digital torque adapter shows the rising torque, and the LED
readout and audible signal.
3. To reach a nut or bolt in a difficult location, Bent-handle flex ratchet is used.
4. Pneumatic nut runners are powered by compressed air.
5. A torque wrenchis used where the tightness of screws and bolts is crucial.
6. Thread pitch gauges are used as a reference tool in determining the pitchof a thread.
7. A clamp is a fastening device which uses inward pressureto hold or secure objects tightly together.

Explain Briefly

1. Explain Monkey wrench

2. Explain about Pneumatic Nut Runner
3. Explain the working of Extension bar

Practical Questions

1. Able to identify various tools used in automotive lab.

2. Able to choose tools to handle different type of fastener
3. Able to remove and replace fasteners in automobile using various special tools.

74
2.4 Importance of specified torque values for tightening the fastener

The function of a bolt is to apply sufficient clamp force such that when external forces
are applied no separation or transverse movement will occur. Tightening fasteners to
apply that clamp force using calibrated torque tools is certainly preferable to simply
going by feel.

Torque is an indirect indicator of

Tension. It is a measure of the twisting
force acting on threads of the fasteners.

Tension is the force that holds an

assembly together. A bolt will stretch,
like a spring, as it is tightened once all
the parts of the assembly are brought
together.

The more torque that is applied to the Fig. 2.4.1 Relation between Torque &
fastener the more tension is created as Tension
the bolt stretches.

Torque Tightening:

The application of preload to a fastener by the turning of the fastener's nut. Friction points
should always be lubricated when using the torque tightening method.

Fig. 2.4.2 Torque Tightening and Preload

Torque Tightening and Preload:

The amount of preload created when torqueing is largely dependent on the effects of friction.

Principally there are three different "torque components":

75
  torque required to stretch the bolt

 torque required to overcome friction in bolt and nut threads

 torque required to overcome friction at the nut spot face (bearing contact surface)

* Preload (residual load) = Applied Torque - Frictional Losses *

Lubrication:

Lubrication reduces the friction during tightening,

decreases bolt failure during installation and increases
bolt service life. Variation in friction coefficients affect
the amount of preload achieved at a specified torque.
Higher friction results in less conversion of torque to
preload. The value for the friction coefficient must be
known to accurately establish the required torque value. Fig. 2.4.3 Lubrication
Lubricant should be applied to both the nut bearing
surface and the male threads.

Torque Sequence:

When torqueing it is common to tighten only one bolt at a time, this can result in Point
Loading and Load Scatter. To avoid this, torque is applied in stages following a prescribed
pattern:

Fig. 2.4.4 Torque Sequences

Step 1: Spanner tight ensuring that 2-3 threads extend above nut.
Step 2: Tighten each bolt to one-third of the final required torque following the pattern as
shown above.
Step 3: Increase the torque to two-thirds following the pattern shown above.
Step 4: Increase the torque to full torque following the pattern shown above.
Step 5: Perform one final pass on each bolt working clockwise from bolt 1, at the full final
torque.

76
Torque calculation:

There are two ways to calculate torque specification.

1. Simply Torque is measured using multiplication of force and distance.

While tightening,our hand applies the force and length of the wrench creates the distance.
This is how torque is transferred to a nut or bolt: force multiplied by distance.

2. The classic equation expresses the relationship between the load in a bolt and applied
torque is:

T=KFd

where,

K is the coefficient of friction. Your coefficient will depend on the material of your
bolt/nut, the type of lubrication, and the size of the bolt.

The nominal bolt diameter is d in this equation. It may be expressed in millimeters or

inches.

F is the axial bolt force, expressed in pounds or Newtons.

For each application unique torque is required. There is even a difference between things of
the same size. The torque required for a ¼” bolt has a different torque value of a ¼” nut.
This is because a nut has less surface area in contact with the threads than a bolt shank does
with the mating surface. These differences in surface areas create different friction values
which influence the final torque value. The more friction that is present, the larger the torque
required to properly fasten it. Other factors of determining a torque values are considered
such as the material of the bolt. Bolts have different metallic properties requirements for each
location of use.

Breakout Torque:

When loosening bolts, a torque value higher than the tightening torque is normally required.
This is mainly due to corrosion and deformations in the bolt and nut threads.Breakout torque
cannot be accurately calculated, however, depending on conditions it can take up to 3 times
the input torque to breakout. The use of penetrating oils or anti-seize products is always
recommended when performing breakout operations.

The Importance of Proper Torque:

Applying exactly the right amount of torque is important to ensure proper clamping
between parts. There can be serious consequences if you apply either too much or
too little torque.

77
 Fig. 2.4.5 Appling Torque

 If the torque is not applied properly and the tension on the bolt torque is too low,
varying loads will act upon the bolt and it will fail.
 If the tension is too high, the tightening process may cause bolt failure.

As we all know Torque is a twisting force that tends to rotates the bolt while a socket is
applied to a nut and turned. As the bolt is tightened, tension stress stretches the bolt. The
bolt is resistant to this flexing and becomes spring-like. Severe danger will occur if over-
tightening or pushing too hard, as this runs the risk of bending the bolt. Once this occurs, the
bolt no longer applies the correct amount of clamping pressure and is increasingly likely to
fail, either by loosening or completely breaking. To avoid failure, it is important to calculate
required torque and use that standard value.

EXERCISE – ASSIGNMENT

1. Make a tabular column using different torque values for various fastener types.

EVALUATION

Fill in the blanks

1. Torque is a measure of the twisting forceacting on threads of the fasteners.

2. Tension is the force that holds an assembly together.
3. The more torque that is applied to the fastener the more tension is created as the
bolt stretches.
4. Lubrication reduces the friction during tightening.
5. Lubricant should be applied to both the nut bearing surface and the male threads.
6. When torqueing it is common to tighten only one bolt at a time, this can result in
Point Loading and Load Scatter.
7. The axial bolt forceexpressed in pounds or Newtons.
8. The use of penetrating oils or anti-seize products is always recommended when
performing breakout operations.
9. If the torque applied is too low, while varying loads act upon the bolt, it will fail.
10. If the tension is too high, the tightening process may cause bolt failure.

78
Explain Briefly

1. What is Breakout Torque.

2. Differentiate Torque and Tension.
3. What is the use of Torque Sequence?
4. What is the purpose of Lubrication while fastening?

Explain in Detail

1. Explain the Importance of Proper Torque.

2. What is Torque calculation? And write down its uses.
3. Explain Torque Tightening and Preload.

Practical Questions

1. Able to use appropriate torque value to tighten appropriate fasteners.

79
 UNIT-3 Materials for Construction of Automotive Components

Learning Objective:
 To study the various types of materials used for constructing the automotive
components.
 To study the concept of mechanical behaviour of materials.
 To study the automotive components manufacturing process.

3.0 Introduction
There are primary reasons why automotive components materials selection is required
primarily, to design existing automotive components for better performance, cheaper cost,
improving and reduced vehicle weight and secondly to select a material for a new product.
Automobile components materials selection is a main product design consideration because
products overall performance is mainly affected and determined by material selection
process.

Fig 3.0. (a)

3.1.1. Materials in the Automotive Industry

Different materials are used to make automotive components. The primary materials used for
manufacturing automotive parts, along with future trends, are steel, aluminium, magnesium,
copper, plastics and carbon fibre. The primary factors for selecting the material, especially
for the automobile body, are numerous and include thermal, mechanical resistance, easy
manufacturing and durability. Composite materials may have big advantages over steel in
automotive manufacturing in the future. Composites are considered to make light, safe and
more fuel-efficient vehicles.
3.1.2. Engineering Materials
Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the construction of
manmade structures and components. The primary function of an engineering material is to
withstand applied loading without breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection. The
major classifications of engineering materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and
composites.

80
 Fig 3.1.1.

3.1.3 Ferrous
A ferrous metal is any metal that is primarily composed of iron and has magnetic properties
in it.These are used in bridges, shipbuilding, aviation industry, railway industries, automobile
industries, and in general construction works.

Plain Carbon steels or Low carbon steels:

Low-carbon steel is the most widely used form of carbon steel. These steels usually have a
carbon content of less than 0.25 wt. %. Carbon steels are usually relatively soft and have low
strength.

Applications of Low carbon steels in automotive industry:

Low carbon steels are often used in automobile body components.

Medium carbon steels:

81
Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.25 – 0.60 wt. % and a manganese content of
0.60 – 1.65 wt. %.

Applications of Medium Carbon steels in automotive industry:

 Connecting rods
 Crank shaft
 Axles gears.

High carbon steels:

High-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.60– 1.25 wt. % and a manganese content of 0.30
– 0.90 wt. %. It has the highest hardness and toughness of the carbon steels.

Applications of High carbon steel in automotive industry:

Cutting tools, springs high strength wire and dies.

Steel in Automotive Components:

On average, 900 kg of steel is used per vehicle. The steel in a vehicle is distributed as
follows

Fig 3.1.2.
34% is used in the body structure, panels, doors and trunk closures for high-strength and
energy absorption in case of a crash. 23% is in the drive train, consisting of cast iron for the
engine block and machinable carbon steel for the wear resistant gears. 12% is in the
suspension, using rolled high-strength steel strip. The remainder is found in the wheels, tyres,
fuel tank, steering and breaking systems.

Mild steel:

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Mild steel has small amounts of carbon between 0.16 and 0.3%. Mild steel has a high
resistance to breakage. Mild steel, as opposed to higher carbon steels, is quite malleable,
even when cold. This means it has high tensile and impact strength.
High Strength Steel:
High-strength steels (HSS) are categorized as 300 MPa tensile strength and above. These
types of products have much higher strengths than mild steels and can help reduce thickness
and part weight in comparison to mild steel parts.

Extra High Strength Steel or Advanced High Strength Steel:

Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) for the automotive industry features both high
strength for part thickness reduction and enhanced formability for innovative new part
designs. This combination of properties can provide vehicle weight reduction while
maintaining stiffness, ride quality and safety.
Ultra High Strength Steels:
Ultra high-strength steels are categorized as 780 MPa materials and above. Martensitic
materials in this category are typically roll formed due to the material's high strength level.
These types of steels are often used in applications requiring high strength, such as safety
parts, structural parts, bumpers and rails.
Benefits of steel using in automotive:
 Light weight therefore fuels efficient.
 High strength steels enable light but stronger vehicle.
 Durable and remanufacture-friendly.
 Contains recycled steel and is endlessly recyclable.

Cast iron:
A hard, relatively brittle alloy of iron and carbon which can be readily cast in a mould
and contains a higher proportion of carbon than steel. It has very good
engineering properties than malleable cast iron. Ductile cast iron has very good corrosion
resistance, high strength and durability.
Grey cast iron:
Grey iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has a graphitic microstructure. It
is named after the grey colour of the fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of
graphite. It is the most common cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on
weight.
Grey cast iron Applications in Automotive sector:
 Internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, pump housings.

83
White cast iron:
White cast iron is a type of carbon-iron alloy that contains carbon content greater than
2% in the form of cementite. When fractured it exhibits a silver-like (white) fracture. White
cast iron has high compressive strength and wear resistance.
White cast iron Applications in Automotive sector:
 Connecting rods, Transmission gears, Brake shoes.
Malleable cast iron:
Malleable cast iron is essentially white cast iron which has been modified by heat
treatment. It is formed when white cast iron is heated to around 920 deg C and then left to
cool very slowly.

Malleable cast iron Applications in Automotive sector:

 `Chain-hoist assemblies.
Ductile cast iron:
Ductile Iron is a type of cast iron known for its impact and fatigue resistance,
elongation, and wear resistance due to the spherical (round) graphite structures in the
metal. Ductile Iron is also called ductile cast iron, spheroidal graphite cast iron, or nodular
cast iron.
Ductile cast iron Applications in Automotive sector:
 Automotive components, wheels, gear boxes, pump housings.

3.1.4. Non-Ferrous Materials

Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron and are not magnetic.
They are also usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals.
The important non-ferrous metals and alloys used in automobiles are as below:
Aluminium:
Aluminium is one of the lightest engineering metals, having strength to weight ratio
superior to steel. Its low density and high specific energy absorption performance and good
specific strength are its most important properties. Aluminium is also resistant to corrosion
and can be easily recycled in its pure form. However, it cannot substitute steel parts on a one-
for-one basis.
The main building material used in cars is the relatively cheap steel for this reason
more and more automotive parts are being made from aluminium.
Aluminium applications in automotive sector:
 Engine radiators, wheels, bumpers, suspension parts, engine cylinder blocks,
transmission bodies and body parts: the hoods, the doors and even the frame.

84
Copper:
Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal component. They
have high resistance against corrosion. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very
high thermal and electrical conductivity.
Copper applications in automotive sector:
 Motors, alternators, actuators and electrical chokes.
 More copper will be needed as automotive electrical developments.
Magnesium:
Magnesium is another light metal that is becoming increasingly common in
automotive engineering. Magnesium is 33% lighter than aluminium and 75% lighter than
steel/cast-iron components.The corrosion resistance of modern, high-purity magnesium
alloys is better than that of conventional aluminium die-cast alloys.
Magnesium applications in automotive sector:
 Support brackets for brakes and clutch, housing for transmission.

3.1.5. Organic Non-Metallic Materials

Non-Metallic Materials. Non-metals are organic substances that do not conduct heat
or electricity, and are structurally brittle.
This material cannot be easily rolled, moulded, extruded or pressed.
Examples of Organic non-metallic materials:
 Plastics.
 Wood.
 Paper.
 Rubber.
 Leather.
 Petroleum.
Plastics:
A synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers such as
polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc., that can be moulded into shape while soft, and then set into a
rigid or slightly elastic form.
Types of plastics:
1. Thermoplastics.
2. Thermosetting plastics.
3.1.6. (a) Thermoplastics:
A thermoplastic, or thermo softening plastic, is a plastic polymer material that
becomes pliable or mouldable at a certain elevated temperature and solidifies upon cooling.
Most thermoplastics have a high molecular weight.

85
 Thermoplastics once heated and formed to a shape, can be reheated and reshaped.
 Plastics are durable and strong and are resistant to impact and corrosion.
 Plastics are versatile allowing freedom in design moulding and integration of
components and plastics are low cost.

Examples of Thermoplastics:

Fig 3.1.3. Thermoplastics products

Thermo-softening plastic, or thermoplastic, becomes soft and flexible at a certain
temperature and solidifies on cooling.
Thermoplastic Applications in Automotive Industry:
 Bumper beams
 Load floor
 Seat structure
 Dash board
3.1.6. (b) Thermosetting Plastics
A thermosetting plastic is a polymer that irreversibly becomes rigid when heated.
Such a material is also known as a thermoset or thermosetting polymer. Initially, the polymer
is a liquid or soft solid.
Thermosetting plastic once and formed to a shape cannot be reheated and reformed.
Examples of thermosetting plastics:

Fig 3.1.4. Thermosetting products

86
Thermosetting plastics applications in automotive sector:
 Aerospace, automotive, marine, construction industries.
 Dash board
 Steering wheel

3.1.6. (c) Rubber:

Natural rubber is formed in the bark of tropical trees.
This is where the importance of rubber comes into play in auto manufacturing.
Automotive manufacturing is the driving force of the rubber industry, as about 75 percent of
the world's natural rubber production is used to make tyres for vehicles. The rubber tyre
protects the rest of the wheel and its internal parts from wearing down, which can be good
for fuel mileage and road safety.

Fig 3.1.5. Rubber Tyres

Rubber applications in automotive manufacturing:

 Tyres
 Wiper blades
 Engine mounts
 Hoses
 Belts

Inorganic non-metallic materials:

Inorganic non-metallic materials are usually made of oxides, carbides, nitrides,
halogen compounds, silicates, aluminate, phosphates, borates and other substances.
 Glass
 Cement
 Glass
 Ceramics
 Graphite

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3.1.6. (d) Glass:
Glass is a hard, brittle substance, typically transparent or translucent, made by fusing
sand with soda and lime and cooling rapidly.
Glass is used in many areas of the vehicle. Obviously, its primary use is to create
windshields so the driver can see properly while remaining safe from any airborne objects.
It's also used to create rear and side-view mirrors to boost view of what's around the driver
while driving. However, as technology advances, glass is also being used to create more
innovative parts on vehicle. For example, it can be used to create navigation screens and
lenses for back-up cameras to allow drivers to have an even better view of what's behind
them.

Fig 3.1.6. Uses of glass in automotive

Glass applications in automotive industry:

 Windshields
 Rear and side view mirrors
 Navigation screens
 Lenses
 Back-up cameras
Assignment:
1. List the types of non-metallic materials used in automotive component manufacturing.
2. List the types of material used in automobile component manufacturing
3. Prepare a chart work for engineering materials and its classification.

A. Choose the correct answer

1. Important Component of non-ferrous material.
A. Aluminium.
B. Chromium.
C. Brass.

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D. Wood.

2. Important Component of ferrous material.

A. Iron.
B. Copper.
C. Zinc.
D. Aluminium.

3. Crank shaft is made of.

A. Medium carbon steels
B. Wood
C. Plastic
D. Cast iron

4. Piston is made of.

A. Aluminium alloys
B. Cast iron
C. Copper
D. Magnesium

5. Important components of plastic

A. Polymer material
B. Cast iron
C. Steel
D. Carbon

6. Tyre is made of
A. Rubber
B. Plastic
C. Polymer
D. Glass

7. Windshields is made of
A. Glass
B. Ceramic
C. Polymer
D. All the above

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B. Fill in the blanks
1. Plain carbon steels having carbon content in the range of_________ % are called
low carbon steels.
2. Medium carbon steels applications _________ in automotive industry.
3. High carbon steels having carbon content in the range of _________.
4. Grey cast iron applications_____________________________ in automotive
industry.
5. White cast iron having _______________ strength and ________________
resistance.
6. _______________ Percent of the world's natural rubber production is used to
make tyres for vehicles.
7. Plastics are light-weight which leads to _______ saving and subsequently to less
_________.
8. Glass is a _______________________ material.

Part-A
1. What is meant by ferrous metals?
2. What is a non-ferrous metal?
3. Mention the different types of cast iron?
4. Write the Applications of Medium Carbon steels in automotive industry?
5. Write the Benefits of steel using in automotive?

Part-B
1. Explain the importance of engineering material.
2. Explain the importance of plastic material in automotive manufacturing.
3. What are the different engineering materials used in automotive components
manufacturing?
4. Explain the types of cast irons?
5. Explain low, medium, and high carbon steels?

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3.2. Manufacturing process:

What is manufacturing process?

Manufacturing is a production operation in which raw material of some kind is taken
as input and processed into a finished product.
What is a product?
A product is an object that has been manufactured suitably for use in specific
applications. It may be tangible or intangible. For example- cake, chocolate, cricket ball, ball
pen, tube light, mobile phone, computer are tangible products where as a software is an
example of intangible product.
In mechanical engineering the product range is restricted to the tangible ones only.
Basic manufacturing process:
There are actually multiple types of processes a manufacturer uses, and those can be
grouped into four main categories.
 Casting process.
 Machining process.
 Joining process.
 Shearing process.
 Forming process.
3.2.1. Casting:
Casting is one of the most ancient processes of manufacturing metallic components. Casting
is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified
part is also known as a casting, which is ejected out of the mould to complete the process.

Fig 3.2.1. Casting

A large number of metal components in designs we use every day are made by
casting. The reasons for this include:

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 (a) Casting can produce very complex geometry parts with internal cavities and hollow
sections.
(b) It can be used to make small to very large size parts.
(c) It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra metal in each casting is re-melted and
re-used
Steps for casting process:
1. Melting the metal.
2. Pouring it into a previously made mould which conforms to the shape of the
desired component.
3. Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould.
4. Removing the solidified component from the mould cleaning it.
Casting process applications in automotive industry:
 Engine blocks
 Cylinder blocks
 Wheels of automobile
 Piston & piston rings

3.2.2. Machining:
Machining is one of the secondary manufacturing processes by which excess material
is removed by shearing from a pre-formed blank in the form of chips using a wedge-
shaped cutting tool in order to get desired shape, finish and tolerance.
Types of machining process:
 Conventional machining process
 Unconventional machining process
Conventional machining process:
Conventional machining uses tools, such as lathes, milling machines, boring
machines, drill presses, or others, with a sharp cutting tool to remove material to achieve the
desired geometry.
Usually there is a direct contact between the tool and raw material.
Examples of conventional machining process:
Turning, Boring, Milling, Drilling, Grinding, Shaping, Broaching, Slotting.

Unconventional machining process:

An unconventional machining process is a special type of machining process in which
there is no direct contact between the tool and the work piece.
Unconventional machining, a form of energy is used to remove unwanted material
from a given work piece.

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Examples of unconventional machining process:
Abrasive jet machining, Ultrasonic machining, Water jet machining, Electro-discharge
machining.

Now we will discuss about conventional machining operations:

The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling.
Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring,
broaching and sawing.

3.2.3. Lathe Machine:

Turning operations are operations that rotate the work piece as the primary method of
moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine tool used in turning.

Fig 3.2.2. Lathe machine

Examples of Lathe machining operations:

Turning operation, Thread cutting operation, Taper turning operation etc.

3.2.4. Milling machine:

Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting
edges to bear against the work piece. Milling machines are the principal machine tool used in
milling.

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 Fig 3.2.3. Milling machine

Examples of Milling Machine operations:

 Gear cutting operation.
 Drilling operation.
 Bore.

3.2.5. Drilling Machine:

Drilling operations are done primarily in drill machine but sometimes on lathes or milling
machines.

Fig 3.2.4. Drilling Machine

Examples of drilling operations:

 Drilling operation.
 Reaming operation.
 Boring operation.
 Counter boring operation.

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  Countersinking operation.
 Spot facing operation.
 Tapping operation.
 Lapping operation.

3.2.6. Grinding machine:

Grinding operations apply a rotating wheel to achieve a fine finish or to make light
cuts on a work piece.
Grinding machines such as bench grinder or pedestal grinder are used for the
operation.

Fig 3.2.5. Grinding Machine

Grinding machine operations:

The grinding machine is also called as a grinder. The grinding machines are used to
precisely finish and shape the given material with high surface quality and low surface
roughness.
It is basically a finishing operation which removes relatively small amounts of metal
to produce products with high accuracy and high finishing.
3.2.7. Boring machine:
Boring operations are typically used as finishing equipment to enlarge holes
previously cut into the material.
Lathes and milling machines are used for boring operations.

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 Fig 3.2.6. Boring machine
Boring machine operations:
Boring machine mainly used for boring operations, in automobile cylinder
boring operations and cylinder re boring operations.

Forming operation:
Forming is a mechanical process used in manufacturing industries wherein materials
undergo plastic deformations and acquire required shapes and sizes by application of suitable
stresses such as compression, shear and tension.

Examples of forming operation:

Forging, extrusion, rolling, and sheet metal operations.
3.2.8. Forging operation:
Forging is the process of forming and shaping metals through the use of hammering, pressing
or rolling. The process begins with starting stock, usually a cast ingot which is heated to its
plastic deformation temperature, then upset or "kneaded" between dies to the desired shape
and size.

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 Fig 3.2.7. Forging
Examples of forging operations:
Auto components made by forging includes crankshaft, camshaft, connecting rod, tie
rod ends, ball joints, transmission gears, idler arms, drag links, stub axles, rear axle shaft,
propeller shaft components, steering cross assembly, clutch forks, water pump parts.

3.2.9. Extrusion:
Extrusion process is used for manufacturing long and straight metal parts. The shape
of the cross-sections can be solid round, rectangular, to T shapes, L shapes and Tubes etc.
Extrusion is done by squeezing the metal in a die by using a mechanical or hydraulic
press. Extrusion is capable of producing compressive and shears forces in the stock material.
The simple example of extrusion is squeezing paste from the tooth paste tube.

Extrusion Process:

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 Fig 3.2.8. Extrusion

Examples of Extrusion products:

Fig 3.2.9. Extrusion products

Applications of extrusion process:

Trim parts as used in automobile and construction equipment, railings, window frame
members, structural parts etc.

3.2.10. Rolling operation:

The rolling process is a metal forming process, in which stock of the material is
passed between one or more pairs of rollers in order to reduce and to maintain the uniform
thickness. This process is mainly focused on the cross-section of the ingot or the metal which
is forming.
Rolling generally classified into two types (i) Hot rolling, (ii) Cold rolling.

3.2.10. (a) Hot rolling:

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 Hot rolling is a metalworking process in which metal is heated above the
recrystallization temperature to plastically deform it in the working or rolling operation.
This process is used to create shapes with the desired geometrical dimensions and material
properties while maintaining the same volume of metal.

Fig 3.2.10. Hot Rolling Process

Examples of hot rolling process:
Hot rolled products, like hot rolled steel bars, are used in the welding and construction
trades to make railroad tracks and I-beams.
3.2.10. (b) Cold rolling process:
Cold rolling is a process by which the sheet metal or strip stock is introduced between
rollers and then compressed and squeezed. The amount of strain introduced determines the
hardness and other material properties of the finished product.

Fig 3.2.11. Cold Rolling Process

Examples of cold rolling process:

 Bars.
 Strips.
 Rods and sheets.
3.2.11. Sheet metal operation:
Sheet metal forming processes are those in which force is applied to a piece of sheet
metal to modify its geometry rather than remove any material. The applied force stresses
the metal beyond its yield strength, causing the material to plastically deform, but not to fail.

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 Fig 3.2.12. Sheet metal operation
Examples of sheet metal operation:
Shearing operation, Blanking & Fine Blanking Operation, Punching operation&
Piercing operation.
Metal joining process:
Joining processes are part and parcel in manufacturing where two or more solid
elements are joined temporarily or permanently to form a single component.
Joining includes welding, brazing, soldering and riveting.
3.2.12. Welding:
Welding is the process by which two pieces of metal can be joined together. The
process of welding doesn’t merely bond the two pieces together as in brazing and soldering,
but, through the use of extreme heat and sometimes the addition of other metals or gases,
causes the metallic structures of the two pieces to join together and become one.
Welding produce permanent joint between the parts to be assembled and cannot be
separated easily by application of forces.
There are a number of different welding methods, including arc welding, resistance
welding and oxy-acetylene welding etc.

3.2.12. (a) Arc welding:

Arc welding is a welding process which is used for welding the metals with the help
of electricity to generate sufficient heat for softening the metal, as well as when the softened
metal is cooled then the metals will be welded. This kind of welding uses a power supply to
make an arc among a metal stick & the base material to soften the metals at the end of the
contact.
Arc welding process:
Arc welding is a fusion welding process used to join metals. An electric arc from an
AC or DC power supply creates an intense heat of around 6500°F which melts the metal at
the join between two work pieces. The arc can be either manually or mechanically guided
along the line of the join, while the electrode either simply carries the current or conducts the
current and melts into the weld pool at the same time to supply filler metal to the join.

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Because the metals react chemically to oxygen and nitrogen in the air when heated to high
temperatures by the arc, a protective shielding gas or slag is used to minimise the contact of
the molten metal with the air. Once cooled, the molten metals solidify to form a metallurgical
bond.

Fig 3.2.13. Arc welding

Applications of arc welding:
Automotive chassis joining process.
3.2.12. (b) Oxy-acetylene welding or Gas welding:
Oxyacetylene welding also known as Oxy-fuel Welding (OFW), includes any welding
operation that uses combustion with oxygen as a heating medium. With this family of
processes, the base metal and a filler rod are melted using a flame produced at the tip of a
welding torch. Fuel gas and oxygen are combined in the proper proportions inside a mixing
chamber in the torch. Molten metal from the plate edges and filler metal, if used, intermix in
a common molten pool and join when cooling. Commonly-used fuel gases include acetylene,
propylene, propane and natural gas.
The equipment used in oxyacetylene welding is low in cost, usually portable, and versatile
enough to be used for a variety of related operations such as bending and straightening,
preheating, post-heating, surfacing, brazing, and braze welding. Among commercially
available fuel gases, acetylene most closely meets the requirements for all these applications.
Cutting attachments, multi-flame heating nozzles and a variety of special application
accessories add greatly to the overall versatility of the basic oxyacetylene welding
equipment. With relatively simple equipment changes, manual and mechanized oxygen
cutting operations can be performed.

Oxy-acetylene welding or Gas welding:

Oxy-acetylene welding is a very common welding process. The use of oxygen and
acetylene as welding gases dates back to the 1890’s. The combination of oxygen and
acetylene produces a flame temperature over 6000 degrees Fahrenheit making it ideal for
welding and cutting.
In oxy-acetylene welding, the flame produced by the combination of the gases melts
the metal faces of the work pieces to be joined, causing them to flow together. A filler metal
alloy is normally added and sometimes be used to prevent oxidation and to facilitate the
metal union.

101
 Fig 3.2.14. Oxy-acetylene welding
Oxy-acetylene welding applications:
For repair works, fabrications of sheet metal, thin to medium sheet metals are
easily weld using gas welding.
Oxy-Acetylene welding is used in joining various aircraft parts.
3.2.12. (c) Resistance welding:
Resistance welding is the joining of metals by applying pressure and passing current
for a length of time through the metal area which is to be joined. The key advantage
of resistance welding is that no other materials are needed to create the bond, which makes
this process extremely cost effective.
Resistance welding process:
The resistance welding process is characterized with a high current passing through
the materials to be welded between the electrodes under pressure for generating concentrated
heat to form a weld. This highly concentrated heat also causes problems to the electrode tips
with increasing number of welds.

Fig 3.2.15. Resistance welding

Examples of resistance welding:

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This type of welding can be widely used within automotive industries, making of nut as well
as a bolt.
3.2.13. Brazing
Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point
than the adjoining metal. The filler metal flows into the gap between close-fitting parts by
capillary action.
Brazing is similar to soldering, but occurs at temperatures in excess of 450 °C. Brazing has
the advantage of producing less thermal stresses than welding.
Brazing Applications:
It is used for joining electrical components, pipe fittings.
3.2.14. Soldering:
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
then flowing a filler metal into the join the filler metal having a relatively low melting
point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
It is a joining process that occurs at temperatures below 450 °C. It is similar to brazing in
the fact that filler is melted and drawn into a capillary to form a joint, although at a lower
temperature. Because of this lower temperature and different alloys used as fillers, the
metallurgical reaction between filler and work piece is minimal, resulting in a weaker joint.

Fig 3.2.16. Soldering

Soldering applications:
Soldering is commonly used in, electronics, heating, air conditioning, mechanical, fire
sprinkler and other similar systems as well as radiator manufacturing, repair and sheet metal
work.

3.2.15.Riveting:
Riveting is a process that may be used to join parts together by way of a metal part called
a rivet. The rivet acts to join the parts through adjacent surfaces. A straight metal piece is

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connected through the parts. Then both ends are formed over the connection, joining the
parts securely.A rivet is essentially a two-headed and unthreaded bolt which holds two other
pieces of metal together.
Holes are drilled or punched through the two pieces of metal to be joined. The holes
being aligned, a rivet is passed through the holes and permanent heads are formed onto the
ends of the rivet utilizing hammers and forming dies.

Fig 3.2.17. Riveting

Riveting applications:
Riveting used in vehicles body panel, joining sheets of aluminium alloy. Building and
construction: Metal framed buildings.

Fig 3.2.18. Riveting

Assignment:
1. Explain the different manufacturing process with neat sketch.
2. Prepare a chart showing casting process.

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A. Fill in the blanks
1. Casting is a _________________ processes.
2. Hot rolling operations did by _______________________ temperature.
3. Crank shaft manufactured by _________________ manufacturing operation.
4. Cold rolling operations did by ____________________ temperature.
5. Soldering operations did by _________________ temperature.
6. Riveting is one of the most ancient metalwork __________joining processes.
Part-A
1. Define manufacturing process?
2. What is the different joining process used in manufacturing process?
3. Differentiate between welding and soldering?
4. Name two important components used in a joining process?
5. Write about the importance of welding process?
Part-B
1. Explain about casting and its process and its applications in automobile
industry?
2. Explain rolling and its operations?
3. Explain arc welding?
4. Explain gas welding?
5. Explain in detail soldering process?

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 UNIT-4 MEASURING INSUTRUMENT

4.1. TORQUE WRENCH AND FEELER GAUGE

4.1.1 TORQUE WRENCH

A torque wrench is a toolused to apply a specific torqueto

a fastenersuch as a nutor bolt. It is usually in the form of a socket wrenchwith special internal
mechanisms.

Fig 4.1.1 Torque wrench

A torque wrench is used where the tightness of screwsand bolts is crucial. It allows the
operator to set the torque applied to the fastener so it can be matched to the
specifications for a particular application. This permits proper tensionand loading of all
parts. A torque wrench uses torque as a proxy for bolt tension. The technique suffers
from inaccuracy due to inconsistent or uncalibrated friction between the fastener and its
mating hole. Measuring bolt tension (indirectly via bolt stretch) is actually what is
desired, but often torque is the only practical measurementwhich can be made.Torque
screwdriversand torque wrenches have similar purposes and mechanisms.

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4.1.2 HISTORY

Fig 4.1.2 Concept us illustration of J.H.Sharp's patented wrench

The first patent for a torque wrench was filed by John H. Sharp of Chicago in 1931. This
wrench was referred to as a torque measuring wrenchand would be classified today as an
indicating torque wrench.
In 1935, Conrad Bahr and George Pfefferle patented an adjustable ratcheting torque
wrench. The tool featured audible feedback and restriction of back-ratcheting movement
when the desired torque was reached. Bahr, who worked for the New York City Water
Department, was frustrated at the inconsistent tightness of flange bolts he found while
attending to his work. He claimed to have invented the first torque limiting tool in 1918 to
alleviate these problems. Bahr's partner, Pfefferle, was an engineer for S.R.
DresserManufacturing Co and held several patents.

4.1.3. TYPES OF TORQUE WRENCH

4.1.3.(a) BEAM- TYPE TORQUE WRENCH

Fig 4.1.3. Beam-type torque wrench.

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The indicator bar remains straight while the main shaft bends proportionally to the force
applied at the handle. Detailed view of the torque display scale on a beam type torque
wrench. This shows a torque of about 160 in.lbf or 18N•m.

The most basic form of torque wrench consists of two beams. The first is a lever used to
apply the torque to the fastener being tightened and serves also as the handle of the tool.
When force is applied to the handle it will deflect predictably and proportionally with said
force in accordance with Hooke's law.

The second beam is only attached at one end to the wrench head and
free on its other, this serves as the indicator beam. Both of these beams run parallel to each
other when the tool is at rest, with the indicator beam usually on top. The indicator beam's
free end is free to travel over a calibrated scale attached to the lever or handle, marked in
units of torque. When the wrench is used to apply torque, the lever bends and the indicating
beam stays straight. Thus, the end of the indicating beam points to the magnitude of the
torque that is currently being applied. This type of wrench is simple, inherently accurate, and
inexpensive.

The beam type torque wrench was developed in between late 1920s and
early 1930s by Walter Percy Chrysler for the Chrysler Corporation and a company known as
Micromatic Hone. Paul Allen Sturtevant, a sales representative for the Cedar Rapids
Engineering Company at that time was licensed by Chrysler to manufacture his invention.
Sturtevant patented the torque wrench in 1938 and became the first individual to sell torque
wrenches.

A more sophisticated variation of the beam type torque wrench has a

dial gauge indicator on its body that can be configured to give a visual indication, or
electrical indication, or both when a preset torque is reached.

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4.1.3.(b) DEFLECTING BEAM TORQUE WRENCH

The dual-signal deflecting beam torque wrench was patented by the Australian
Warren and Brown Company in 1948. It employs the principle of applying torque to a
deflecting beam rather than a coil spring. This is claimed to help prolong the accuracy of the
wrench throughout its working life, with a greater safety margin on maximum loading and
provides more consistent and accurate readings throughout the range of each wrench. The
operator can both hear the signal click and see a visible indicator when the desired torque is
reached.

Fig 4.1.4. Simplified diagram of a deflecting beam torque wrench

The wrench functions in the same general way as an ordinary beam

torque wrench. There are two beams both connected to the head end but only one through
which torque is applied. The load carrying beam is straight and runs from head to handle,
it deflects when torque isapplied. The other beam (indicating beam) runs directly above the
deflecting beam for about half of the length then bends away to the side at an angle from
the deflecting beam. The indicating beam retains its orientation and shape during
operation. Because of this, there is relative displacement between the two beams.
The deflecting beam torque wrench differs from the ordinary beam
torque wrench in how it utilizes this relative displacement. Attached to the deflecting
beam is a scale and onto that is fitted a wedge which can be slid along the length of the
scale parallel to theflexing beam. This wedge is used to set the desired torque. Directly
facing this wedge is the side of the angled indicating beam. From this side protrudes a

109
pin, which acts as a trigger for another pin, the latter pin is spring loaded, and fires out of
the end of the indicating beam once the trigger pin contacts the adjustable wedge. This
firing makes a loud click and gives a visual indication that the desired torque has been
met. The indicator pin can be reset by simply pressing it back into the indicating beam.

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4.1.3.(c) SLIPPER TYPE TORQUE WRENCH

Fig 4.1.5. Simplified principle of a slipper type head

A slipper type torque wrench consists of a roller and cam (or similar) mechanism. The
cam is attached to the driving head; the roller pushes against the cam locking it in place
with a specific force which is provided by a spring (which is in many cases adjustable). If
a torque is demanded which is able to defeat the holding force of the roller and spring,
the wrench will slip and no torque will be applied to the bolt. A slipper torque wrench
will not over tighten the fastener by continuing to apply torque beyond a predetermined
limit.

4.1.3.(d) CLICK TYPE TORQUE WRENCH

Fig 4.1.6. Click-type torque wrench with socket attached, adjusted by turning the knurled
Handle

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 Fig 4.1.7.Conceptual drawing of the operation of a click type torque wrench

A more sophisticated method of presetting torque is with a calibrated

clutchmechanism. One common form uses a ball detentand spring, with the spring
preloaded by an adjustable screwthread, calibrated in torque units. The ball detent
transmits force until the preset torque is reached, at which point the force exerted by
the spring is overcome and the ball "clicks" out of its socket.
This design yields greater precision aswell as giving tactile and audible
feedback. The wrench will not start slipping once the desired torque is reached, it will only
click and bend slightly at the head; the operator can continue to apply torque to the wrench
without any additional action or warnings from thewrench.A number of variations of this
design exist for different applications and different torque ranges. A modification of this
design is used in some drillsto prevent gouging the heads of screws while tightening them.
The drill will start slipping once the desired torque is reached.

4.1.3.(e) "NO-HUB"WRENCH

Fig 4.1.8. "NO-HUB"WRENCH

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These are specialized torque wrenches used by plumbers to tighten the clamping bands on
hubless soil pipecouplings.They are usually T-handled wrencheswith a one-way
combination ratchetand clutch. They are preset to a fixed torque designed to adequately
secure the coupling but insufficient to damage it.

4.1.3.(f) ELECTRONICTORQUEWRENCHES

4.1.9. Electronic torque wrench

With electronic (indicating) torque wrenches, measurement is by means of a strain
gaugeattached to the torsion rod. The signal generated by the transducer is converted to
the required unit of torque (e.g. N·m or lbf·ft) and shown on the digital display.
A number of different joints (measurement details or limit values) can
be stored. These programmed limit values are then permanently displayed during the
tightening process by means of LEDs or the display. At the same time, this generation of
torque wrenches can store all the measurements made in an internal readings memory.
This readings memory can then be easily transferred to a PC via the interface (RS232) or
printed straight to a printer. A popular application of this kind of torque wrench is for in-
process documentation or quality assurance purposes. Typical accuracy level would be
+/- 0.5% to +/- 4%.

4.1.3.(g) PROGRAMMABLE ELECTRONIC TORQUE/ANGLEWRENCHES

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 Fig 4.1.10 Programmable electronic torque/anglewrenches
Torque measurement is conducted in the same way as with an electronic torque wrench but
the tightening angle from the snug point or threshold is also measured. The angle is
measured by an angle sensor or electronic gyroscope. The angle measurement process
enables joints which have already been tightened to be recognized.
The inbuilt readings memory enables measurements to be statistically
evaluated. Tightening curves can be analyzed using the software via the integrated
tightening-curve system (force/path graph). This type of torque wrench can also be used to
determine breakaway torque, prevail torque and the final torque of a tightening job.

4.1.3.(h) MECHATRONICTORQUEWRENCHES

Fig 4.1.11. Mechatronic torque wrench

Torque measurement is achieved in the same way as with a click-type torque wrench but, at
the same time, the torque is measured as a digital reading (click and final torque) as with an
electronic torque wrench. This is, therefore, a combination of electronic and mechanical
measurements. All the measurements are transferred and documented via wireless data
transmission. Users will know they have achieved the desired torque setting when the
wrench "beeps."

4.1.3.(i) HYDRAULIC TORQUEWRENCHES

Hydraulic torque wrenches are used for tightening large torques with
high accuracy. They are used for aviation and heavy machinery assembly and are
specialized tools. Their general construction varies depending on manufacturer and torque
requirement.
Generally, they consist of at least one hydraulic cylinder operating a
drive head ratchet. The cylinder extends, pushing the drive head round via the pawls, and

114
then retracts freely over the ratcheting teeth. The process is repeated until the desired
torque is met.
Smaller hydraulic torque wrenches have a reaction arm built into the
tool, which rests against another fastener or part of the assembly to prevent rotation when
torque is being applied. Larger models require other fixing arrangements in order to
prevent rotation.

4.1.12. Hydraulic torquewrenches

115
4.1.3.(j) PNEUMATIC TORQUE WRENCH

Fig 4.1.13. Pneumatic torque wrench setting torque on bolts.

A pneumatic torque wrenchis a planetary torque multiplieror a gearbox

that is mated to a pneumatic air motor. At the end of the gearbox is a reaction device that is
used to absorb the torque and allows the tool operator to use it with very little effort. The
torque output is adjusted by controlling the airpressure. These planetary torque multiplier
gearboxes have multiplication ratios up to 125:1 and are primarily used anywhere accurate
torque is required on a nut and bolt, or where a stubborn nut needs to be removed.The
pneumatic torque wrench is sometimes confused with a standard impact wrench, due to
their similar appearance.

A pneumatic torque wrench is driven by continuous gearing, and

not by the Hammers of an impacting wrench. A pneumatic torque wrench has very
little vibration, and excellent repeatability and accuracy. The pneumatic torque
wrench was first invented in Germany in the early 1980s.Torque capabilities of
pneumatic torque wrenches range from 118Nm, up to a maximum of 47,600Nm.A
pneumatic motor using compressed air is the most common source of power for
pneumatic torque wrenches. CFM requirements are usually 20–25 CFM of air
consumption per tool.
116
 Torque wrench
Torque wrench types tolerance

4.1.4 TORQUE WRENCH STANDARDIZATION

ISO
This standard covers the construction and calibration of hand- operated
torque tools. They define two types of torque tool encompassing twelve classes; these are
given by the table below.

117
Type Class Description ≤ 10 Nm >10 Nm
Class A Wrench with torsion or flexing bar
±6%
Class B Wrench with rigid body and indicator
±6% ±4%
Class C Wrench with rigid body and electronic
Typ ±6% ±4%
measurement
e 1: Class D
Screwdriver with indicator ±6%
Indi
Class E Screwdriver with electronic measurement
cati ±6% ±4%
ng
Class A
Adjustable wrench with indicator ±6% ±4%
Class B
Fixed torque wrench ±6% ±4%
Class C
Adjustable wrench without indicator ±6% ±4%
Class D
Adjustable screwdriver with indicator ±6%
Class E
Type 2:
Fixed screwdriver ±6%
Setting
Class F
Adjustable screwdriver without indicator ±6%
Class G Adjustable wrench with flexing bar and
indicator ±6%

118
4.1.5 USING TORQUE WRENCHES FOLLOWING SHOULD BE CONSIDERED

4.1.5.(a) Precision

Click type torque wrenches are precise when properly calibrated

however the more complex mechanism can result in loss of calibrationsooner than the
beam type, where there is little to no malfunction, (however the thin indicator rod can be
accidentally bent out of true). Beam type torque wrenches are impossible to use in
situations where the scale cannot be directly read and these situations are common in
automotiveapplications. The scale on a beam type wrench is prone to parallaxerror, as a
result of the large distance between indicator arm and scale (on some older designs). There
is also the issue of increased user error with the beam type the torque has to be read at
every use and the operator must use caution to apply loads only at the floating handle's
pivot point. Dual-beam or "flat" beam versions reduce the tendency for the pointer to rub,
as do low-frictionpointers.

4.1.5.(b) Extensions

Fig 4.1.14. Extensions

The use of cheater barsthat extend from the handle end can damage the wrench, so only
manufacturer specified equipment should be used.Using handle or socket extensions
requires noadjustment of the torque setting.

4.1.5.(c) Storage

For click (or other micrometer) types, when not in use, the force acting on
the spring should be removed by setting the scale to its minimum rated value in order to
prevent permanent set in the spring.Never set a micrometer style torque wrench to zero as
the internal mechanism requires a small amount of tension in order to prevent
components shifting and reduction of accuracy.
119
4.1.5.(d) Calibration
As with any precision tool, torque wrenches should be periodically re-
calibrated. As previously stated, according to ISO standards calibration should happen
every 5000 operations or every year, whichever comes first.It is possible that torque
wrenches can fall up to 10% out of calibration in the first year of use.
Calibration, when performed by a specialist service which follows ISO
standards, follows a specific process and constraints. The operation requires specialist
torque wrench calibration equipment with an accuracy of ±1% orbetter.
The temperature of the area where calibration is being performed should
be between 18 °C and 28 °C with no more than a 1 °C fluctuation and the relative
humidity should not exceed 90%Before any calibration work can be done, the tool
should be preloaded and torqued without measure according to its type.

Type Class Pre-calibration Calibration procedure

Type 1 All Preload once at the highest 5 measurements in a row for all
classes certified value values
Type 2 5 measurements in a row for all
Class A
values
Class B 5 measurements at nominal value
10 measurements in a row for all
Class C
values
Preload five times at the
5 measurements in a row for all
Class D highest certified value
values
Class E 5 measurements at nominal value
10 measurements in a row for all
Class F
values
5 measurements in a row for all
Class G
values

120
Fill in the blanks

1. A torque wrench is a toolused to apply a ___________to a fastenersuch as a nutor

bolt.
2. The first patent for a torque wrench was filed by ________.Sharp of Chicago in
_______.
3. Beam- type torque wrench shows a torque of about _____ in.lbf or ______N•m.
4. __________torque wrenches are precise when properly calibrated however the more
complex mechanism.
5. The operation requires specialist torque wrench calibration equipment with an
accuracy of _________orbetter.

Choose the best answer

1. ______, Conrad Bahr and George Pfefferle patented an adjustable ratcheting torque
wrench.

a) 1935 b)1934 3)1854 d)1654

2. Adjustable screwdriver with indicator with a Torque wrench tolerance is

b) ±3% b)±7% 3)±5% d)±6%

Write the short notes

1. List the various names of torque wrenches.

2. Define slipper type torque wrench.

121
 3. Define “No hub” torque wrench.

4. What is precision?

5. What is calibration?

Write the brief notes

1. Explain any three types of torque wrench.

2. What should be considered while using torque wrenches?

3. Explain the hydraulic and pneumatic torque wrenches.

4. Explain torque wrench standardization.

5. Explain deeply about the calibration?

Do the follow at the home

1. Collect the torque wrench types near at you.

2. Draw the various types of torque wrenches.

122
References

1. US 2007880, Sharp John H., "Torque-measuring wrench", published July 9, 1935

2. US 2074079, Charles, Bahr Conrad & Pfefferle, George H., "Torque measuring
wrench", published Mar 16, 1937

3. Fleming, Wes (Dec 18, 2017). "The Most Important Tool: Torque Wrench “Retrieved Jan
17, 2019.

4. US 2231240, Zimmerman Herman W, "Torque measuring wrench", published Feb

11, 1941

5. "Official Sturtevant Richmont LinkedIn”.

6. US 2167720, Willard C Kress, "Torque-indicating wrench", published Aug 1, 1939

7. "DIAL TORQUE WRENCH REPAIR, MAINTENANCE AND

TROUBLESHOOTING MANUAL" (PDF). CDI Torque Products. 2002.

8. "Warren & Brown company history”. Warren & Brown.

9. "Warren & Brown Precision Tools Catalogue" (PDF). Warren & Brown.

10. "Deflecting beam torque wrench operating instructions" (PDF).

Kincrome Professional Quality Tools.

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Torque_wrench&oldid=956473358"

123
4.2. FEELER GAUGE
4.2.1 FEELER GAUGE

A feeler gauge is a tool used to measure gap widths. Feeler gauges are mostly used in engineering to
measure the clearance between two parts.

4.2.1Feeler gauge set

4.2.2 DESCRIPTION
They consist of a number of small lengths of steel of different thicknesses with
measurements marked on each piece. They are flexible enough that, even if they are all on the same
hinge, several can be stacked together to gauge intermediate values. It is common to have two sets
for imperial units (typically measured in thousandths of an inch) and metric (typically measured in
hundredths of a millimetre) measurements.
The same device with wires of specific diameter instead of flat blades
is used to set the gap in spark plugs to the correct size; this is done by increasing or
decreasing the gap until the gauge of the correct size just fits inside the gap. The lengths of
steel are sometimes called leaves or blades, althoughthey have no sharp edge.

124
 Measuringthevalveclearance ofaDOHC engine, betweencamshaftand tappet (here:0.004inch≈
0,102mm).

4.2.3 TYPES
It classified into two types namely,

1. Tapered feeler gauge

2. Parallel feeler gauge

1. TAPERED AND PARALLEL FEELER GAUGE

Thickness, and the two types of gauge are used in a similar way.A taper
feeler gauge is a feeler gauge of tapered as opposed to parallel shape.The blade of the gauge
is of a constant thickness and the two types of gauge are used in a similar way.

Fig 4.2.2 Tapered (upper) and Parallel (lower) feeler gauges

Fill in the blanks

1. A _______ is a tool used to measure gap widths.

2. ________ are mostly used in engineering to measure the clearance between two parts.
3. Feeler gauge consist of a number of small lengths of ________ of different thicknesses
with measurements marked on each piece

Write the short notes

1. What is feeler gauge?

2. list the types of Feeler gauge.

125
 3. Define “No hub” torque wrench.

4. What is precision?

5. What is calibration?

Write the brief notes

1. Explain briefly about Feeler gauge.

Do the follow at the home

1. Check the varies clearance level of an engine and list that.

REFERENCES:
1. Webster, Jay (2000). "3". Outdoor Power Equipment (Illustrated ed.). Cengage Learning.
p. 40. ISBN978-0- 7668-1391-5.

2. Vidler, Douglas; Knowles, Don (2003). Today's Technician: Automotive

EnginePerformance(3rd,illustrated ed.). Cengage Learning. p.36.
ISBN 978-0-7668-4864-1.

Retrieved from: "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Feeler_gauge&oldid=954700251"

126
 4.3. DASHBOARD

4.3.1 DASHBOARD

A dashboard also called instrument panel (IP) or fascia is a control panel usually
located directly ahead of a vehicle's driver displaying instrumentation and controls
for the vehicle's operation.

Fig 4.3.1The dashboard of a Bentley Continental GTC car

4.3.2. ETYMOLOGY

Fig 4.3.2. Horse-drawn carriage dashboard

Originally, the word dashboard applied to a barrier of wood or leather fixed at the front of a
Horse-drawn carriage or sleigh.

To protect the driver from mud or other debris "dashed up" (thrown up) by
127
the horses' hooves. Commonly these boards did not perform any additional function other than
providing a convenient handhold for ascending into the driver's seat, or a small clip with which to
secure the reins when not in use.
When the first "horseless carriages" were constructed in the late 19th
century, with engines mounted beneath the driver such as the Daimler Stahlradwagen,

thesimpledashboard was retained to protectoccupants from debris thrown up by the cars' front wheels.
However, as cardesign evolved to position the motor in front of the driver,
the dashboard became a panel that protected vehicle occupants from the heat and oil of the engine.
With gradually increasing mechanicalcomplexity, this panel formed a convenient location for the
placement of gauges and minor controls, and from this evolved the modern instrument panel,
although retaining its archaic common name.
The first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash,got
itsname from its dashboard, which was curved like that of a sleigh.

4.3.3 DASHBOARD FEATURES

Fig 4.3.3.Dashboard instruments displaying various car and engine condition

Where the dashboard originally included an array of simple controls (e.g., the steering wheel
and instrumentation toshow speed, fuel level and oil pressure, the modern dashboard
mayaccommodate a broad array of gauges, and controls as well as information, climate control
and entertainment systems. Contemporary dashboards may includes the speedometer, Tacho
meter, Odometer engine coolant temperature gauge, and fuel gaugeturn
indicators,gearshiftposition indicator, seat belt warning light, parking-brake warning light,
andengine-malfunction lights.
Other features may include a gauge for alternatorvoltage, indicators for low
fuel, low oil pressure, low tire pressure and faults in the airbag (SRS) systems, glove
compartment power outlet as well as heating and ventilation systems, lighting controls, safety
systems, entertainment equipment and information systems etc…

128
4.3.4 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

4.3.4.(a) PADDING AND SAFETY

In 1937, Chrysler Dodge DeSoto and Plymouth cars came with a
safetydashboard that was flat, raised above knee height, and had all the controls mounted flush
padded dashboards were advocated in the 1930s by car safety pioneer Claire L Straith. In 1948,
the Tucker became the first car with padded dashboards.
One of the safety enhancements of the 1970s was the widespread adoption of
padded dashboards. The padding is commonly polyurethane foam while the surface is
commonly either polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or leather in the case of luxury models. In the yearly
and mid-1990s airbags became a standard feature of steering wheels and dashboards.

4.3.4.(b) FASHION INSTRUMENTATIONS

after European and

Japanese manufacturers
had long embraced a
plainer, more
functional and austere
approach for dash
Fig 4.3.4. Stylised em board and instrument
dashboard from a 1980s L
ancia Beta bell panel design.
ish
In the 1940s through the 1960s,American car
me
manufacturers and their imitators designed With the advent
ntal
unusually-shaped instruments on a dashboard of the VFD, LCD, LED
ong
laden with chrome and transparent plastic, in consumer
wit
which could be less readable, but was often electronics, some
h
thought to be more stylish. Sunlight could manufacturers used
squ
cause a bright glare on the chrome, particularly instruments with digital
are
for a convertible. readouts to make their
inst
cars appear more up to
On NorthAmerican ru
date, but this has faded
vehicles in particular, this trend lingered on as me
from practice. Some
late as the mid-1980s,which still featured nts
cars use a head-up
dashboards with wood and fake chrome lon
display to project the
g
129
speed of the car onto the wide screen in ____________.
imitation of fighter aircraft, but in far less
Fill in the
complex display. In recent years spurred on by blanks 5. The first
the growing aftermarket use of dash kits, many "horseless
carriages" were
automakers have taken the initiative to add constructed in the
more stylistic elements to their dashboards. 4. A late ___________
century.
One prominentexample of
d 6. _________
this is the Chevrolet Sonicwhich offers both
a Dashboards may
exterior (e.g., a custom graphics package) and includes the
s
interior cosmetic upgrades.In addition to speedometer,
h Tacho meter,
OEMdashboard trim and upgrades a number of
b Odometer engine
companies offer domed polyurethane or vinyl coolant
o
applique dash trim accent kits or "dash kits." temperature gauge
a and etc…
r
Manufacturers such as BMW, Honda, Toyota, d 7. In 1937,
___________ and
Mercedes Benz have included fuel-economy __________ cars
gauges in some instrument clusters, showing fuel a came with a
mileage in real time, which was limited mainly to l safetydashboard.

luxury vehicles and later, hybrids. Following a s

8. The _______ was
focus on increasing fuel economy in the late o the gauge of
2000s along in the 2010s now come with either choice for
monitoring the
real-time or average mileage readouts on their c
state of
dashboards. a theCharging
l system until the
The ammeter was the gauge of choice for 1970s later it was
l replaced by the
monitoring the state of theCharging system until the
e ___________.
1970s later it was replaced by the volt meter. Today
d
most family vehicles have warning lights instead of
voltmeters or oilpressure gauges in their dashboard
_
instrument clusters, though sports cars often have Write the short notes
_
proper gauges forperformance purposes and
_
driverappeasement along with larger trucks, mainly
_ 2. What is Dashboard?
to monitor system function during heavy usage such
_
as towing or off-roadusage.
_
130
2. Define Etymology. 2. * a
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i e
3. Write some dashboard features. g i
n s
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4. Define Navigation systems. l n
t g
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5. Write some fashion instrumentation. W g
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Write the brief notes n ,
D Popular
r Science
2. Explain briefly about Navigation systems.
i monthly,
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4. Explain Etymology. e 1919,Unla
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5. Write brief notes about fashion
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2. Collect and draw the various new technologies id=7igDAAAAM
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REFERENCES g originalon
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Merriam–Webster.Archived y 2012
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2006-10-11. r
131
References

"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.p
hp?
title=Dashboard&oldid=95629862
2"

132
4.4. INDICATORS
4.4.1 INDICATORS

Indicators are mainly have using for indicating the moving vehicles whether turn left or right and
indicating the various purposes like stop, parking, pass, dim and etc…,

Fig 4.4.1 1974 PlymouthValiant with headlamps, amber front position lamps, and side marker
lightslit

Vehicles manufactured after 1 January 1970.Theseside-facingdevicesmake the vehicle's

presence, position and direction of travel clearly visible from obliqueangles. Thelightsarewiredso as to
illuminate whenever the vehicles' parking and tail lamps are on, including when the headlamps are
being used.Front amber side markers in the United States may be wired so as to flash in synchronous
phase or opposite-phase with the turn signals; nevertheless, they are not required to flash at all.Side
markers are permitted but not required on cars and light passengervehicles.
Outside the United States and Canada If installed,theyarerequiredtobebrighter and visible
through a larger horizontal angle than US side markers, may flash only in synchronous phase with
the turn signals (but are not required to flash), vehicles producing amber light to the front and red
to the rear with no requirementtoemitlighttotheside.Intended forshowingtheoveralllength of long
from in front and behind a combination, and the U.S. type amber front/red rear lamps for
passenger cars.

4.4.2 TURNSIGNALS

Fig 4.4.2 ISO symbol for turn Fig 4.4.3 Front and side turn
signals signals illuminated
illuminated 133
Direction indicator lamps or turn signals, informally known as "directionalsignals","directionals
blinkers", or "indicators", are blinking lamps mounted near the left and right front and rear corners
of a vehicle, and sometimes on the sides or on the side mirrors of a vehicle, activated by the
driverononesideofthevehicleatatime to advertise intent to turn or change lanes towards thatside.
4.4.3 HISTORY

Electricturn-signal lights date from as early as 1907.The modern flashing turn

signal was patented in 1938 and later most major automobile manufacturersofferedthisfeature.As of
2013 most countries require turn signals on all new vehicles that are driven on public
roadways.Alternativesystemsofhandsignalswere used earlier, and remain common for bicycles. Hand
signals are also sometimes used when regular vehicle lights are malfunctioning or for older vehicles
without turnsignals.

Fig 4.4.4 The Japanese Tractor deploys to extend from the vehicle's side to indicate a turn in that
direction.

Somecarsfromthe1920stoearly1960s used retractable semaphores called

tractorsratherthanflashinglights.Theywerecommonlymountedhighup behind the front doors and
swung out horizontally.However,theywerefragile andcouldbeeasilybrokenoffandalso had a tendency
to stick in the closed position.
These can be fitted with flashing lights as
anupgrade.Aswithallvehiclelightingandsignaling devices,turn-signallightsmustcomply with
technical standards that stipulate minimum and maximum permissible
intensitylevels,minimumhorizontaland verticalanglesofvisibility,andminimum illuminated surface
area to ensure that theyarevisibleatallrelevantangles,do notdazzlethosewhoviewthem,andare
suitably conspicuous in conditions ranging from full darkness to full direct sunlight.

4.4.4 SIDETURNSIGNALS

134
 Fig 4.4.5. Mirror-mounted turn signal

Inmostcountries,carsmustbeequipped with side-mounted turn signal repeaters to make the turn

indication visible laterally (i.e. to the sides of the vehicle) rather than just to the front and rear of
thevehicle.Thesearepermitted,butnot required in the United States. As an alternative in both the
United States and Canada, the front amber side marker lightsmaybewiredtoflashwiththeturn signals,
but this is notmandatory.
Mercedes-Benzintroducedthesideturn
signalrepeatersintegratedintothesideview mirror in 1998, starting with its face lifted E-Class
(W210). Since then, many automakers have been incorporating side turn signal devices into the
mirror housings rather than mountingthemonthevehicle'sfenders. Some evidence suggests these
mirror- mounted turn signals may be more effective than fender-mounteditems.

4.4.5 ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONANDSWITCHING

Fig 4.4.6. Two types of dashboard turn signal tell-tale

Turnsignalsarerequiredtoblinkonand off,or"flash",atasteadyrateofbetween 60 and 120 blinks per

minute(1–2Hz).InternationalUNRegulations require that all turn signals flash in simultaneous
phase;US regulations permit side marker lights wired for side turn signal functionality to flash in
opposite-phase.An audio and/or visual tell-taleindicator is required, to advise the driver when the
turn signals are activated and operating.This usually takes the form of one or two green indicator
lights on the vehicle's instrument cluster, and a cyclical "tick- tock" noise generated
electromechanicallyorelectronically.Itis alsorequiredthatthevehicleoperatorbe alerted by much faster-
or slower-than- normalflashingintheeventaturnsignal lightfails.
Turn signals are in almost every case activatedbyahorizontallever(or"stalk")
protruding from the side of the steering column, though on some vehicles it
protrudesfromthedashboard.Thedriver raises or lowers the outboard end of the stalk, in accord with
the clockwiseoranticlockwisedirectionthesteering wheel is about to be turned.In left-hand
drivevehicles, the turn indicator stalk is usually located to the left of the steering wheel. In right-
hand- drive vehicles, there is less consistency; itmaybelocatedtotheleftortotheright
ofthesteeringwheel.Regulationsdonot specifyamandatorylocationfortheturn signal control, only that
135
 it be visible and operable by the driver, and at least in North America that it be labelled with a
specific symbol if it is not located on the leftsideofthesteeringcolumn.

TheinternationalUNRegulationsdonot include analogous specifications.Virtually all

vehicles (except many motorcycles and commercial semi- tractors) have a turn-indicator self-
cancelling feature that returns the lever to the neutral (no signal) position as the steering wheel
approaches the straight- ahead position after a turn has been made
Beginninginthelate1960s,using thedirection-indicatorlampstosignalfor a lane change was
facilitated by the addition of a spring-loaded momentary signal-onpositionjustshyoftheleftand
rightdetents.Thesignaloperatesforhoweverlongthedriverholdsthelever partway towards the left or
right turn signal detent. Some vehicles have an automatic lane-change indication feature; tapping
the lever partway towards the left or right signal position andimmediatelyreleasingitcausesthe
applicableturnindicatorstoflashthree to fivetimes.
Some transit buses, such as those inNewYork,haveturnsignalsactivatedby
floor-mounted momentary-contactfootswitches on the floor near thedriver's left foot (on left-hand
drive buses).Thefoot-activatedsignalsallow bus drivers to keep both hands on the steering wheel
while watching the road and scanning for passengers as they approach a bus stop. New York City
Transitbus drivers, among others, are trainedtostepcontinuouslyontheright
directionalswitchwhileservicingabus stop,tosignalotherroaduserstheyare intentionally dwelling at
the stop, allowing following buses to skip that stop.This method of signalling requires no special
arrangements for self-cancellation orpassing.

4.4.6 SEQUENTIALTURNSIGNALS

Fig 4.4.7. Sequential turn signals on an Audi

Sequentialturnsignalsareafeatureon some cars wherein the turn-signal function is provided by multiple

lit elements that illuminate sequentially rather than simultaneously: the innermost lamp lights and
remains illuminated, the next outermost lamp lightsandremainsilluminated,followed by the next
136
outermost lamp and soon untiltheoutermostlamplightsbriefly,at whichpointalllampsextinguishtogether
and,afterashortpause,thecyclebegins again.Thevisualeffectisoneofoutward motion in the direction of
the intended turn or lane change. They were factory fitted to 1965–1971-model FordThunderbirds, to
1967–1973 Mercury Cougars, to Shelby Mustangs between
1967and1970,to1969Imperials,tothemJapanese-market 1971–1972 NissanCedric, and to Ford
Mustangssince 2010.Twodifferentsystemswereemployed. Theearlier,fittedtothe1965through

1968Ford-builtcarsandthe1971–1972 Nissan Cedric, employed an electricmotor driving, through

reduction gearing, asetofthreeslow-turningcams.These cams would actuate switches to turn on the
lights in sequence. Later Ford cars and the 1969 Imperialused atransistorisedcontrol module with no
movingpartstowear,break,orgooutof adjustment.
FMVSS 108has been officially interpretedasrequiringalllight-sources in an active turn signal to
illuminate simultaneously.However the2010 andlaterFordMustangsareequipped with sequential
turnsignals.

137
 4.4.7 TURNSIGNALCOLOUR

Fig 4.4.8. TheHondaRidgelinehadamberrearturnsignalsin 2006-'08; red ones on 2009-'11 and 2012-'14

models.

Adopted amber front-turn signals for most vehicles beginning in the 1963 model year,
though the advent of amber signals was accompanied bylegal stumbles in some statesand front
turnsignalswerestilllegallypermittedto emit white light until FMVSS 108took effect for the 1968
model year, whereupon amber became the only permissible front turn-signal color.
Currently, most countries outside the UnitedStatesandCanadarequirethatall
front,sideandrearturnsignalsproduce amberlight. InCanada,SwitzerlandandtheUS,the rear signals may
be amber orred.Additionally,redturnsignalscanalsobe foundincountrieswithtradeagreements with the US
such as Mexico and SouthKorea, as well as in New Zealand.Proponents of red rear turn signals have
claimed that they are less costly to manufacture and automakers use turnsignalcolorasastylingelementto
differentiate vehicles of different model years.

Proponents of amber rear turn signals say they are more easily
discernibleasturnsignals.Ithasbeen recognized sincethe1960sthatamberturn signals are more quickly
spotted than red ones.

4.4.8 COLOURDURABILITY

138
 Fig 4.4.9. Thecolourcoatinghasstartedtoflakeoffthis PY27/7Wbulb,arelativelynewproblem

The amber bulbs commonly used in turn signals with colourless lenses are no longer made
with cadmiumglass, since various regulations worldwide, including the European RoHSdirective,
banned cadmium because of its toxicity. Amber glass made without cadmium is
relativelycostly,somostamberbulbsarethe international regulation on motor
vehiclebulbsrequiresmanufacturersto test bulbs for colour endurance.

However, no test protocol or colour durability requirement isspecified.Discussionisongoing

withinthe Groupe des Rapporteurs d'Éclairage, theUNECE working group on vehicular lighting
regulation, to develop and implementacolourdurabilitystandard.
Ratherthanusinganamberbulb,some signal lamps contain an inner amber
plasticenclosurebetweenacolourless bulb and the colourless outerlens.

Fill in the blanks

9. Direction indicator lamps or turn signals, informally known as ___________,___________, or

________.

10. Somecarsfromthe1920stoearly1960s used _______ called tractorsratherthan__________.

11. Mercedes-Benz introducedthe side turn signalrepeatersintegratedintothesideview mirror in

________.

12. However the 2010 andlater__________areequipped with sequential turnsignals.

13. The _______ working group on vehicular lighting regulation, to develop and
implementacolourdurabilitystandard.
139
Write the short notes

3. What is purpose of indicators?

2. Define turn signals.

3. Define side turn signals.

4. Define colour durability.

5. Write short notes about turn signal colour

Write the brief notes

6. Explain briefly about the history of indicators.

7. Explain color durability.

8. Explain sequential turn signals.

9. Write brief notes about electrical connection and switching .

Do the follow at the home

5. Collect and draw the various new indicating light source.

6. Write the new features of indicators.

7. Draw latest styles of indicators in a vehicle.

REFERENCES

1. \Gross,Jessica(12July2013)."WhoMadeThatTurnSignal?".TheNew York Times

Magazine.Retrieved
140
 25 October 2017.

2. Paul, John (23 March 2016). "Florence Lawrence: Automotive

Inventorandthe"World'sFirstMovie Star"".HistoricVehicleAssociation. Retrieved 25
October2017.

3. "Florence Lawrence - Lemelson-MIT Program" . lemelson.mit.edu. Retrieved 25

October2017.
4. Burkard Woerdenweber; Jörg. Wallaschek; Peter Boyce
(2010).AutomotiveLightingandHuman Vision . Springer. pp. 95–96. ISBN978-
3540366973.

5. GenevaConventiononRoadTrac .
United Nations Conference on Road Trac. 1949 – viaWikisource.

6. "U.N.ConventiononRoadTrac (1968)" (PDF).Retrieved

6 September 2015.

7. "ISO 2575:2010, "Road vehicles – Symbolsforcontrols,indicatorsand tell-tales" "

.ISO.org.
8. "UN Regulation 112, "Motor vehicle headlampsemittinganasymmetrical passing beam
or a driving beam or both and equipped with filament lamps"" (PDF). (313KB)

9. "UNRegulation98,"Motorvehicle headlamps equipped with gas- discharge light

sources""
(PDF). (843 KB)

10. "FMVSS No. 108: Lamps and ReflectiveDevices" (PDF).(2.00MB)

Retrieved from

"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automotive_lighting&oldid=948406190"

141
4.5. MEASUREMENT

1. Measurement is defined as the process of numerical evaluation of a dimension

or the process of comparison with standard measuring instruments

4.5.1. Need of Measurement

 Establish standard

 Interchangeability

 Customer Satisfaction

 Validate the design

 Physical parameter into meaningful number

 True dimension

 Evaluate the Performance

4.5.2. Methods of Measurement

1. Direct method

2. Indirect method

3. Comparative method

4. Coincidence method

5. Contact method

142
1. Direct method

Measurements are directly obtained

– Ex: Vernier Caliper, Scales

Fig 4.5.1.vernier caliper

2. Indirect method

• Obtained by measuring other quantities

– Ex : Weight = Length x Breadth x Height x Density

Fig 4.5.2.Indirect method

3. Comparative Method

1. It’s compared with other known value

– Ex: Comparators

Fig 4.5.3. comparators

143
4. Coincidence method

1. Measurements coincide with certain lines and signals

5. Fundamental method

 Measuring a quantity directly in related with the definition of that quantity

6. Contact method

• Sensor/Measuring tip touch the surface area

Fig 4.5.4.

7. Complementary method

1. The value of quantity to be measured is combined with known value of the

same quantity

– Ex:Volume determination by liquid displacement

Fig 4.5.5. Liquid displacement

144
8. Deflection method

1. The value to be measured is directly indicated by a deflection of pointer

– Ex: Pressure Measurements

Fig 4.5.6. pressure gauge

4.5.3. Measuring Instruments

 Deflection and null type instruments

 Analog and digital instruments

 Active and passive instruments

 Contacting and non contacting instruments

 Absolute and secondary instruments

 Intelligent instruments.

DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE

1. Physical effect generated by the measuring quantity

2. Equivalent opposing effect to nullify the physical effect caused

by the quantity

145
 Fig 4.5.7. Deflection And Null Type

ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

1. Physical variables of interest in the form of continuous or stepless variations

2. Physical variables are represented by digital quantities

Fig 4.5.8. Analog And Digital Instruments

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS

1. Instruments are those that require some source of auxiliary power

2. The energy requirements of the instruments are met entirely from

the input signal

Fig 4.5.9. Active And Passive Instruments

146
CONTACTING AND NON CONTACTING INSTRUMENTS

 A contacting with measuring medium

 Measure the desired input even though they are not in close contact with

the measuring medium

Fig .4.5.10. contact and non contacting medium

ABSOLUTE AND SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

• These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of

absolute quantities

• Deflection of the instruments can read directly

Fig 4.5.11. ammeter

Intelligent instruments

• Microprocessors are incorporated with measuring instruments

147
 Fig 4.5.12. speedometer

4.5.4. VERNIER CALIPER

Vernier caliper introduced in 1641 by Pierre Vernier of France. It utilizes two

graduated scales: a main scale similar to that on a ruler and an especially
graduated auxiliary scale, the vernier, that slides parallel to the main scale and
enables readings to be made to a fraction of a division on the main scale.
Vernier calipers are widely used in scientific laboratories and in manufacturing
for quality control measurements

There are three types of vernier caliper used in the physics laboratory
to measure lengths of small objects accurately which could not have been
possible with a metre scale.

2. Type A

3. Type B

4. Type C.

The main use of the vernier caliper is to measure the internal and external
diameters of an object. The word caliper means any instrument with two jaws
which is used to determine the diameters of objects.

The principle of the vernier caliper is that when two scales or divisions
slightly different in size are used, then the difference between them is used to
increase the accuracy measurement.

Parts of Vernier Caliper

Fig 4.5.13. parts of vernier

148
The main elements of the vernier caliper are the

1. Main Scale

2. Vernier scale

3. Thumbscrew

4. Lock screw

5. Depth Rod

6. Fixed jaw, and

7. Sliding jaw

Vernier caliper consists of two steel rules and they can slide along with each
other.

 One is a long rectangular metal strip which has a fixed jaw on one end. It
is graduated in inches at its upper end and centimetre at its lower end which is
called the main scale.

The main scale is marked on solid L shape frames, on which cm

graduates are divided into 20 parts so that a small division is equal to 0.05 cm.

This allows improvements in the commonly used measuring techniques,

over direct measurement with line graduated method.

6. There is another small rectangular metal strip which is graduated with a

special relation to that of the main scale, which is called the vernier scale which
slides over this long metal strip it has a jaw similar to that of the main scale.

There are two jaws on vernier caliper upper jaw and lower jaw. These jaws
together are used to hold the object firmly while measuring its length which is
not possible with a metre scale.

149
 The external or lower jaws which are generally used to measure the
diameter of a sphere or a cylinder. The internal jaws or upper jaws which are
generally used to measure the internal diameter of a hollow cylinder.

There is also a metal strip attached at the back of the vernier calipers
which is used to measure the internal depth of a cylinder.

Principle of Vernier Caliper

A scale cannot measure objects which are smaller than 1mm but a
vernier caliper can measure objects up to 1mm. As already know that vernier
caliper has two scales the main scale and the vernier scale together this
arrangement is used to measure very small lengths like 0.1mm.

Fig 4.5.14. principle of vernier

Here the main scale has least count of 1mm and vernier scale has least
count of 0.9mm. So therefore 10 unit of the main scale is 1cm whereas 10 unit
of vernier scale is 0.9mm. The unit of the vernier scale is 9mm. So this
difference between the main scale and vernier scale which is 0.1mm is the
working principle of vernier caliper.

Vernier Caliper Least Count

The difference between the value of one main scale division and the value of
one Vernier scale division is known as least count of the Vernier.

150
 Least count of vernier caliper is the smallest value that we can measure
from this device. To calculate the least count of vernier caliper is the value of
one main scale division divided by the total number of division on the vernier
scale.

Let's assume if the value of one main scale division is 1mm and the total
number of division on vernier scale 10mm then the least count will be 0.1mm.
Thus least count is defined as the smallest distance that can be measured from
an instrument.

Vernier Caliper Zero Error

Zero error in the vernier caliper is a mathematical error due to which, The zero
of the vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of the main scale.

In other words, if the zero mark on the vernier scale doesn't coincide with
the zero mark on the main scale, then the error that occurs is called zero error.
They are of 4 types.

i. No zero error

ii. Positive zero error

iii. Negative zero error

iv. No Zero Error

151
 In no zero error, when we bring two jaws together. You will see zero of
the Main scale is coinciding with the zero of the vernier scale. they are exactly
in a straight line so this vernier caliper is free from zero error or you can say
there is no zero error in this vernier caliper.

Positive Zero Error

In positive zero error, Let’s bring these jaws together. you see, the zero of
vernier scale is ahead of main scale zero. Or you can say zero of vernier scale is
at the right side of main scale zero.

In both cases either it is ahead of main scale zero or it is the right side of main
scale zero. this is called as zero error and it is positive

Negative Zero Error

152
In negative zero error, we will bring the two jaws together. Here you can see
zero of vernier scale is the back side of main scale zero. Or to the left of main
scale zero.

So if vernier scale zero is either backside or to the left of main scale zero, in
both cases, zero error is the negative error.

MEASUREMENT OF VERNIER CALIPER

Length= MSR + (VSR*L.C)

Where MSR = Main Scale Reading

VSR= Vernier Scale Reading

And L.C= Least Count of the Vernier Caliper

4.5.5. MICROMETER

The accuracy of vernier calliper remains to be 0.02 mm, but most of the
engineering precision work demands greater accuracy with sensitivity for which
an instrument having both these should be used.

Fig 4.5.15.micrometer

The most familiar precision measuring instrument in the workshop is

micrometre.

Micrometer works on the principle of screw and nut. The longitudinal

movement of the spindle during one rotation is equal to the pitch of the screw
i.e., the distance moved by the nut along the screw is proportional to the number
of revolutions made by the nut.

153
Therefore by controlling the number of revolution and fractions of a revolution
made by the nut, the distance it moves along the screw can be accurately
predicted.

To apply the above principle to a measuring device, it requires:

5. Precision screw.

6. A means of cunting the whole revolution of the screw.

7. A means of measuring the extent of the partial revolutions.

Any micrometer will show all these principles included. The screw thread is
rotated by the thimble which indicates the partial revolution, the whole
revolutions being counted on the barrel of the instrument.

Types of Micrometer Screw Gauge

The following are the four common types of micrometer screw gauge and 4
special purpose types of micrometers.

8. Outside Micrometer

9. Inside Micrometer

10. Micrometer Depth Gauge

11. Bench Micrometer

Special Purpose Micrometer

o Screw Thread Micrometer

o Vee-Anvil Micrometer

o Thickness Micrometer

154
 External or Outside Micrometer

Micrometer or side micrometer is used to measure the dimension of small

components for greater accuracy. It provides direct reading and is made in
various patterns to suit particular applications.

Below shown the general arrangement of outside micrometer and it's

various parts. Regardless of the type or size of an outside micrometer, they
contain the basic parts like:

7. Frame

8. Anvil and spindle

9. Ratchet driver

10. Thimble and barrel

11. Adjusting Nut.

Fig 4.5.16. external vernier

Frame

v. The micrometer's frame is U-shaped to permit measurements of the

cylinder.

vi. If diameter equal to the measuring range of micrometer and the shiftiness
of the should be such that a test load of 1 kg weight does not alter the distance

155
them by more than 1.5 μm for range of 0 to 25 mm, 2μm for range 25 to 50
mm.etc.

Anvil and Spindle

• To allow the attachment of measuring wire support, certain anvil of

micrometer screw gauge should be removed at least 4 mm from the frame.

• Measuring faces are hard depended to about 800 HV (62 HRC) and aged.
It should be accurately ground and lapped with its measuring face flat and
parallel to the measuring face of the spindle.

• The diameter of the anvil should be equal to the diameter of the spindle
within 0.04 mm and the axis of both in exact alignment.

• A spindle is the movable measuring face.

2. The spindle and screw are initially lubricated with a thin, light non-
corrosive oil. in that condition, There should not be any backlash between the
spindle screw and nut.the spindle should run freely and smoothly throughout the
length of its travel.

3. There is a diamond knurled spindle locknut provided so that the spindle

retains its perfect alignment.

Ratchet Drive

2. The ratchet at the end of the thimble is used to assure an accurate

measurement and to prevent pressure being applied to the micrometer.

3. It ensures a constant measuring pressure.

4. The torsional moment of this drive should be so regulated that the force
exerted between the measuring faces is between 0.5 to 1 kg.

156
Thimble and Barrel

 The thimble has 50 equal division around its circumference. Each

division having a value of 0.01 mm.

 The sleeve is accurately division and clearly marked in 0.5 mm divisions.

It is pearl chrome plated and adjustable for zero setting.

 All graduations lines on the barrel (sleeve) should clearly engrave and for
easy reading, the surfaces of thimble and barrel should have a dull finish and the
graduation lines should be blackened.

Adjusting Nut

• Micrometers are provided with an adjusting nut to compensate for wear

between the screw portion of the spindle and nut.

• These adjustments are carried out by suitable spanners and keys which
are provided with micrometer for these purposes.

Micrometer Reading

As we know that the screw thread is rotated by the thimble which indicates the
one-sided revolution. and the whole revolutions being counted on the barrel of
the instrument.

The screw has a lead of 0.5 mm and the thimble and barrel are graduated as
shown in the figure below.

As the pitch of a single start screw of a standard metric micrometer is 0.5 mm

and the barrel division are 0.5 mm apart, one revolution of thimble will move a
distance of one barrel division.

157
As thimble has 50 division and one revolution of thimble equal 0.5 mm, then a
movement of one thimble division is 0./50= 0.01 mm

The micrometer reading equals:

2. The largest visible 'whole' millimetre +

3. The largest visible 'half' millimetre +

4. The thimble division coincident with the datum line.

158
For the given figure, the reading is:

9 whole millimetre = 9.00

a half-millimeter = 0.50

48 hundredths of mm (48 Χ 0.01) = 0.48 = 9.98 mm

Micrometer least count formula

Micrometer least count in mm

Least count=

L.C= L.C= =0.01 mm

4.5.6. DIAL GAUGE

Dial gauges are used for checking flatness of surfaces; parallelism of bar and
rods; and detecting small diff erences if any in linear measurement of identical
objects. A dial gauge is also used for measuring concentricity of round objects.
These are available in inches as well as in millimetre. Inch dial gauges of 0.001
“measuring accuracy is in general use, but gauges are available up to the

159
accuracy of 0.0001”. The commonly used metric dial gauge has an accuracy of
0.01 mm.

Construction

The clock-like graduated dial of dial gauge carries two pointer arms A1 and A2.
The dial is divided into 100 equal divisions where each division represents
spindle movement through 0.01 mm. In 1 mm movement of the spindle, the arm
A1 makes one complete turn on the dial. The smaller arm A2 registers the
number of full turns made by the longer arm A1.

Fig 4.5.17. Dialgauge

160
It shows that the spindle carries a rack cut in its body along its length. It meshes
with pinion P1, mounted on the same spindle as gears G1, G2 and the pointer arm
A1. The gear G2 meshes with gear G4 carrying a helical spring. The pinion P1 also
meshes with gear G4 mounted on the same spindle as pointer arm A2.

When the instrument is not in use, the spindle projects a definite length outside the
instrument under contact pressure of helical spring through gear G4, G2, pinion P2,
gear G1 and pinion P1 and the rack. To test a surface, the tip end of the spindle is
brought in contact with the surface and readings of arm A1 and A2 are noted. Then
either the dial gauge is moved over the surface or the surface is moved under the
spindle. A clockwise deviation indicates deviation of arm A1 from the initial
position indicated the convexity, and an anticlockwise deviation indicates
concavity in 100th of millimetre; and that of arm A2 in full millimetre.

4.5.7. BORE GAUGE

A bore gauge is a tool used to measure the inside of a bore, or hole. Once a bore
gauge is inserted into the hole that needs measuring, small parts called anvils
expand outward to determine the diameter. Bore gauges are also known as cylinder
tests, hole tests, bore mics, holtests, internal micrometers, hold bore gauges, or
telescoping gauges.

There are several types of bore gauges. Bore gauges with three anvils are called
internal micrometers or tri mics, and are calibrated with setting rings. The more
common, and less expensive, type of gauges feature two anvils and are calibrated
with gauge blocks. Plug gauges are the simplest type; they feature a plug of
slightly different size on each end. A correctly sized bore will not be able to fit the

161
larger plug inside. Both three and two anvil gauges can use a dial or digital readout
to show the interior width of a hole, though some gauges as mentioned below don’t
use either.

Apart from these broad types, more specific types of bore gauges are suited for
more specialty measurements:

 Telescopic bore gauges send the measurement to another tool, often a

micrometer, to display. They’re both inexpensive and easy to use, and
suitable for deep holes, but they’re also less accurate than other types of bore
gauges.

 Dial bore gauges are both easy to use and accurate, as well as good for
measuring how deep bores taper. However, they need to be calibrated every
time they’re used.

 Small hole gauges, available in full ball and half ball types, are better suited
to smaller bores, and can be used to see if a bore’s shape is off. Half ball
gauges are used when the measurement needs to be made near the bottom of
a hole.

162
 Fig 4.5.18. bore gauge

4.5.8. TELESCOPIC GAUGE

Telescoping gauges are indirect measuring devices used to measure the internal
diameter of a bore, hole, groove, slot, etc. This T-shaped tool consists of a handle,
two telescopic rods and a locking screw.

163
 Fig 4.5.19. telescopic gauge

There are telescopic gauges with two plunging telescopic rods and others
with only one. With the help of a micrometer, the telescopic rods measure the
distance of the bore. The ends of the rod are the shape of a half circle (called the
radius edge), which is responsible for getting accurate measurements. Gently
twisting the locking screw clockwise secures the telescopic rod(s) into position.
When twisted counterclockwise, the screw is released, and the telescopic rods can
move freely again.

How to Use Telescopic Gauge

Developing a good feel for the tool

requires a little bit of practice. Collapse
both measuring heads by rotating the
locking screw counterclockwise. Place
the gauge into the bore with one head
held in place against the wall of the bore.
Begin to loosen the screw, but not by too
much because the rods are spring-loaded.
Proceed to tilt the gauge so the rods are inclined just a touch above horizontal, then
tighten the locking screw (clockwise). Whichever end you lifted first, force it
downward (the opposite way), slowly through the bore. As you do this, wiggle the
gauge back and forth. This will allow the gauge to find its smallest size on the
spring. Finally, measure with a calibrated micrometer.

164
 4.5.9. Hydrometer

Hydrometer, device for measuring some characteristics of a liquid, such as

its density (weight per unit volume) or specific gravity (weight per unit volume
compared with water). The device consists essentially of a weighted, sealed, long-
necked glass bulb that is immersed in the liquid being measured; the depth of
flotation gives an indication of liquid density, and the neck can be calibrated to
read density, specific gravity, or some other related characteristic.

Fig 4.5.20. hydrometer

4.5.10. TYRE DEPTH GAUGE

While U.S. coins can be used to estimate remaining tread depth as a tire
approaches the end of its useful life, the established method of measuring vremaining
tread depth in the U.S. is with a gauge that reads in 42nds of an inch (other countries
measure tread depth in millimeters). Typical tire tread depth gauges measure up to
42/42nds (or 25-26mm) since almost all passenger car and light truck tires begin with
less than one inch of tread depth.
To use a tread depth gauge, follow the steps below.
 Step 1: Confirm which measuring scale you are using. Some tread depth gauges
measure in 42nds of an inch (left), while others measure in both 42nds of an inch
and millimeters (right).

165
 Step 2: Push the tread depth gauge against a hard, flat surface to confirm it
"zeros out" when fully compressed.

 Step 4: Push the measuring scale into the gauge as far as it will go.

 Step 4: Place the probe into the center of a circumferential tire groove and
push down on the gauge's base.

166
 Step 5: Do not place the probe on the molded tread wear indicators or on any
raised surfaces of the tread design.

 Step 6: Carefully remove gauge by holding its barrel (without touching the
probe) and confirm the tread depth reading.

 Step 7: Place the probe into additional locations around the central
circumferential tire groove at lease 15 inches apart and repeat.

 Step 8: Place the probe into the inner and outer circumferential grooves and
repeat.

167
  Step 9: Average all readings.

 Step 10: Identify the percentage of tire wear by confirming the tire's
original/new tread depth in its specs compared to the remaining tread depth
just measured.

Note: Incorrect air pressure, vehicle alignment, loose or worn parts, driving
conditions, load, etc, can cause rapid or uneven tire wear. An accurate tread depth
gauge can detect developing wear patterns earlier than simply looking at the tread.
This often allows the cause to be identified and corrected before excessive or
irregular tread wear ruins the tire.

4.5.11. Bevel Protractor

Bevel protractor is an instrument that we use for measuring the angles of the
objects. We see people using it with various objects that include jigs. Whereas, this
occurs when we produce engineering/machine drawings.

Unlike a normal protractor, we adjust a bevel protractor for fitting an angle. Its
base is present on the bottom side of the angle, whereas the blade moves to match
the opposing side. Various bevel protractors will have a vernier scale on them that
normally exists underneath the degree scale.

168
Fig 4.5.21. bevel protractor

What is Protractor?

A protractor is an instrument we use for measuring. It is typically made up of

transparent plastic or maybe glass, for doing a measurement of angles. Mainly the
protractors measure the angles in degrees. The radian-scale protractors measure the
angles in the radians.

Many precision protractors further divide the degrees into the arcminutes. We use
them for a variety of mechanical and engineering-related applications. Its most
common use is in the schools for the students, we all know this, using it in the
geometry classes in the mathematics class is very common and usual.

What is Bevel Protractor and Bevel Protractor Range?

A bevel protractor is an instrument that is graduated spherical protractor with one

pivoted arm that we use for making off the angles. Sometimes the vernier scales
have an attachment for giving more precise readings.

169
It plays a very important role in the mechanical and architectural drawing, although
its general use is decreasing with the availability of the modern drawing software
or CAD.

The bevel protractor is useful for establishing and testing the angles to very close
tolerances. It reads to 5 arcminutes and can also measure angles from 0 degrees to
460 degrees.

The bevel protractors have a beam, a graduated dial and a blade that has a
connection with a swivel plate (with the vernier scale) by the thumb nut and the
clamp. When the edges of the beam and the blade are parallel, a small mark on the
swivel plate coincides with the 0 lines on the graduated dial.

To measure an angle between the beam and the blade having an angle of 90
degrees or less. The reading might come from the graduation number on the dial
indicated by the mark present on the swivel plate.

For measuring an angle of over 90 degrees, we have to subtract the number of the
degrees as indicated on the dial from 180 degrees. However, as the dial is
graduated from opposite 0 marks to 90 degrees each way.

How to Use Bevel Protractor?

 Firstly, unscrew the large clamp on the front part of the protractor. It loosens
the blade so that we can swivel it.

 Align the base of the protractor on one side of an angle, and then swivel the
blade for making the other side of the angle.

 Tighten the huge clamp.

170
  Spot the zero on the vernier scale. The vernier scale is smaller on the inner
side of the protractor.

 Read the number of the degrees present on the main scale, directly above the
zero present on the vernier scale. For example, the zero that is on the vernier
scale lines up with the mark of 85 degrees.

Assignment

1.List the types of equioments used for measuring various parts in automobile

CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER

1. Which instrument is used to measure the internal diameter of a pipe with a

single measurement?

Vernier Calipers

Measuring Cylinder

Micrometer

Manometer

2.In a micrometer screw gauge, the ratchet is used to

lock the spindle

apply the correct pressure

correct the zero error

turn the circular scale

171
4. Which device can be used to measure the thickness of a single sheet of paper?

a micrometer
a measuring tape
a metre rule
a plastic ruler

4. What is the smallest size that can be measured by internal dial gauge?
a) 5 to 10 mm in diameter
b) 7 to 10 mm in diameter
c) 11 to 18 mm in diameter
d) 5 to 18 mm in diameter

FILL IN THE BLANKS.

1.------------ is an instrument used to measure upto 0.1 mm

2. Bevel protractor is an instrument that we use for measuring the --------- of the
objects

4. ----------- are indirect measuring devices used to measure the internal diameter of
a bore, hole, groove, slot

WRITE THE SHORT ANSWER

1.Negative error in vernier caliper?

2.What are theTypes of micrometer?

4.Why telescopic gauges are used?

Explain the questions Briefly

1.How the tyre depth gauges are used?

2. Explain the Bevel Protractor ?

172
 UNIT-5 REGULAR MAINTENANCE OF AN ENGINE

Learning outcome

 To study about inspection of an engine and washing the engine

 To study about fuel system and ignition system maintenance
 To study about engine lubrication and coolant system maintenance
 To study about engine fasteners tightening and engine timing adjustment

5.0. Introduction

A motor vehicle service or tune-up is a series of maintenance procedures carried

out at a set time interval or after the vehicle has traveled a certain distance. The service
intervals are specified by the vehicle manufacturer in a service schedule and some
modern cars display the due date for the next service electronically on the instrument
panel. A tune-up should not be confused with engine tuning, which is the modifying of an
engine to perform better than the original specification, rather than using maintenance to
keep the engine running as it should.

The completed services are usually recorded in a service book upon completion of
each service. A complete service history usually adds to the resale value of a vehicle.

Typical engine maintenance tasks are

 Changing the lubricating oil

 Changing the coolant oil
 Changing the air filter
 Changing the fuel filter
 Inspecting the fuel system
 Draining the water separators

173
5.1. Inspection of an engine

5.1.0 Relevant Knowledge:

An engine inspection is the first step in diagnosing engine problems. When it comes to a
car, the most important component is its engine. The engine can well be regarded as the
soul of a car. In fact, you might have the most well-maintained and sparkling set of
wheels in your neighborhood, but if its engine is not working, it is as good as
waste.

A general inspection can detect potential problems before they occur, or current issues
before they turn into major expenses. In order to make sure that your car has a long life,
you need to undertake regular maintenance of the engine.

5.1.1 Types of leakages in an engine:

The various types of leakages takes place in an engine mentioned below,

(A) Cooling system leakage

(B) Fuel leakage
(C) Combustion gas leakage
(D) Lubricating oil leakage

Fig 5.1.1. Inspection of leakages

(A) Cooling system leakage

There are three places you can have engine coolant leaks

 External leaks
174
  Internal leaks
 Radiator cap leaks

External leaks

External leaks are the easiest to find because most of the time you will just
visually see them.

The sources maybe

,
 Radiator hoses
 Radiator
 Water pump
 Overflow tank
 Freeze plugs
 Cracks in engine block
 Cylinder head
 Intake manifold
 Blown head gasket leak externally

Internal leaks

An internal leak would be noticeable when the coolant level does not stay
constant; and you can find that you need to constantly refill the tank (or) your engine
overheats.

The sources maybe,

 A cracked bolt
 Cracked cylinder head
 Leaking intake manifold
 Blown head gasket.

Radiator cap leaks

The sources maybe,

 Wear radiator cap

 Cap is not fitting properly
 If the cap is incorrect cap for the radiator.

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(B) Fuel leakage

Fuel leakage can be easily checked by smell and leakage of fuel. It reduces
mileage of vehicle.

The sources maybe,

 Fuel lines loose connection (or) broken

 Fuel pump “O rings “and “Washers” uneven fitting (or) Failure
 Evaporation of fuel.

The following areas must be inspected for fuel leakage,

 Fuel tank cap

 Fuel hoses (Suction and return hoses)
 Fuel filter fitment
 Fuel pump connections
 Nozzle connections
 Carburetor areas

(C) Combustion gases leakage

The leakage of combustion gases may be traced when black soot is noticed around
following areas on an engine.

 Cylinder head and cylinder block

 Spark plug /nozzle
 Engine induction and exhaust manifold
 Value guide/ improper tappet clearance

(D) Lubricating oil leakage

Any evidence of oil leakage in an engine would tell you new gaskets and seals
need to be installed.

Common leaking places are,

 Front and rear crankshaft seals

 Valve cover gasket
 Intake manifold gaskets
 Oil sump gaskets

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  FIP fitting areas.

The leakage of lubricating oil can be traced by simple method,

 Place a news paper below the engine

 Now run the engine for 5 min (do not move the vehicle)
 If any spots found in newspaper, exactly perpendicular to the spot noticed will be
the area leakage.

Exercise: Assignment

1.List the types of leakages found in an engine.

S.No. Type of leakage and identified place

Fill in the blanks

1.The various types of leakages are ____________________ , _________________ ,

_____________________ , _____________________.

2.Inspect radiator cap, neck and radiator core for _______ leakage.

3.Inspect front and rear oil crankshaft oil seal , oil pump gasket for _______________
leakage.

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5.2. Washing of an engine

5.2.0 Relevant Knowledge

The modern automobile is equipped with latest technology. So, while providing
services like engine washing, proper care must be taken to avoid the damages to the
components as they are very expensive.

The latest engines are compact and fitted in the small area. It is necessary to clean the
engine at regular intervals to remove oily layers, depositions of muck (mud and water)
which may causes engine heating and deterioration in engine performance.

Material and equipment required to clean engine

 Car washer
 Compressor
 Sprayer gun

Fig 5.2.1.Washing of an engine

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5.2.1 Steps to clean/wash the engine

 Keep the vehicle on hard surface

 Open the engine bonnet/cover and support it properly
 Inspect for external leakage of oil, coolant, gases - locate the area
 Allow the engine to reach Atmospheric temperature.
 Disconnect negative terminal of battery for safety
 Now use diesel sprayer and spray the diesel only on oily layer of an engine.
 Now operate the car washer and set the water spraying nozzle at low pressure
 Spray water and remove the oily layers and muck water from an engine
 Now, take some liquid soap and apply the soap slowly in the area where the hand
can reach
 Again, with low water pressure, clean the engine externally
 Also clean the bonnet area and engine room
 Now, start the compressor and give air pressure to remove the water from the
electrical and electronic gadgets
 Allow the engine to dry
 Connect the battery terminal and start the engine and check for smoother working

5.2.2 Precautions

 Do not use high pressure to clean engine

 Safeguard sensors, spark plugs, nozzle, and electronic gadgets from water
 Do not give water pressure when engine is in running condition
 Do not clean the engine when engine is hot
 Do not blow air at high pressure

5.2.3Benefits of properly maintained engine:

 It makes spotting potential problems easier.

 It removes corrosive elements
 It gets rid of hotspot-causing debris,
 It prevents combustible materials from turning your vehicle into a fire hazard.
 It improves your car's resale value.

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Exercise: Assignment

1. List the elements of safeguard during engine washing

S.No. Elements

Fill in the blanks

1.________________ , _______________ Materials need for washing the engine.

2.Do not clean the engine when the engine is ______________ condition

3.Mention two benefits when you properly clean the engine________________ ,

___________________.

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5.3. Tuning fuel Supply system of an engine

5.3.0 Relevant Knowledge

The vehicle fuel Supply system works with engine system to deliver clean fuel
that will produce the lowest emission

The sole purpose of fuel Supply system is to

Store fuel,
Clean the fuel and
Send to combustion chamber where it mixes with air and produces energy.

One of the basic components of a car comprises of its engine and talking about the car
engine, its fuel system needs to be properly taken care of. In fact, proper car maintenance
is as good as incomplete without adequate maintenance of the fuel system. Taking proper
care of the fuel system will ensure that your car does not consume extra fuel, runs
smoothly and does not suffer from frequent breakdowns.

Tuning :The final and finest adjustment at recommended interval to maintain originality
in performance of an engine is called tuning.

Every new engine gives better mileage and good performance to achieve high and
low speeds in variation with load. But, after certain intervals due to vibration etc normal
wear of components take place. So, it is necessary to inspect and adjust the following
systems of an engine:

 Fuel system
 Ignition system
 Cooling system
 Lubrication system
 Mechanical system

5.3.1 Tuning of fuel supply system of an engine

As we have seen the sound of an engine, it should be maintained to its original

level. If there is less fuel supply, the engine performance will change and it will make a
noise while running. To avoid this situation, it is necessary to tune the fuel system of a
vehicle.

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 Fig 5.3.1. Fuel supply system components to be checked

5.3.2 Steps for fuel Supply system tuning

 Clean the air filter and fuel filter (Check the manual for change the filters in given
time period)
 Remove the fuel tank cap and check the rubber washer
 Check the fuel lines and their connections for fuel leakages
 Clean the vent hole to maintain atmospheric pressure on the fuel
 Inspect the suction/vacuum of fuel pump
 Check the fuel pump pressure and Compare reading with specification as
specified in the service manual.
 Check the nozzle pressure in all cylinders(If pressure is noticed less than it is
necessary, calibrate the FIP pump)

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 Fig 5.3.2. Fuel supply hoses checking

5.3.3 Precautions

 Do not pull out the flexible pipe connection

 Do not over tighten the fuel line connection
 Do not twist the fuel line
 Do not work on fuel system with flame/spark
 Change the gaskets to avoid evaporation of fuel after regular intervals

5.3.4 Benefits of properly maintained fuel supply system:

 Improved Mileage
 Reduced Risk of Vehicle Breakdowns
 Reduced Emission Levels

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5. 3. Tuning fuel supply system of an engine

Exercise: Assignment

1.List the steps used in tuning of fuel system.

S.No. Steps

Fill in the blanks

1.The Main purpose of fuel system is _________________ , _____________________.

2.Benefits of properly maintained fuel system is _______________ , ________________.

3.Mention engine fuel system components _________________, ___________________.

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5.4. Tuning of Ignition system of an engine

5.4.0 Relevant Knowledge

The ignition system plays an important role in process of combustion. The purpose
of the ignition system is to ignite, or fire, the spark plugs in order to generate power to
run the engine. To do so, the battery sends current to the ignition coil. Then that high
voltage goes on to the spark plugs-either through a distributor, if you have an older
vehicle, or directly to the spark plugs, if you have a newer one.

The ignition system is classified in two ways i.e. primary circuit with LT leads and
secondary circuit with HT leads.

The thin wires and their connections will supply the current between 6 to12 volt and
are called Low Tension Leads. The wires which are thick will supply the current of 20-
25,000 volt and are called High Tension Leads.

As an Automotive technician it is important to have a periodic maintenance check

up for the ignition system and parts.

5.4.1 Steps for tuning of ignition system

 check the battery connectors and loose ground wires

 check the status of the ignition switch if the light indicators in the dashboard
addresses the correct position of the key.
 Check the ignition coil connections.
 Inspect connection at primary circuit of LT lead
 Inspect the connection with pick up coil and CDI unit
 Disconnect the sparkplug connection
 Now remove the distributor cap and check the HT lead for loose connections.
 Check distributor contact point for erosion/burn
 Inspect working of spark advance mechanism
 Clean distributor cap and fix it properly
 Using appropriate spanner loosen the spark plug slowly from each cylinder
 Inspect the spark plug condition
 Colour – black soot - rich mixture – cold engine
 Dead white soot – lean mixture – hot engine
 Brownish colour – normal

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 Fig 5.4.1. Ignition system components to be checked

 Check for eroded central electrode and make it straight to maintain air gap
 Check for deposition and clean the plug by sand blast machine or by emery paper
 Using wire feeler gauge, set the spark plug gap as per the specification
 Clean the spark plug threads
 Apply oil and check spark plug sealing gasket washer, if need replace
 To install plug, first fix it with hand
 Thread it smoothly and tighten the same with specified torque
 Connect the lead wire with plug
 Start the engine and check the engine sound and ascertain if there is any change in
engine sound

5.4.2 Benefits of a Properly Maintained Ignition System

 Quick starting
 Increased performance
 Increased fuel economy
 Lower emissions

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  Conserves spark energy for the combustion chamber
 Regulates spark energy

5.4. Tuning of Ignition system of engine

Exercise: Assignment

1.List the steps used in tuning of ignition system.

S.No. Steps

Fill in the blanks

1. Ignition system is classified in two ways ___________ circuit with LT leads and

___________ circuit with HT leads.

2. Benefits of properly maintained ignition system _________________,____________.

3. The main components of ignition system is _______________,__________________.

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5.5. Tuning of Engine Lubrication System
5.5.0 Relevant Knowledge

To keep your machines operating at their peak it is important to keep your lubrication
system in tip-top shape too. Having a routine lubrication system maintenance program
will help insure service problems are kept to a minimum. To help prevent clogs in the
system, proper lubricant storage and correct filling procedures should be followed. Also,
proper lubrication system maintenance requires regular cleaning and replacement of
filters, screens and strainers. Visual inspections should be performed periodically to
detect leaks that can be repaired before they become serious problems. With routine
lubrication system maintenance many common problems can be avoided.

We know that the lubrication fulfills the following purposes:

 It reduces wear/friction
 It reduces heat
 It provides cleaning of an engine parts
 It helps in giving cushioning effect
 It fills the gap

Fig 5.5.1. lubrication system components to be checked

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5.5.1 Steps for tuning of Lubrication system

 Clean lubrication reservoir periodically but do NOT use cotton or fiber rags.
 Inspect suction filter and screens: filter should be replaced and screens should be
cleaned annually.
 Remove and clean strainer regularly.
 Change engine oil and oil filer periodically.
 Inspect flexible hoses for cracks, punctures and wear.
 Check tubing/pipe for flattening or breaks.
 Check for leaking or “weeping” at all connections; check tightness of connections
but avoid over-tightening.
 Monitor system for unusual drops or increases in operating pressure.
 Only recommended lubricants should be used. Lubricants with additives that could
clog filters or flow apportioning devices should be avoided.
 To avoid introducing air and contaminants into the system, follow recommended
lubricant storage and filling procedures. Lubricant should be stored in a sealed
container at all times. A permanently sealed container with a sump pump to pump
out lubricant as needed is recommended. Contaminated lubricant will certainly
cause problems.

5.5.2 Benefits of a Properly Maintained Lubrication System

 Longer Engine Life span

 Smooth Running of Engine
 Decreases Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions
 Enhance Temperature Control
 Reduce The Downtime And Costs Associated With Maintenance And Repair

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5.5. Tuning of Engine Lubrication System

Exercise: Assignment

S.No Steps

Fill in the blanks

1. ___________is used for lubrication the engine of vehicle.

2. The purpose of lubrication of engine is ________________, _________________.

3.Benefits of engine lubrication is ___________________,___________________.

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5.6. Tuning of engine cooling system

5.6.0 Relevant Knowledge

All vehicle cooling systems include a cooling circuit through the engine block and head
with a gasket sealing the two. Coolant hoses and a pump circulate coolant (also called
antifreeze) through your engine and through the radiator at the front of your vehicle,
which uses outside air to cool the coolant so it can remove more heat from your engine.
This endless loop keeps your vehicle cool in all conditions and at all speeds.

Modern automobiles operate in a wide temperature range, from well below freezing to
over 100 F. The fluid used to cool the engine must have a low freezing point, high boiling
point, and the ability to transfer heat. An adequate amount of antifreeze/coolant and water
reduces the possibility of engine over-heating and freezing, as well as contains additives
to prevent rust and corrosion in the cooling system.

Fig 5.6.1. Cooling system components to be checked

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5.6.1 Steps involved in checking the cooling system

Temperature Gauge: Temperature gauge is fixed on dash board which regularly

monitors the variation in engine temperature. Moderate temperature of engine is 75-80
degree centigrade which needs to be constantly maintained.

Coolant: Make sure the system is filled to the proper level and that the correct coolant is
used.

Fig 5.6.2. Coolant leakage

Mechanical Fan Clutch: Rotate the fan by hand, if possible, to check for excessive
noise, stiffness or looseness. Inspect the blades for signs of damage that could lead to
imbalance and eventual failure.

Fan Belt: Inspect this all-important component for signs of wear, cracking or glazing,
and for proper tension. Make sure all pulleys are aligned.

Electric Cooling Fan: Operate the electric fan and look for quiet, smooth operation.
Inspect the electrical harness and connections for damage or corrosion, and make sure all
wires are properly routed. Inspect the fan blades for signs of damage.

Fan Shroud: Make sure the fan shroud is properly mounted and doesn't block the flow of
air or interfere with fan operation. Occasionally, during a front-end collision repair, the
shroud is reinstalled improperly.

192
Hoses: Make sure the hoses are in good condition, with no hardness, cracking or
deterioration. Inspect all clamps and connections for proper fit and tightness.

Radiator: Inspect the exterior for leaks and signs of corrosion, clogged fins and plugged
or damaged overflow tubes.

Radiator Cap:Visually inspect the cap gasket, spring and venting system to make sure
the cap is free of contaminants and corrosion.

Water Pump: Make sure the water pump pulley is properly aligned with other drive
pulleys Listen for noises, which would indicate internal problems with the impeller or
bearing. Check the pump body for excessive vibration, which also could indicate internal
problems.

5.6.2 Benefits of a Properly Maintained Lubrication System:

 Longer Engine Life span

 Reduced operating and maintenance costs
 More effective control of ventilation

5.6. Tuning of engine cooling system

Exercise: Assignment
1.List the steps used in tuning of cooling system
S.No. Steps

Fill in the blanks

1._______________ is used for cooling the engine .
2. Mention any two components of cooling system ________________,_____________.

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3. . Moderate temperature of engine is _________to _________degree centigrade which
needs to be constantly maintained.

5.7. Tightening of Fastener(Nuts/Bolts/Screw)

5.7.0. Relevant Knowledge

As you know that, the engine is a complex piece of machinery in which different
components are assembled by using different types of fasteners. Due to power
production, transmission of power, variation in speed and load, vibration leads to
loosening of fasteners. This may change the stability of components and lead to
development of bending. Further, it may develop scratches, cracks, and may cause
leakage of coolant and gases etc. It will affect the engine performance.

5.7.1 Tightening the cylinder head bolts

 Remove the valve cover from the cylinder head

 Remove the rocker arm assembly
 Remove the pushrods slowly
 Use specific size of socket spanner with appropriate torque wrench.
 Use strictly the service manual as per the prescribed sequence.
 Tighten the cylinder with specified torque.

Fig 5.7.1. Cylinder head bolts tight checking

194
5.7.2 Tightening the induction manifold bolts

Loose induction manifold may create vacuum leakage which leads to supply lean
mixture which may causes hesitation in engine running.

 Tighten the induction manifold using specific size of socket spanner with
appropriate torque wrench.
 Use strictly the service manual as per prescribed sequence.
 Inspect the induction manifold gasket.

Fig 5.7.2. Intake manifold bolts tight checking

5.7.3 Tightening the exhaust manifold bolts

Loose Exhaust manifold may cause emission leakage and lead to

cause blackening of bottom of body and may catch fire.

 Tighten the exhaust manifold by using specific size of socket spanner with
appropriate torque wrench.
 Use strictly the service manual as per prescribed sequence.
195
  Inspect the exhaust manifold gasket.

Fig 5.7.3. Exhaust manifold tight checking

5.7.4 Material and Tools requirement for tightening of fastener

 Socket spanner
 Tommey bar
 Extension bar/rod
 Torque wrench
 Torque wrench socket

5. 7. Tightening of Fastener (Nuts/Bolts/Screw)

Fill in the blanks

1.Tightening is required to avoid ____________.

2.____________ happens when the exhaust manifold bolts in loose condition

3.Materials used for tightening fasteners of an engine is ________________,

__________________, ___________________ .

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5.8. Engine Timing (Tuning)

5.8.0 Relevant Knowledge

"Valve timing" means control of when valves operate.

"Ignition timing" means control of when spark happens.

Valve timing is controlled by making sure the camshaft and crankshaft are positioned
correctly to each other. If the cam is ahead of or behind where it should be, bad things
can happen, as simple as poor running, to as bad as severe engine damage from valves
and pistons colliding. The gears, belt, or chain that links the cam to the crank has to be
correct.

Ignition timing is controlled on older engines by the position of the distributor. It's just a
big rotary switch that makes connection to each plug wire in proper sequence. The spark
has to happen at the right time relative to the piston position, and the distributor can be
adjusted a few degrees either way to correct that position. On newer all-electronic
engines, the spark is timed by the computer, which knows the engine's position in
rotation by a crankshaft position sensor. Improper ignition timing results in poor firing,
backfiring, and pinging and knocking.

5.8.1 Steps for adjusting ignition timing:

Step 1: Locate the crankshaft pulley.

With the engine off, open the hood and locate the crankshaft pulley.

There will be a mark on the crankshaft pulley along with degree mark(s) on the timing
cover.

Step 2: Locate the number one cylinder.

Most timing lights will have three clamps.

A positive/red and negative/black clamp is hooked up to the vehicle’s battery and a third
clamp also known as the inductive clamp, clips around the number one cylinder’s spark
plug wire.

197
Step 3: Loosen the adjusting nut on your distributor.

If ignition timing needs to be adjusted, loosen this nut enough to allow the distributor to
rotate so timing can be advanced or retarded.

Fig 5.8.1. Ignition timing adjustment

5.8.2 Steps for adjusting valve timing:

 Turn the ignition off and remove the key.

 Remove the valve door cover
 Turn the engine by hand until the tip of the camshaft lobe points to
 Ward the bottom of the engine.
 Loosen the lock nut on the rocker arm.
 Insert a 0.004” feeler gauge between the rocker arm and the cam lobe. Turn the
adjustment screw while moving the feeler gauge in and out until a slight
resistance is felt on the feeler gauge.

Note:Turning the adjustment screw clockwise will reduce the clearance

and turning it counterclockwise will increase the clearance.

198
 Fig 5.8.2. Valve timing adjustment

 Try to insert a 0.005” feeler gauge. If it can be inserted, readjust the clearance
using the 0.004” feeler gauge.
 Hold the adjustment screw and tighten the lock nut at the same time.
 Recheck the clearance and readjust if necessary
 In same manner check the remaining valves
 Reattach the valve cover.

5.8. Engine Timing (Tuning)

Exercise: Assignment

1. Visit the service center and check the valve timing, ignition timing and injection
timing of four types of vehicle.

Fill in the blanks

1.Valve timing is controlled by making sure the _____________ and crankshaft are
positioned correctly to each other.

2. Valve timing means control of when ____________ operate.

3. Ignition timing means control of when _______________ operate.

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 UNIT-6 Regular maintenance of Transmission system
6.1. Clutch Adjustment

6.1.1 Purpose:

Clutch adjustment involves setting the correct amount of free play in the clutch
linkage. Too much free play can cause clutch drag, preventing the clutch from ever fully
disengaging.

6.1.2 When YouShouldAdjust theClutch

1. Atclutchremovalorinstallation
2. Whenservicingany component ofthe clutchlinkage
3. Wheneverthe clutchpedalfree travelisless than0.50-inch(13mm).

6.1.3 Before YouAdjust theClutch

 Check thatthe clutchsystemisingood condition.

 Check thatthe linkageistightandmovesfreely.
 Check for“false”free travel.Keep theclutchleverfrommovingandpressthe
clutchpedal. Ifthe pedalmovesmorethan0.50-inch (13mm),“false”free
travelinthe linkage. Inspect the linkageandallpivotpointsforwear
ordamage.Serviceasnecessary.
 Check thatthe releaseforkmoveswhenyou pressthe clutchpedal.
 Whenahydraulicsystemisused,checkthatthe fluid inthe
reservoirisatthe specifiedlevel.

6.1.4 Free play:

"Free play" is the distance, usually measured in inches or fractions of an

inch, that the clutch pedal can be depressed before it starts to "work," or
disengage the clutch.

Free play measurement

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 Free play can be measured using a ruler. The amount of free play should match the
manufacturer’s specifications. A general check can be made by observing the
pedal movement. The throw-out bearing first contacts the pressure plate assembly
at the point where resistance is first felt when pressing on the pedal.

Figure 6.1.1. Free play measurement

 Begin with the pedal in a fully released position—that is, with the pedal all the
way up. Start pushing down on the pedal.
 The pedal should move easily for about 1″ (25 mm). In this span, the only pressure
you are working against is that of the return springs. Past this point, the pedal
becomes harder to push.
 This is where the throw-out bearing contacts the pressure plate release levers or
fingers, and you are working against the force of the pressure plate apply springs.
 The distance that the pedal moved from the fully released position until it became
hard to push is the free play.

201
  All vehicle manufacturers specify the proper amount of clutch free play. Free play
is adjusted at some place on the clutch linkage. On many vehicles, the clutch has a
self-adjusting feature that automatically adjusts free play whenever the clutch
pedal is depressed.

6.1.5 Clutch adjustment

The clutch adjustment was done by the following actions;

 Rod-and-lever linkage adjustment
 Cable linkage adjustment
 Hydraulic linkage adjustment

Rod-and-lever linkage adjustment

 A rod-and-lever linkage is a series of links, levers, and rods connecting

the clutch pedal to the clutch fork. Adjustment is usually provided by a
threaded rod that passes through a pivot block.
 An adjustment device is located on the linkage at the clutch fork. To
adjust a rod-and-lever linkage, measure the actual amount of free play at
the clutch pedal and compare it to specifications. Use a ruler to make an
accurate measurement.
 If the specifications are not available, 1″ (25 mm) of free play is usually
close. Before attempting to make the adjustment, check that the linkage is
not worn excessively. A loose, sloppy linkage cannot be satisfactorily
adjusted.
 Next, for the single-locknut adjuster, loosen the locknut that holds the
threaded rod to the pivot block. Turn the rod until the proper free play is
obtained at the clutch pedal and then retighten the locknut.

202
  For the double-locknut adjuster, loosen the one locknut, depending on
which way the adjustment is to be made. Then, turn the other locknut in
the same direction, advancing the pushrod until the proper free play is
obtained at the clutch pedal.
 Retighten the first locknut. Recheck the free play at the clutch pedal. As a
final check, road test the car to check clutch operation.

Figure 6.1.2. Single-locknut adjuster

Cable linkage adjustment

 The cable linkage uses a cable to connect the clutch pedal to the clutch fork.
Adjustment is made by a threaded section, which passes through a bracket. This
section is located on the end of the cable linkage at the clutch fork.
 Some cables are self-adjusting. If there is no free play on a self-adjusting clutch,
the adjustment mechanism is faulty or the clutch is worn out. Note that in many
vehicles with self-adjusting clutch systems, the throw-out bearing is always in
contact with the release levers or fingers.
 Such bearings are called constant-duty throw-out bearings. With the clutch pedal
fully released, the bearing makes light contact with the release levers or fingers.
Even so, there is enough slack in the cable linkage to give some free play at the
pedal.

203
  If the clutch is the manually adjustable type, use a ruler to measure the actual
amount of free play at the clutch pedal. Compare the amount against the
manufacturer’s specifications.
 If the specs are not available, you can assume that the free play is between 1″ and
1.5″ (25 mm and 38 mm). Also, check that the cable and other linkage work freely
and do not bind.
 If the free play must be adjusted, loosen the locknut holding the threaded portion
of the cable sheath. There are usually two locknuts holding the end of the cable to
a bracket.
 Leave the locknuts loose and alternately turn them until the cable length is correct.
Tighten the locknuts and recheck the free play at the clutch pedal. Then, road test
the car and check clutch operation.

Figure 6.1.3. Adjusting free play in a cable linkage

Hydraulic linkage adjustment

 The hydraulic linkage uses hydraulic pressure to transfer pedal movement to the
clutch fork. As with the previous adjusters, adjustment is made by a threaded
section on the linkage at the clutch fork. Adjustment to this linkage changes the
effective length of the pushrod at the slave cylinder.

204
 Figure 6.1.4. Adjusting free play in a hydraulic linkage

 Measure the amount of free play at the clutch pedal. Use a ruler to obtain an
accurate reading, and compare it against specifications. If the specifications are
not available, between 1″ and 1.5″ (25 mm and 38 mm) of free play is generally
acceptable.
 Before adjusting free play, check the master cylinder reservoir to make sure the
fluid level is sufficient. Add DOT 3 brake fluid if necessary.
 Loosen the locknut holding the threaded rod to the adjuster. Turn the rod until you
obtain the proper free play as measured at the clutch pedal. Retighten the locknut.
Recheck the free play at the clutch pedal. Then, road test the car.

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6.2. Clutch Maintenance

6.2.1. Purpose

 Clutch maintenance is an often-overlooked part of keeping the vehicles in good

running order.

 One of the main ways to keep a clutch in good condition is to operate the vehicle
with its constant maintenance in mind.

 Operating your clutch with care is the best way to ensure that a vehicle with a
manual transmission keeps performing at its maximum capacity.

6.2.2. Tips for clutch maintenance:

Here are three tips to help with the maintenance of the clutches;

 Reduce heat from internal friction

 Bleed air out of the fluid

 Change bad operational habits

Reduce Heat from Internal Friction

 One of the most important aspects of clutch maintenance is reducing the amount
of heat generated by internal friction.

 It helps if you avoid situations that increase internal friction, such as when the
clutch is partially engaged, sometimes referred to as ‘riding’ the clutch while
shifting from one gear to another.

 Another common situation that leads to high levels of heat inside the clutch due to
internal friction is when you ‘slip’ the clutch to gain extra forward momentum,
usually while towing a heavy load.

 This slipping action produces a lot of heat which in turn will significantly reduce
the lifespan of the clutch.

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  An alternative to gaining extra forward momentum by slipping the clutch is to
simply take it slower by starting in a lower gear.

Bleed Air Out of the Fluid

 The heat generated by internal friction inside a clutch can produce small pockets
of air in the hydraulic fluid which activates the clutch.

 These pockets of air give the clutch action a spongy effect, with the clutch action
no longer precise which has a negative effect on the overall performance.

 To avoid this you must simply bleed the air out of the hydraulic fluid. There are a
couple of ways to bleed the air out of the fluid, with the simplest being an
automated bleeding system if your industrial vehicles are so equipped.

 The manual way involves accessing the bleed screw on the clutch’s slave cylinder
and opening while someone else presses the pedal to the floor.

 This combination expels the air, so once it has been bled of all air you must close
the bleed screw before the pedal is released.

 After a good bleed, you may want to top up the hydraulic fluid.

 Always keep an eye on the fluid colour as well, because once it gets dark or
especially cloudy then you will want to replace it completely with fresh fluid
which will immediately improve the clutch’s performance.

Change Bad Operational Habits

 While the pressure plate inside the clutch is the most likely candidate to acquire
some damage, beware certain operational habits which can cause damage to the
likes of the throw-out bearing featured in most industrial clutches.

 One of the worst habits is keeping a small amount of pressure on the clutch pedal
when it is not actually being engaged.

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 This usually happens when the driver’s foot rests on it while the vehicle is
stationary or going downhill.

 Even this small amount of pressure engages the clutch’s mechanism. Avoid this
issue by making it a habit to place your left foot on the floor when you’re not
shifting gears.

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6.3. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The mechanism that transmits the power developed by the engine of automobile
to the engine to the driving wheels is called the TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (or POWER

TRAIN).

Fig 6.3.1. Transmission system

6.3.1.How Important is Transmission Service and Maintenance?

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 Fig 6.3.2. How important is transmission service and maintenance

We know how life can be. We all have so many obligations and plans and goals
that it can be hard to keep track of everything. When you’re swamped with work, have a
family reunion coming up, and a friend’s wedding on the weekend, the last thing you’re
thinking about is, “I wonder if my car is running efficiently?”. But it’s important to find
the time to ensure that your vehicle is performing as it should be. And this is especially
true of your transmission.

6.3.2. Transmission Service

Transmission service is very important. With an under performing or

malfunctioning transmission, your vehicle’s performance is compromised and can even
be dangerous. You need to ensure that your transmission is running smoothly and
properly. And the best way to do that is to entrust your transmission to those who know
transmissions best: Mister Transmission.

6.3.3. Transmission Maintenance

As part of our transmission service and maintenance, we offer a variety of

procedures and assessments. Chief among them is our multi-check inspection. As part of
our multi-check inspection, we will perform the following tasks: fluid check, a road test,
a lift inspection/diagnostic, and a pan examination. But that’s not all that our transmission
service consists of.

We also offer inspection services. This is when a transmission presents a

problem that does not appear to have an easy fix. As part of our inspection service, we
may have to remove the transmission from the body of the vehicle to examine it more
closely, get a better look at how things are working (or are not working) and replace any
parts that may need it. We also offer a transmission fluid change service to help ensure
your transmission continues to operate at its best for years to come.

6.3.4.10 Ways to Care for Your Automatic Transmission

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 Avoid costly transmission repairs. Read Mister Transmission’s 10 tips for keeping
a car with an automatic transmission in good condition

Depending on the type of vehicle you drive and its age, transmission repairs can
be costly. Sometimes it’s impossible to avoid having a transmission repair specialist
service your vehicle particularly if you’re subjected to a total breakdown.

But there are things you can do to extend the life of your automatic transmission and
prevent transmission failure. Read our checklist of top 10
transmission maintenance tips:

1.Check your transmission fluid periodically: On many cars, light trucks, and SUVs,
checking the transmission fluid is as easy as checking the oil: with the engine idling, pull
out the dipstick, wipe it off, insert it again, wait, then pull it out to get an accurate
reading. If the fluid level is low, you may have a leak. The fluid itself should be a bright
red colour, clear, and it should smell sweet. If it’s murky, dark coloured, or smells like
rotting fish take it to a transmission repair specialist to look things over.

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 Fig 6.3.3.Check your transmission fluid periodically

2.Use the right type of transmission fluid: Always consult your vehicle’s owner’s
manual to determine what type of transmission fluid you should use. If after doing so
you’re still not sure, pop in to a Mister Transmission and ask a professional.

3.Have your engine’s cooling system serviced: Your vehicle’s cooling system helps
prevent the engine from overheating. But did you know it also ensures the transmission
fluid pumping through the gearbox is cooled too? It’s more likely you’ll need a
transmission repair before your engine
FIG 6.3.4.
completely overheats. Make sure your
cooling system is in optimal condition.
Fig
6.3.5.Have your engine’s cooling
system serviced

4. Get your transmission flushed

regularly: Changing the transmission

fluid in your car is best left to a

professional. Consult your car’s
owner’s manual, but in general, get
your vehicle’s transmission flushed
once a year. How long the
transmission fluid in your car will last
depends on the vehicle’s operating
temperature and how much driving
you do.

5. Don’t change gears while your car is

moving: Bring your vehicle to a

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complete stop before changing gears from ‘drive’ to ‘reverse’ or vice-versa. Failing to do
so simply puts strain on your transmission and after a while it can lead to a serious
problem.

Fig 6.3.6.
Don’t change gears while your is moving

6. Let your car warm up before you drive: Who among us has hopped into the driver’s
seat, started the engine, put the car in drive and motored away? (Full disclosure: I’m as
guilty as you are) Always allow your engine a few minutes to warm up before you begin
to drive, especially during the winter months.

7. Don’t drive on a spare tire for an extended period of time:Mismatched tire sizes, or
driving with a small spare tire over a long period of time is a no-no. Not only will it do
damage to other parts of your vehicle such as ruin the wheel alignment, after a while it
puts unnecessary strain on the transmission.

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 Fig 6.3.7.Don’t drive on a spare tire for an extended period of time.

8. Regularly change the transmission filter: That’s right: your car’s automatic
transmission may have a filter, and it needs to be changed from time to time. Whether or
not you’re driving a car that has a transmission filter depends entirely on the make and
model. Most newer vehicles don’t have a transmission filter but those that do should be
changed each time you get your transmission flushed.

9. Avoid using your vehicle for

towing: Using your car to tow heavy loads,
particularly in hot temperatures, can cause
the transmission fluid to oxidize or burn, and
in turn, do a lot of damage to the
transmission

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 Fig 6.3.8. Avoid using your vehicle for
towing.

10. Have your transmission inspected

annually: Having a certified
transmission repair specialist
conduct a diagnostic check of your
transmission for leaks and other
abnormalities at least once a year, as well
as checking the transmission fluid’s level,
colour, and smell periodically is smart
preventative maintenance.

Fig 6.3.9. Have your transmission inspected annually.

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 UNIT – 7 REGULAR MAINTENANCE OF GEAR BOX

7.0. INTRODUCTION

Gearbox is an important and one of the hardest working parts of your car, experiencing
great stress. It helps to convert the engine output to speed and torque according to the
requirements. While changing the gears, it is very important that the clutch is properly
adjusted for freepedal movement and smooth gear change. There are some other
maintenance tips as well that, you need to keep in mind, to ensure a long life of the gear
system.

In this unit, you will develop an understanding of the gearbox maintenance at regular
intervals, so that the vehicles efficiency increases.

Fig 7.0.1.Gear

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7.1. LUBRICATION OF GEARBOX

7.1.1. GEARBOX

To overcome the resistance like gradient resistance, air resistance and load resistance, it
is necessary to increase the tractive effort. We use gear box in transmission by changing
the gear ratios, which overcome the resistance. It is placed between clutch and propeller
shaft.

When gear box increases tractive efforts in transmission of power, heat is produced
in meshing gears and contact surface area between meshing gear teeth comes under
heavy friction.

Lubricating oil reduces friction and also provides a cushioning effect, when clutch
shaft transmits the drive to the counter shaft and then power is transmitted to the main
shaft gear. In this transition, selective mechanisms, gear wheels, gear shaft splines, gear
teeth develop friction and heat. To sustain the lifeof these components, it is necessary to
lubricate these parts and change the lubricating oil at regular intervals. Inmotor cycles,
lubricating oil is changed at 2000-3500 km whereas, in cars, lubricating oil is changed at
10000-15000 km.

Fig 7.1.1Gear Box

Mobile 1 synthetic gear lube LS, Red Line MT-90, Royal Purple Max Gear, Lucas
Synthetic Gear Oil are some of the gear lubricant used in the gearbox of the cars.

What the service includes,

217
  Drain gear box fluids.
 Inspect the fluid for evidence of sludge.
 Fill the gear box to the recommended level with new fluid of the correct
type and viscosity*
 Inspect fit of plug and drain plug.
 Check for leaks and wear on seals.
 Check shift lever bushes.
 Check clutch operation
 Test to check working of serviced gear box.

*viscosity relates to the ability of fluid to flow without resistance. Different gear boxes
require fluid with different level of viscosity.

Fig 7.1.2 Gear Lever

Steps for changing lubrication of gear box

vii. Check for leakage of oil from the gear box, check and clean the air breaths.
viii. Check the level of lubricating oil in the gear box by loosening the oil level bolt,
which is placed at the side of the gear box.

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ix. When the gear box is filled with correct quantity of oil, it starts to flow through the
level hole.

Fig 7.1.3Lubricating oil drain

x. To check the quality of oil in the gear box, the following procedure may be
adopted

8. Take a drop of used oil and place it on the nail of thumb, while the thumb is being
held vertically upward in this position. Check the viscosity of old lubricating oil
(flowing ability of oil) in the downward direction. Similarly check the flow of new
oil, on other hand’s thumb nail, and compare the resistance to flow of both old and
new oil. Used oil will be faster in comparison to the new oil.

9. Check the oiliness quality of the oil by rubbing continuously on the hand skin. The
old oil will have the odour smell. The burning smell should not come from the oil.

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 Fig 7.1.4 Lubricating Oil filling

Changing of lubricating oil

12. Run the vehicle for 2-3 km.

13. Place the vehicle at the hydraulic lift
14. Place the container below the drain plug of gear box.
15. Open the filler and drain plug and leave it for appropriate time, so that oil is
completely drained out.
16. Replace the washer of drain plug and tighten it to the specified torque.
17. Refill the gear oil of specified grade and quantity up to the level mark.
18. Close the lever/filler plug.

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 EVALUATION

Practical Exercise

i. Check the viscosity and oiliness of lubricating oil

2. Prepare a poster showing filling of lubricating oil in gear box in a vehicle.

Fill in the blanks

5. Lubricating oil is used for_____________.

6. Lubrication removes ________ from engine

7. Lubricating oil should be changed at every ______ year.

8. Replace the _________at the manufacturer recommended interval.

Short Answers

12. What is meaning of gear box?

13. What are the differences between oil and coolant?

3. Name tools used in changing coolant in vehicle.

7.2. SETTING OF GEAR BOX

7.2.1.INTRODUCTION

For easy shifting of gears, it is necessary to regularly lubricate the gear linkages.
Slackness must be inspected and adjusted at regular intervals otherwise, it may cause
hard gear shifting and gear slips out of mesh. Generally there are four types of gear boxes
Those are,

5. Constant mesh gear box

6. Sliding mesh gear box
7. Synchromesh gear box
8. Automatic gear box

The main components of gear boxes are counter shaft, main shaft, gears, bearings.

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In shifting mechanisms, there are two types,

3. Floor shifting mechanism

4. Steering column mechanism

7.2.2. GEAR SELECTION MECHANISM

There are minimum 3 to maximum 5(3,4,5) combinations of gear available in

automobile. These arrangements has to be made to ensure that only one gear is allowed
to engage at one time and the remaining gear levers should be kept locked. We can
change the one gear position only by brought back to the neutral position and then shift to
the another gear. Gear shifting has been done according to the different situations. The
movement of gear shifting is transmitted to the gear selector mechanism through the
control shaft. The gear shaft lever mechanism includes extension rod and guide plate are
designed with suspension type to absorb the engine vibrations. The allowance of only one
gear is achieved through interlocking mechanism.

Fig 7.2.1 Constant mesh Gearbox

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7.2.3. PROCEDURE FOR SETTING OF GEAR BOX

There are some steps to be followed to service and setup the gear box. For
servicing the gearbox, the gear box assembly should be separated from the vehicle and
kept on the service bench and then the oil inside the gear box assembly is completely
drained out by removing the screw. The release bearing and lever are taken out separately
by removing the nuts, connecting the clutch housing and gear box. Then the front, rear
and end covers are taken out and then, the release bearing moving flange and lay shaft are
removed. The clutch shaft is removed along with the bearing and then, the pilot bearing is
removed from the main shaft by removing the nuts and then the gear units and
synchromesh are removed. Finally the main shaft is removed from the top. After
removing both bearings of the lay shaft, the shaft is removed and then the reverse gear
shaft and idler gears are removed.

After dismantling the gear box assembly completely, the components of the gear
box are thoroughly cleaned with thinner.

After cleaning the each and every components of the gear box assembly, following
inspectional procedure should be done to repair and service the damages.

1. Firstly, inspect the front cover, rear cover, top cover clutch housing and gearbox
case.

2. The gears, bearings, main shaft, counter shaft and reverse gear idler gears are
completely inspected

3. Then, the main shaft and counter shaft splines and top gear splines are clearly
inspected.

4. The meshing units are separated and the inner gear and drum components are
thoroughly inspected.

5. The oil seals are inspected, if there is a damage then the oil seal will be removed.

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 Fig 7.2.2Gear box of a car

First fill the gear oil to the required level. Gear lever with gear rod-excessive play is
adjusted by using thrust washer, by adding thrust washers in gear lever casing. Also,
check the gear rod spring and lever boll for wear. Gear shifter fork should align with
shifting sleeve on the main shaft of respective gear. If alignment is improper, loosen the
fork bolt and adjust the same. Check the synchronizing ring with the synchronizing cone
and with fixed hub mounted on main shaft. Inspect the internal and gear teeth for nick
formation, polish the same for solving the problem. In case of motorcycles, tighten the
gear shifter lever, if it has slackened.

After inspection and repairing work, the components of the gear box unit should be
properly assembled. The steps need to be followed for the proper assembly of gear box
are following,

4. First the reverse idler gear is fixed with the reverse gear shaft.

5. The gears are fitted in the lay shaft according to their speed.

6. Rotating the lay shaft by hand, for checking the free rotation of the lay shaft.

7. According to the speed of the main shaft, connect the meshing unit and bushes.

8. In the front end of the main shaft, the nut of the pilot bearing is tightened.

9. The clutch shaft or top gear and the bearings are fixed together.
224
 10. The meshing of gears should be done with the help of screw driver.

11. The top cover of the gear box is aligned with the shifting fork.

12. Put the front, top and rear covers together properly.

13. The clutch housing is fixed together with front end of the gear box.
After the assembly of the gear box unit, the gear box is lifted using a hydraulic jack and
coupled to the engine by making the inner spline of the clutch plate to match with the
outer spline of the top gear. The bolts connecting the engine housing and clutch housing
are fitted together and then, the speedometer, clutch pedal, universal joints and propeller
shaft connections are established.

Go for road test after the service and check for the following

 Gear shift easily from 1 to 5 gears and reverse with appropriate speed and
Resistance.

3. Check for smooth power transmission.

EVALUATION

Practical Exercise

 Identify and list the gear selective mechanism

 Give the reasons for hard gear shifting
 Prepare a poster showing synchronizing gear box selective mechanism.

Fill in the blanks

3. More play in gear linkage causes_____________.

4. If there is nick on gear teeth, will causes ________
5. Lubricating oil should be changed at every ______ km.
6. Replace the _________at the manufacturer recommended interval.

Answer the Questions

 Share importance of setting of gear box

 What is the function of gear box?
 What are the different combinations in gearbox?
 Name tools used in shifting the gear.

225
 UNIT-8 SERVICING OF THE WHEELS

OBJECTIVE

To study about Importance of Wheels and Importance of Hub Greasing and Bearing Play
Adjustments

8.0. INTRODUCTION

Though a large number of car owners are unaware of the fact, car tyres have an important
bearing on the performance and safety of the car. In fact, when car maintenance is the
question in point, ensuring that the tyres are in good condition is an issue that very
important. Old and worn out tyre can easily lead to skidding of the vehicle and endanger
your life as well as your car. In order to help you take proper care of your car tyres. You
should properly check the all important components of the car.

Wheel hub bearings may not be visible when you are scanning the outer body of a
vehicle, but they play an important role in its safety and handling characteristics.
Comprised of precision-manufactured bearings, seals and sensors in one pre-assembled
unit, a wheel hub bearing unit is critical to a car’s performance. Although wheel bearings
on late model vehicles are sealed and require no maintenance or adjustments, they won’t
last forever. Quite often, auto mechanics overlook hub bearing when working on brakes,
suspension, or changing tires. But failing to ensure their integrity can have disastrous
results.

226
8.1. IMPORTANCE OF WHEEL

A wheel is a circular object that, together with an axle, rolls easily. They are first widely
used for transport. Wheel can mean lots of other circular objects that turn, like a steering
wheel and flywheel.

A wheel has to have some external power source in order to move. When you pick up a
wheelbarrow and roll it along in front of you, you are the power source.

The engine is the power source for the wheels on a car. But the reason that the wheel is a
very important and useful technology is because of its mechanical advantage.
The wheel gains its mechanical advantage because it reduces friction no wheel.

When a wheel is rolling along the ground, a fraction of the surface touches the ground.
Yet this surface doesn't have to slide on the ground. Friction mainly occurs in the axle
and are greatly reduced. Rolling friction is much weaker than sliding friction. By rolling,
wheels make it easier to move things from place to place.

Fig. 8.1.1. Important of wheel

The most important part of any automobile is the part that contacts the road. The wheels
on a car, truck, bus, or other vehicle are responsible for ensuring that you keep a stable
grip on the road, and that your ride is smooth and safe.

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TYPES OF WHEEL

(a) STEEL WHEEL or DISC WHEEL

(b) FORGED WHEEL or LIGHT ALLOY CAST
(c) ALLOY WHEEL

STEEL WHEEL

The most common type of wheel that you will find is the standard steel rim wheel. Steel
wheels have been around since the early cars were first made and are still in common use
today, although the quality and design have improved dramatically over the years. Modern
steel wheels are usually made from a pressed steel sheet that is forged into the shape
required for the rim. They are cheap to manufacture and purchase, but can cost more over
the lifetime of a vehicle as they are also relatively heavy and will use more fuel as a result.

Fig. 8.1.2. Steel wheel

Steel wheels are significantly stronger than alloy wheels. It takes a great force to
bend steel wheels, and it is almost impossible to crack them. Given their usual utilitarian
look, the purely cosmetic damage is not generally a major issue.

As long as you maintain the layer of paint on your wheel as needed, your steel
wheels will not rust. Cosmetic damage is not typically an issue with steel rims as they

228
naturally look rough and tough. With tools, such as a hammer, you can easily revert your
bent steel wheel back into shape.

Steel wheels are made with an alloy of iron and carbon. They are heavier but they're more
durable and can be easier to repair and refinish.Steel wheels are generally less expensive
than aluminum wheels.

FORGED WHEELS

Forged rims gets its name from the process of forging a single piece of aluminium into
the shape of the wheel rims. Cast wheels on the other hand are made from aluminium that
is melted into the liquid form, and poured into molds. You can also get cast wheels that
are lighter and significantly cheaper

Forged wheels are stronger because of grain refinement due to thermal cycle and process
of deformation. Consistent forging allows achieving the same structural integrity with
less material in comparison to cast wheels.

The fact is forged wheels are expensive. When you see how these wheels are made and
how much material is used it makes sense why these wheels fetch such a high price.
The forging process involves heat, lots of heat, and smashing metal to get the grain of the
aluminum just right for tons of strength.

Forged wheels are much stronger thus less prone to issues but it’s still Aluminum and yes
can bend.

Fig. 8.1.3. Forged wheel

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ALLOY WHEEL

Alloy wheels are made from an alloy aluminium or magnesium. Alloys are mixtures of a
metal of a metal and other elements.They generally provide greater strength over pure
metal, which are usually much softer and more ductile.

Alloy wheels are now standard on most cars because they offer both cosmetic and
performance advantages. The aluminum/nickel alloy is much lighter than steel and makes
for more agile performance and better acceleration. A car with alloys on is generally
much more fun to drive

They offer performance advantages over steel wheels, as they are often several pounds
lighter per wheel -less weight means quicker acceleration and faster stopping.

Technically speaking, alloy wheels don't actually rust. They do have the ability to
corrode, but it is not quite like rusting. Instead of the brownish orange rust color, you get
white stains. Most stock alloy wheels are polished and have a protective finish that is
designed to prevent corrosion.

Forged aluminum wheels are stronger but lighter than alloy wheels. Carbon
fiber aluminum wheels are lighter than most of the other alloy wheels, but also expensive
with the disadvantage that they can break. Alloy wheels are an alloy of aluminum, with
magnesium, which makes them more durable and cheaper.

The main disadvantage of alloy wheels is their durability. When impacted by the
road, alloy wheels tend to bend and even crack moreeasily than tougher steel wheels. The
aesthetic appearance of alloy wheels is also threatened as they are more easily prone to
cosmetic damage.

Alloy wheels are much lighter than steel wheels, which allow them to operate at a higher
performance in most conditions. While they are more expensive than steel wheels, the
majority of OEM wheels on the market are alloy wheels. This allows for a larger
selection and more options.

Fig. 8.1.4. Alloy wheel

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Practical Exercise:

1. Market survey and fill the chart

S.No Name of vehicle Types of wheels

2. Fill in the blanks

1. Wheels is used for_____________

2. Wheels are fitted in front and____________ of engine

3. Alloy wheels are made from ___________

4. Steel wheels are made from ___________

5. Forged wheels advantages_____________

3. Answer the following questions

1. Define importance of wheels

2. Differences Between steel wheel and Alloy wheel

3. What are the main parts in Steel Wheel?

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8.2. IMPORTANCE OF HUB GREASING AND BEARING PLAY
ADJUSTMENTS

8.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF HUB GREASING

GREASE:

The function of grease is to remain in contact with and lubricate moving surfaces without
leaking out under the force of gravity, centrifugal action or being squeezed out under
pressure. Its major practical requirement is that it retains its properties under shear forces
at all temperatures it experiences during use.

WHEEL HUB:

Wheel hub is a single casted unit mounted on stub axle shaft or on the casing. It consists
of two taper roller bearings in which spacer is placed between two bearings. It holds
break drum and wheel. Measure function of wheel hub is to rotate freely on stationary
shaft/casing. It is fastened by the castled locknut on the axle/casing. During adjustment of
bearing end play, shims will be added to reduce the axle play. Wheel studs are fastened
with wheel hub.

Fig. 8.2.1. wheel Hub

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HUB GREASING:Without grease caps, your wheel bearings simply wouldn't survive
for very long out on the road. Bearings require constant lubrication to remain effective.
Thick bearing grease is packed all around the wheel bearings every time they're replaced
or even when they're removed for wheel hub or axle service

Fig. 8.2.2. Hub Greasing

STUB AXLE: Front main axle is connected to stub axle. Stub axle holds the wheel hub.
A stub axle is either one of two front axles in a rear wheel drive vehicle, or one of the two
rear axles in a front wheel drive vehicle. In a rear wheel drive vehicle this axle is capable
of angular movement about the kingpin for steering the vehicle.

Fig. 8.2.3. Stub Axle

PLAY IS ACCEPTABLE IN A WHEEL BEARING

There is probably a spec in the book to set the bearing preload, but most people who have
done bearings several times will just set by hand.1/16th inch of play in the direction you
are describing should be adjusted, but I would find 1/4 inch of play rather alarming.

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HERE ARE SOME INDICATORS OF A WORN WHEEL HUB BEARING OR OTHER WHEEL-
END DAMAGE :

 Snapping, clicking or popping.

 Grinding when the vehicle is in motion.
 Wheel vibration and/or wobble.
 Knocking or clunking.
 Shudder, shimmy or vibration at a constant speed.
 Abnormal side pulls when brakes are applied.

Driving with a bad wheel bearing can cause the axle/hub/spindle to weld itself from
friction and heat causing the wheel to lock up and spin you out. More likely, the metal
will wear away from the friction and the wheel/hub will become loose.

The main reasons that a wheel bearing fails are Driving conditions driving through deep
water or mud can cause your wheel bearings to fail. Water, mud or other contaminants
such as dust or road salt could get past the seals and enter the bearing, polluting the
grease and wearing away the bearings.

The heat would crash the wheel completely. To avoid this situation, it is recommended to
drive at the slower speed so that your wheel stays in action a few more hours. SO, while
thinking how long can you drive on a bad bearing? You should not go more than 1000
miles as it might result in some bigger issue.

8.2.2 STEPS FOR REMOVING WHEEL FROM AXLE :

• Place wooden blocks to the wheels to lock the wheel.

• Loosen the wheel nuts by using wheel spanner

• Lift the vehicle up using hydraulic jack Under the front axle and make it rest on stands.
Remove the jack

• Remove the grease cup with the help of hammer and screwdriver.

• Straighten the split pin and takeout by using combination plier.

• Unscrew the castle nut and take it out.

• Remove the brake drum from stub axle.

234
• Remove the wheel and hub from stub axle.

Fig. 8.2.4. Removing wheel from Axle

8.2.3 STEPS FOR CLEANING THE WHEEL BEARINGS

• Remove the taper roller bearing from the hub and axle shaft.

• Take diesel oil in a tray and pour diesel oil in bearing.

• Taking rubber pad, splash the grease from bearing.

• Thoroughly clean the bearing, hub and axle shaft

Fig. 8.2.5. Cleaning the wheel Bearings

• Big and small taper roller bearings are checked for being worn out and assurance of
no play and abnormal wear etc

• Wipe it out with dry clean cloth

• Now take the fresh bearing grease and fill it from broader side of taper roller bearing.

235
• Ensure grease reaches to the opposite side of the wheel.

• Now fix the bearing on the axle shaft with spacer.

• Fill the grease in the hub.

• Change the outer and inner grease seals.

• Fix the castle nut and tighten it to the specified torque.

8.2.4 STEPS FOR ADJUSTING BEARING PLAY

• Place washer and tightened the castle nut.

• Check the wheel by turning

• If there is friction, loosened the castle nut

• Check again for friction,

• Wheel should roll freely

• Lock the castle nut with the use of spilt pin.

• Fit the grease cup by filling with new grease.

• Lift the vehicle with jack and take out the stand

• Remove the jack by lowering it down.

Fig. 8.2.6. Adjusting Bearing Play

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8.2.5. STEPS TO REMOVE THE BROKEN STUDS FROM THE HUB

• Due to over tightening, overloading of vehicle may cause wheel nut, stud to break.

• Use stud extractor or by using hand drill machine remove the broken stud without
damaging the internal threads of hub.

• Use tap to redress internal threads of the hub

• Choose new stud of proper size and fix in the hub.

Fig. 8.2.7. Remove the broken studs from the Hub

8.2.6 PRECAUTION

• Over filling the grease in centre of the hub is not advisable, as it will flow out due to
heat and may go in brake drum.

• Oil seal should be replaced if needed.

• To allow the free movement of wheel and no play, the castle nut should be first
tightened and loosened by a quarter or half thread.

• Castle nut must be locked by placing proper sized split pin.

• Grease cup should not be overfilled.

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Practical Exercise:

1. Fill in the blanks

1. Wheel Hub is used to hold_____________.

2. Stub is used to hold_____________.

3. To remove the stud ________ is used.

4. _____________ is used in the bearing.

5. Replace the _________when it is broken.

6. Dress ___________of the thread.

2. Answer the following Questions

1. What is the use of wheel Hub?

2. Write the steps for cleaning the wheel Bearing

3. How Remove the Broken Stub in Hub

4. Explain the driving with Bad wheel Bearing

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UNIT – 9 REGULAR MAINTENANCE OF TUBES AND TYRES

Objective
1. To study and understand the needs and function of tyre and tube.
2. To study and understand the importance of maintenance of tyre and tube.
3. To study and perform the repairing procedure of punctured tyre and tube.

9.0. Introduction
Automobiles are machines which transport people or goods from one place to
another, so wheels are the important components of an automobile. To get a smooth and
controlled travel we are using tyres which are fitted on wheels. The development in
technology of tyres have given a new ride feel to the riders and also increase the safety of
riding. On the beginning of automobile steel plates are fitted on the wooden wheel which
doesn’t give the smooth and controlled ride that we have now. In 1888 the first practical
pneumatic tyre was patented by Scots born John Boyd Dunlop. He invented the tyre to fit
in his son's bicycle to reduce his headache after his ride of bicycle on rough and uneven
road.

Fig 9.0.1. Wheel with Metal Plate

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Why We Need Tyres
Tyres which are made of rubber give more grip to us against the road while we
ride but it doesn’t dissolve as fast as an eraser. That grip gives us more control over the
vehicle which helps us to steer the vehicle safer in hard turns without reducing the speed
of the vehicle. Wheels with metal plates will not give us grip so it's hard to steer the
vehicle without losing control.
Rubber tyres also increase the braking power of a vehicle because of its grip over
the road which is not possible on vehicles with metal plated wheels.

Example
All of us have used an eraser. Erasers are made of rubber. When we rub it with
high pressure against the surface it dissolves faster but it will give grip for us against the
surface. That grip will act as a braking factor.

Fig 9.0.2. Tyre Mark on Road

Likewise, tyres made of rubber also dissolve with the pressure induced by the
weight of the vehicle and people or goods on it. But unlike erasers the rubber used for the
tyre will dissolve slower because of the polymers used in tyre.

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9.1 TYRE AND MAINTENANCE

9.1.1 Tyre
A tyre (British English) or tire (American English) is a ring-shaped rubber
component that surrounds a wheel’s rim to transfer a vehicle’s load from the axle through
the wheel to the ground and to provide traction on the surface travelled over. In addition
to that tyres provide cushion effect to the vehicle while running on an uneven rough
surface road because it is a pneumatically inflated structure.
The outer portion of the tyre which rolls on the road is made of synthetic polymer
rubber and is called tread. Pattern of grooves and channels made in tread to increase the
grip and let the water flow while the vehicle runs on a wet surface. At the inner edges,
beads are formed by reinforcing with steel wires. The beads act as strong shoulders, for
bearing against the wheel rim.
Tyres we are using now were classified into two types by the way air is stored in
it. They are
2. Tubed tyre
3. Tubeless
1. Tubed Tyre
Tubed tyres are traditional tyres that
have a separate container to contain air and that
container is called a tube. The air is forced into a
tube to attain high pressure which acts as a
cushioning medium.
Rims for the tubed tyre were designed
in such a way that the tyre's seat bead will be
attached and hold tight. Tube is only made of rubber
and has a valve cap attached to it to refill the air.
Advantages of Tubed Tyre
1. Low cost.
2. Available in every size and available for
every vehicle.
3. Repairing cost is low.

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 fig 9.1.1. Tube Tyre fig 9.1.2. Tubeless Tyre

Disadvantages of Tubed Tyre

 More weight.
 When punctured flattened easily.
 Hard to repair.
 Less reliable, explode easily because of overheating.
 Low life span
2. Tubeless Tyre
Tubeless tyres do not enclose the tube. Instead of having a separate tube to store
pressured air tyre itself holds the air. The inner construction of this tyre is almost the
same as that of the tube tyre. Wheel rim of the tubeless tyre is built in such a way that
holds the tyres seat bead not releasing the pressurized air.
A non-return valve is fitted to the rim through which the air is forced inside the
tyre.
Advantages of Tubeless Tyre
 Lighter in weight.
 When they get punctures, air releases slowly.
 Easy to repair the puncture.
 Highly reliable because explosions of tyres have less chance.
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Disadvantages of Tubeless Tyre
 High cost.
 Not available for all vehicles.
 Repair cost is high.
Solid Tyres
These are special tyres that don't come under the above classified category. Solid
tyres are rare tyres which neither the air is forced inside the tyre nor the tube is enclosed
inside it. The tyre is completely solid and is mounted on the wheel rim. It runs for a life
long time. It has a heavy tyre so there is no chance of being punctured. Because of its
heaviness and rigid body, it does not have any cushioning effect, so it is not used on an
automobile. Now it is used in children's tricycles only.

9.1.2 MAINTENANCE OF TYRE

Maintenance of tyres and tubes is an important part of the service of a vehicle.

Proper maintenance of tyres and tubes will increase the life of the tyres and tubes, and it
will increase the safety of the ride. Unlike other components of automobile tyres and
tubes are more important for safety of the vehicle and the people or goods in it.

Why Tyre Maintenance is Important

Maintenance of tyres and tubes will increase the life of the tyre and tube, and it will
increase the safety of the ride. Proper maintenance of the tyre and tube will increase the
cushioning effect on the vehicle, which gives us the comfort ride. Maintenance of the
vehicle will also increase the stability of the wheel which increases the control over the

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vehicle.

List of Maintenance
 Clean the tyre regularly with water
 Check for uneven tyre wear.
 Check damaged uneven tyre wear.
 Check air pressure of tyres at regular intervals.
 Remove small chips of stone trapped in tyre treads with the help of a nose-plier.
 Pressure of tyre should be maintained at the specified pressure given by the
manufacturer.
Rotation of Tyres
For normal wear of tyre uniformly, it is recommended that all four wheels should
be shifted crosswise after every 10,000 kms run of vehicle or as per specification.

fig 9.1.3. Air Pressure Checking

9.1.3.Morden Technologies
Pressure Indicating Tyre:
Tyres that can indicate the air pressure of the tyre to the instrumental panel, which
will help the driver to easily understand the condition of tyre and to get a safe ride.
Self-Inflating Tyres:
Self-inflating tyres are technologies that are still in development. In this tyre, air
pressure is noted frequently and inflates itself with the pump installed in it.

fig 9.1.4. Studded Tyre

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Smart Studded Tyres:
Normal tyres that were used in dry places will not be suitable for wet or snow
areas. Especially in snow areas studded tires have been installed to run normally, but
these studded tyres will not run smoothly on dry roads. So, tyres with smart studded
installed in it were in the developing stage, in which studs were controlled by the driver.

Exercise
Fill in the blanks
 Tyres are made of __________ polymer materials.
 Top layer of the tyre is called as _________.
 _________ are the uncommon tyre that only use in children’s tricycle.
 Beads are formed by reinforcing with _________.
 ___________ tyres are lighter and cooler.
Short answers
1. Why rotation of tyre is important and at how many kilometres does it have to be
change?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of tubeless tyre?
3. What is the list of maintenance of tyre?
4. Differentiate tube and tubeless tyre.
5. Why tyre is important to vehicle?
Assignment
1. Prepare a list of vehicles now available in market with tube and tubeless tyre.
2. Prepare a chart with diagram of tube and tubeless tyre with their advantages and
disadvantages.

9.2.SERVICING OF TYRES

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 Like other components of an automobile tyres and tubes also can be repaired when
they get any minor damage or not in working condition. There are special tools available
for repairing the tyres and tubes.
9.2.1 Needs of Servicing in Tyre

fig 9.2.1. Punctured Tyre

whenever air pressure in the tube or the tyre reduces it will cause trouble in the
performance of the vehicle, or it leads to flat tyre in such condition the vehicle will not be
able to move. This may occur due to following reasons:
1. Damage to the tube or the tyre by means of sharp obstacles such as nail, stone etc.
2. Due to faulty tube valve.
3. Rusted wheel rim.
4. Driving at low air pressure leads damage to the tube.

9.2.2 Checking and Maintaining Air Pressure

 Air pressure should be measured by using a pressure gauge. Its unit is kg/cm²
 Hold the pressure gauge on the tube valve and press it gently, the indicator will
show the air pressure of the tube.
 If it is low, fill the air with the help of an air compressor, again check the pressure.
 If it is high, just hold the pressure gauge on the valve and press gently till the
correct pressure arrives.

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9.2.3 Repairing Puncture Tube
In a tubed tyre to repair a puncture first we need to remove the wheel from the
vehicle, then tube for the tyre. There are some special tools available for removing and
fitting of the tube from the tyre.
Instruments need
1. Wheelnut spanner
2. Jack
3. Bead chisel or henchman for big tyre
4. Blunt lever
5. Nose plier
6. Water container for small tube and soap water for big tube
7. Toothpick or matchstick
8. Fine grade emery paper (sand paper)
9. French chalk powder
For cold patch method
 Adhesive solvent
 Press unit
 Cold patch
For hot patch method
 Round shaped small rubber
 Black adhesive paste
 vulcanizer
9.2.4. Steps of removing tyre

fig 9.2.2. Wheel Nut Tightening

 Loosen the wheel nuts

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  Raise the portion of the vehicle where the punctured wheel located using jack
 Remove punctured wheel from the hub
 Keep the wheel nuts safely with washer
9.2.5. Procedure for Repairing Puncture Tube
 After wheel is removed from the vehicle, release the remaining air from the tube
using the tube valve
 Use the blunt lever to remove the tyre bed from the wheel or place the wheel on
the tyre removing machine. If it is a big tyre use a hunch man to release the bead
seat from the tyre before using a blunt lever or machine.
 Take out the tube gently by supporting the tube valve.
 Inspect the inner portion of the tyre for pointy items, remove it with the help of
nose plier
 Fit the valve back in the tube and fill the air to check the leak by placing the tube
in a water container, if it is a big tube pour soap water on the tube slowly.
 Mark the puncture area and place a toothpick or matchstick in the puncture hole.
For now, we know how to find the puncture, in practical we have two
methods to repair the puncture

fig 9.2.3. Puncture Patch fig 9.2.4. Adhesive Paste

 Cold patch method

 Hot patch method
Cold Patch method:
1. Dry off the puncture tube.
2. Rub the puncture place with fine grade emery paper/rubber file.

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 3. Apply the cold patch adhesive solvent on and around the puncture area and allow
it to dry for few minutes
4. Take out the cover for the cold patch and place it centrally on the punctured
portion of the tube in a mini press unit and press the cold patch.

Hot Patch Method:

 Hot patch method is carried out with the help of a small vulcanizing machine.
 After cleaning the puncture part with the help of emery paper /rasp file.
 Apply black adhesive solvent
 Cut a piece of rubber tube in round shape from the roll especially available for hot
patch and place it centrally over the puncture, and press it

fig 9.2.5. Vulcanizer Machine

 Place the puncture portion downward on the heater plate of the vulcanizer machine
(fig 9.11) and by using the hand wheel move the pressure plate to press the tube.
 Switch on the vulcanizer and leave it for 10 to 15 min. Depending on the type of
tube
 After the specific time is over, switch off the vulcanizer and remove the tube and
cool the tube.

9.2.6. Fitting Tyre

 After repairing the puncture, again fill the air and check for leakage.
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  Before fitting the tube back in the tyre, apply white powder (French chalk powder)
inside the tyre, to reduce the friction between tyre and tube.
 Release the air from the tube before fitting it back to the tyre.
 Fit tyre bed on the wheel rim and see that it fitted properly, otherwise use tyre
removing machine.
 Fix the wheel back on the hub.
 Diagonally tight the nut with specified torque.
 Fill the air to the recommended pressure.
 remove the jack by lowering it.

9.2.7.Repairing of Tubeless Tyre

As we saw earlier it is easy to repair the puncture in tubeless tyre. We don’t have
to remove the tyre from the wheel rim to repair the puncture.

Instruments Need
 Nose plier
 Smoothing tool
 Puncture repair strip or rubber adhesive strip
 Strip insertion tool (bodkin)
 Knife or blade
 Wire brush

9.2.8. Procedure for Repairing Puncture in Tubeless Tyre

250

fig 9.2.6. Tubeless Tyre Puncture Repairing

  Locate the puncture by inflating tyre and immersing the tyre with wheel in water

tank or using soap water and mark it.

 Take out the nail if any and judge the puncture size, as the rubber plug to be
selected in according to the puncture size
 Clean the puncture and its surrounding with the help of wire brush.
 Select the correct size of rubber plug and attach it with a strip insertion tool.
 Dip the bodkin along with a rubber plug into the puncture.
 Slowly take out the bodkin. The rubber plug will be in the puncture.
 Cut the rubber plug approximately 6 mm above the tyre trade.
 Fill the air in the tyre.
9.2.9.Morden Technologies
Run Flat Technology:
Run flat technology is now installed in high-end premium brand cars. In this
technology the sidewalls of the tyres were installed with a special mould of plastic in it
which helped us to run the tyre after it got flat. These tyres will run up to 50 miles.

251

fig 9.2.7. Run Flat Tyre

Puncture Proof Liquid:
Puncture proof liquids were used in western countries. This liquid has to be poured
into the tyre, then when the tyre is punctured the liquid from the tyre and seal the hole.
Puncture Proof Tyre:
Puncture proof tyres are still in development. This tyre is non pneumatic, instead
of air rubber walls were installed in it to support the tyre. So, there is no chance for
puncture in it.

fig 9.2.8. Puncture Proof Tyre

Exercise:
Fill in the blanks.

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 1. Unit of the air pressure _______.
2. __________ and __________ are the puncture methods using in tube tyre.
3. __________ is used to find puncture other than water container.
4. __________ is used to clean the punctured area of tyre.
5. To reduce friction between tyre and tube _________ is used.

Short answers.

1. Explain air checking and filling process.

2. Differentiate hot and cold methods of repairing puncture.
3. Explain the process of repairing of tube tyre puncture with cold process.
4. Explain the process of repairing of tubeless tyre puncture.
5. List out the tools used in repairing of tubed and tubeless tyre puncture separately.

Assignment

1. Prepare a report of recommended air pressure of various vehicles for both front
and back wheel.
Prepare a chart with drawing and list of tools required for repairing of puncture in both
tube and tubeless tyre.

UNIT – 10REGULAR MAINTENANCE OF BRAKES

Objectives:
 Students will able to understand the various types of brakes
 Students will able to understand the parts of different brakes
 Students will able to understand the servicing of various types of brakes

10.0. What is meant by a brake?

Brake is a mechanical device which is used to stop or stable a vehicle.

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10.1.1. Functions of a brake:

 Brake is used to reduce speed.

 Brake is used to stop a vehicle.
 Brake is used to stable a vehicle.

10.1.2. Types of brakes:

1, Mechanical brake

2, Disc brake

3, Hydraulic brake

4, Pneumatic brake

5, Power-assisted brake

Before enter the maintenance and adjustments of brakes, we should know the types of
brakes briefly.

1, Mechanical brake

 Mechanical brake is also known as the drum brake.

 Mechanical brakes are constructed by linkages (rod, spring,
shoe).
 Mechanical brakes do not have fluid.

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 Fig 10.1.1. DRUM BRAKE

2, Disc brake

 Brake is applied to disc by pressurised brake oil.

 Disc is connected with wheel.
 So automatically, the wheel rotation speed reduced by disc.

Fig 10.1.2 DISC BRAKE

3, Hydraulic brake (but mechanical construction)

 Hydraulic braking system is also using the brake oils to reduce the speed or
stopping of a vehicle.
 Construction of the brake is looking as drum brake.

255
  But brake is operated by brake fluid or brake oil.

Fig 10.1.3 HYDRAULIC BRAKE (DRUM BRAKE CONSTRUCTION)

For understand , how the hydraulic drum brake is differ from the mechanical drum
brake

Fig 10.1.4. DETAILED CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC BRAKE

Importance notes: difference between hydraulic and disc brake

Disc brake construction = disc rotor + brake fluid tube
256 + brake fluid tube
Hydraulic brake = drum brake construction
4, Pneumatic brake (Air brake)

 Pneumatic brake is also known as the air brake.

 Pressurised air is used to operate the brake.
 For hydraulic and disc brake, brake oil or brake fluid is used to reduce the speed of
a vehicle.
 For pneumatic brake, Air is used to reduce the speed of a vehicle.

Fig 10.1.5. CONSTRUCTION OF AN AIR BRAKE (PNEUMATIC BRAKE)

257
 Fig 10.1.6. AIR BRAKE Fig 10.1.7. WORKING OF AIR BRAKE

5, Power-assisted brake

 Engine power is used to reduce the speed of a vehicle.

 Power assisted construction may be hydraulic or pneumatic or vacuum.
 But pressure is come from engine.
 Most of the cars using vacuum suspended units.

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Fig 10.1.8 WHEN BRAKE IS NOT APPLIED , WHEN BRAKE IS APPLIED

Servicing and replacing of mechanical brakes

Steps for repairing mechanical brakes

 Straighten and pull out the cotter pin/split pin, fitted in castle nut, using
combination plier.

 Remove /unthread the wheel nuts with spanner and separate the wheel from
brake drum.

 Lock the axle shaft by putting the vehicle in centre stand and open the castle
nut using socket and handle.

Fig 10.1.9. REMOVING OF SPLIT PIN BY COMBINATION PLIER

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 Fig 10.1.10 CASTLE NUT IS REMOVED BY SPANNER

 Hammer the axle shaft lightly by using brass drift, this may contract the
brake drum loose and remove the brake drum

Fig 10.1.11 AXLE SHAFT IS REMOVED BY HAMMER AND BRASS

 Remove brake shoe lock, mount on anchor pin, with the help of nose plier.
 Separate the brake shoes from brake lever cam and the steady post.

 Clean the brake shoes and the brake drum with the help of emery paper.
 Fit both the shoes on the cam and anchor pin and lock them.

 Fit the brake drum over the axle shaft and tighten the castle nut with the help
of socket and handle.

260
 Fig 10.1.12. SPLIT VIEW OF A DRUM BRAKE

 Tighten the brake shoe adjusting nut with the help of spanner, this makes the shoes
to expand and grip the drum firmly.

 Loosen the adjusting nut by a little amount and turn the wheel, it must roll
free. Do the shoe adjustment this way.

 Tighten the main nut locked it properly.

 Fit the wheel over brake drum and tighten wheel nuts.

 Take a road test of the vehicle.

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 Fig 10.1.13 EMERY PAPER Fig
10.1.14. SOCKET SET WITH HANDLE

Fig 10.1.15. NOSE PLIER Fig 10.1.16. CASTLE NUT

Precautions during servicing of mechanical brakes

 Shoe’s lock must be placed properly.

 Shoe’s adjustment should be done properly.

 If there is any lubricant etc. on brake lining , it must be cleaned by washing the
brake shoe with petrol and further cleaned using emery paper.

 Brake cable should be checked for its tension and fitted straight.

262
  Free play should always be kept in brake pedal.

 Shoe return spring should be checked for its tension and fitted straight.

 Replace the brake drum, if it is worn out beyond specifications never get the
sleeve fitted in it.

 Split pin should be placed in castle nut and bended.

 Spring washer should be placed below each wheel nut and these nuts must be
tightened in the right manner and with the right torque. Over-tightening may
damage the stud/threads.

 Brake’s testing should be done at nominal speed of 20 – 30 kms/hr only.

Servicing and repairing of hydraulic brakes

Hydraulic brake is also looking as drum brake. But it is operated by brake fluid.(not
by mechanical linkages as drum brake)

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 Fig 10.1.17 WORKING CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC BRAKE

Overhauling of wheel cylinder:

 Place an obstacle to rear wheels and separate from wheels hub plate using ring
spanner.

 Rest the vehicle’s front on iron hoses by lifting with the help of jack and placing
them below front axle.

 Straighten the lock washer of “check nut” of stub axle.

 Separate the brake drum from stub axle. The drum comes out with bearing.

 Separate the brake hose pipe from the brake pipe line.

264
  Took out the shoe’s lock with the help of combination plier and separate the
spring and locks from shoes.

Fig 10.1.18. BRAKE HOSE Fig 10.1.19. COMBINATION PLIER

 Took out the shoe return springs, this will make the shoes separate from wheel
cylinder and steady post.

Fig 10.1.20. BRAKE SHOE RETURN SPRING Fig 10.1.21. WHEEL CYLINDER

 Take off the dust caps of wheel cylinder and dismantle them. There will be the
piston, bore, spring and rubber seals. Check them for being “OK”.

 Wash the assembly (metal parts) using petrol and fit the assembly (housing) on
another plate and reassemble it.

 Fit the anchor plate over the stub axle and tighten it properly.

265
  Fit the shoes along with the return spring and lock lt.

 Join the brake hose connections and tighten the brake line.

 Place the wheel and brake drum over axle.

 Adjust the wheel bearing’s free play.

 Take out the iron hoses by lifting the vehicle, a little up and then rest it down.
Take out the jack, tighten the hub nut.

 This completes your job of overhauling the wheel cylinder assembly.

Precautions during servicing of hydraulic brake

 If return springs are worn out or weak, replace them immediately.

 Dust cover should be replaced if, it is torn – out.

 Brake lining should be cleaned with petrol and emery paper.

 Brake shoe lock should be placed properly.

 Anchor plate’s bolt should be tightened properly.

 Bearing should be checked and adjustment should be made to it before fitting the
brake drum.

 Wheel cylinder’s rubber washers (kit) should be replaced.

 Brake hose pipe should be joined properly and if there is any leakage, it must be
checked and rectified.

 Original and proper brake fluid should be filled

 Brake system’s bleeding should be done after completing the job.

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Overhauling of Master Cylinder:

Fig 10.1.22. MASTER CYLINDER

 Drain out the master cylinder from the reservoir.

 Disconnect the brake pedal connection from the master cylinder.
 Using nose plier, remove the locking clip and then takeout piston, primary and
secondary cups, check valve with spring.

Fig 10.1.23. SECTIONAL VIEW OF A MASTER CYLINDER

267
  Wash all the components of master cylinder thoroughly with the help of clean
brake fluid.

 Check the components for service limit

 Clean the bypass and intake ports and outlet passage of master cylinder.
 Assemble all the components with new master cylinder kit.
 Fit back master cylinder on the vehicle.
 Connect the brake fluid line to the master cylinder outlet.
 Ensure that master cylinder reservoir cap is clean and clear.
Bleeding

Process of removing trapped air from the fluid line is called ‘bleeding ‘ otherwise , it
may cause spongy brakes.

 Fill the master cylinder’s reservoir with brake fluid up to top as level marked on it.

Fig 10.1.24. FRONT BRAKE OIL Fig 10.1.25. REAR BRAKE OIL
RESERVOIR RESERVOIR

 Ask the companion to sit on driver’s seat and create fluid pressure by pressing and
releasing the brake pedal several times. You will feel that the pedal becomes hard.

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 Fig 10.1.26. REAR BRAKE PEDAL

 Asked the companion to keep up foot pressure on brake pedal.

 Insert one end of the pipe’s over the bleeding nipple and let the other end in a
glass bottle / jar.

Fig 10.1.27. HOW TO BLEED A BRAKE

 Release the fluid pressure by opening the bleeding nipple and farther most wheel
cylinder from master cylinder. There will be bubbles with brake fluid coming out
in the bottle/jar.

269
  Tighten the nipple and the brake pedal goes to floor board as air and brake fluid
are released from the nipple.

 Again ask your companion to repeat the procedure and release the pressure
through the same nipple. This time there should be no bubbles and only the brake
fluid should be coming out of it.

 Check the fluid level, it will be bit down, then top-up the level.
 Apply the same steps to other wheel cylinders also, turn by turn.
 Checked the free play of brake pedal.
 Adjust the free play by unthreading the push rod.
 Test the vehicle for road worthiness. All the four wheels should have the same
grip as this ensures a good brake.

Important notes

 Bleeding operation is to be carried out on the wheel cylinder which is farthest

from the master cylinder.

 If the master cylinder is provided with bleeder valve and bleeding to be carried out
first on the master cylinder.

 Bleeding operation can also be carried out with the help of pressure bleeder
machine.

Steps for Servicing of the disc brakes

 Keep the vehicle on hard surface

 Loosen the wheel nuts
 Raise the front portion of a car/motorcycle support the chassis with stand.
 Remove the wheel nuts and remove the wheel.
 Loosen the castle nut and remove hub from splined shaft.
 Unscrew the bleeder valve and drain the brake fluid from fluid line.

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 Now loosen the bolts of caliper holder from caliper assembly and remove the
friction pads and dust caps.

 Slowly remove the scaling ring from assembly.

 Unload the caliper assembly.
 Remove the piston, dust cover, return spring and keep it aside.
 Thoroughly clean all components and inspect for wear
 Inspect the disc surface for scratches.

Fig 10.1.28. SURFACE OF A DISC

 Measure for the defection disc and if more, replace the disc or it will create
shaking steering or brake judder.

 Inspect the thickness of disc (std-11mm, limit 9.5mm)

 Inspect the piston for wear or replace the kit.
 Assembly the disc on the hub.
 Fix the piston in caliper assembly with rubber seals.
 Also, replace the brake pads and assemble the wheel.

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Fig 10.1.29. CALIPER IN DISC BRAKE Fig 10.1.30. DISC BRAKE PADS

(a) Add the brake fluid in reserve tank.

 Carry out brake bleeding operation after adjusting friction pads.

 Test the working of brakes.

So, now we are ready to service drum brake, hydraulic

brake and disc brake

Fill in the blanks

1, Brake fluid is used in the brakes of …………………………

2, Brake shoe is used in the brakes of ………………………….

3, Caliper is used in the brake of ……………………

4, In hydraulic brake and disc brake, force is applied by using ………………………

5, Air brake is also known as ……………………………

Choose the best answer

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1, Which of the following is not a component in drum brake?

 Brake drum (b) Brake shoe (c) Return spring (d) master cylinder

2, Which of the following brakes are operated by brake fluid?

(a) Drum brake and pneumatic brake

(b) Hydraulic brake and electric brake
(c) Hydraulic brake and disc brake
(d) Disc brake and pneumatic brake

3, Which tool is used to remove the split pin from castle nut?

(a) Spanner
(b) Combination plier
(c) Screw driver
(d) Hammer

4, Which tool is used to remove bolt and nut?

(a)Nose plier
(b)Combination plier
(c)spanner
(d)screw driver
5, Which brake is operated by mechanical linkages only?
 Drum brake
 Disc brake
 Hydraulic brake
 Air brake

Practical in brake maintenance

1 Dismantle a drum brake

2 Identify the components in drum brake

3 Assemble the drum brake

4 Dismantle a disc brake

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5 Identify the components in disc brake

6 Assemble the disc brake

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