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PHLE-Module-2 PHLE - Module-2: Pharmacy (University of Bohol) Pharmacy (University of Bohol)
PHLE-Module-2 PHLE - Module-2: Pharmacy (University of Bohol) Pharmacy (University of Bohol)
PHLE- Module-2
MODULE 2
PHARMACOGNOSY
BIOCHEMISTRY
PHARMACOGNOSY
I. INTRODUCTION Indigenous plant grows in their native countries
PHARMACOGNOSY is applied science that deals w/ the biological, Naturalized grew in foreign land other than their native countries
biochemical & economic features of drugs of Natural Substances found in nature that comprise whole plants & herbs
biologic origin & their constituents. Derivatives/ Extractives refers to single substance/s which are considered
the discipline of medicinal chemistry as chief constituents of the drugs
study of drugs of biologic origin CRUDE DRUGS vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances
Focuses: 1. Identification of plants and animals that have undergone only the presence of COLLECTION &
DRYING.
2. Chemistry
DRUG CONSTITUENTS
3. Evaluation, preservation & use or
application of crude drugs Natural directly obtained from nature
4. Toxicology Ex: Camphor from Camphor Plants
5. History, distribution, collection and Semi-synthetic from chemical modification of a natural constituent
selection Ex: Camphor pinene pine trees
6. Preparation and commerce Totally Synthetic manufactures from chemical synthesis
Three disciplines (Basic) devoted to drugs Ex: Camphor from Cyclopentacliene
1. Pharmacology which dealt w/ drug actions & effects
2. Pharmacognosy covering all information on medicines PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
from natural sources plants, animals, Collection select the species to cultivate
& microorganism
Harvesting gathering the samples at a specific & proper period or
3. Medicinal Chemistry the science of synthetic drugs
season
Constituents:
manual labor or mechanical devices
1. Active Constituents compounds that are responsible for
Drying removal of moisture
the therapeutic effect.
-bacterial & fungal growth
2. Inert Constituent are differentiated to active
-hydrolysis
constituents
facilitates milling & grinding
have no pharmacologic activity
Examples: Cellulose, Starch, Lignin, remove bulk convert the drug to a form that is
Albumin, Suberin, more convenient for handling.
Coloring matter fixes the constituent
Secondary Constituents ensure good keeping qualities
are influenced by three principal factors Curing special drying process
1. Heredity (genetic composition) drying + curing agent
2. Ontogeny (Stage of Development) enhance the properties of the active ingredient
3. Environmental Factors can produce variations ex: Cascara sagrada
reduced glycosides MgO x 1 yr oxidized glycoside
in secondary plant
constituents include soil,
(irritating) (less irritating)
climate, associated flora,
& methods of cultivation Garbling final step in the preparation of crude drugs
Drug Biosynthesis/ Biogenesis study of the biochemical physical process of removing extraneous material
pathways leading to the Packaging, storage, preservation
formation of secondary for protection & marketability
constituents used as drugs. Preservation of Crude Drugs:
Exposure of the drug to 65C Temperature simplest form in preventing
BRIEF HISTORY insect attacks & other form of destruction
Papyrus Ebers Egyptian document Methyl Bromide is used in the fumigation of large lots of crude drugs
Details the use of plant & animals in medicine Chloroform (Carbon Tetrachloride) used to control Insect Attack by
By George Ebers adding few drops to the container
Dioscorides Greek Physician Methods of Evaluation of Crude Drugs
De Materia Medica Organoleptic or morphological (leaves, barks, roots, stem)
description of ~600 medicinal plants
color, odor, taste, size, shape, & special features,
Claudius Galen Greek pharmacist-physician
“Galenical Pharmacy” like touch, texture
method of processes of preparing Microscopic detects cellular tissues, trichomes, stomata, starch
formulas containing animal & plant drugs granules, calcium oxalate crystals aleurone grains
C.A. Sydler Coined the term Pharmacognosy Chemical isolation, purification, identification
pharmakon “drug”
Physical moisture contents, specific gravity, optical rotation,
gnosis “knowledge”
refractive, melting point, viscosity, & solubility
J.A. Schmidth First one to use the term Pharmacognosy in
literature Biological antifertility activity, anti ulcers activity, etc.
Joseph French Pharmacist
Caventou Quinine w/ the collaboration of Pelletiere CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
Pierre Phytochemist Morphologic Based on the part used
Robiquet Codein Classification Ex: Root crop, seed gums, etc
Narcotine
Taxonomic Based on the natural relationship or
Rudolf Brandes German Pharmacist
Hyoscyamine Classification phylogeny
Philip Geiger Atropine w/ the collaboration of Rudolf Brandes Ex: Plant Families: Rutaceae
Theophrastus Father of Botany Pharmacologic Based on therapeutic activity
Classification Ex: Hallucinogens, Anticholinergic
Chemical Based on the chemical class of the
Classification constituents
B. Disaccharides two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bond C. Oligosaccharides 3-10 monosaccharide units
1. Sucrose “Table Sugar”; “Invert Sugar” 1. Maltose 3 glucose units (-1,4)
glucose + fructose ( 1,2) intermediate product of acid hydrolysis
non-reducing sugar (no free carbonyl)
is the only disaccharide that occurs in free state 2. Dextrin several glucose units
almost disaccharides are bound responsible for the browning of bread
Sources: -Sugar Beets (Beta vulgaris) product of partial hydrolysis o starch
cut into limpsilver = Cosettes
-Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarum)
-Sugar Mapple (Acer saccharum)
Preparation: 1. Sugar Cane Juice is boiled w/ Lime
Lime basic compound
neutralize plant acids
coagulate albumins
Uses: ▪Pharmaceutic Necessity
Syrup, NF mask disagreeable taste of drugs
85% sucrose
sufficient bacteriostatic
sel-preserving
▪Demulcent
▪Nutrient
Saccharose is almost universally distributes sugar in
green leaves & in stems
Invert Sugar is darker & sweeter than sucrose
2. Maltose Malt Sugar
Glucose + Glucose ( -1,4)
reducing sugar
major degradation product of starch hydrolysis
3. Lactose Milk Sugar
Glucose + Galactose ( -1,4)
reducing sugar
found in cow’s milk (Bos Taurus)
Uses: ▪Tablet diluent
▪Infant feeding (nutrient)
establishes normal gul flora
(Lactobacillus spp.)
4. Milk Products
Whole Milk
-churned
Butter
Buttermilk
Separation
Cream
Skimmed Milk
Rennin
Whey
Coagulum treated Cheese
▪Condensed Milk partial evaporation in vacuum &
consequent sterilization
sterilized, sealed in hermetic
container by autoclaving
▪Malted Milk evaporated w/ Malted Extract
▪Kumyss fermented Milk
▪Whey the liquid separated from coagulum
liquid left after skimmed milk is treated w/
rennin
▪Rancid Flavor of Butter left at room temperature
is due to Butyric Acid
5. Lactulose (Duphalac®, Lilac®)
semisynthetic sugar, from the alkaline rearrangement of
lactose
Fructose + Galactose (-1,4)
laxative, to reduce straining in defecation
MOA: SI: Not absorbed.
LI: Lactulose is fermented by bacteria to lactic acid
& acetic acid
laxative action
D. Polysaccharides “glycans”
complex, high MW polymer of monosaccharides
1) Homoglycans only 1 type of monosaccharide
1. Cellulose structural polysaccharides in plant; -1,4
dietary fiber
makes up the cell wall of plants
Forms: Purified Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
Powdered Cellulose
Microcrystalline Cellulose Forms of starch:
Purified Rayon ▪Starch paste – dispersing starch in
Cellulose Derivatives: cold water
-Methylcellulsoe
-Ethylcellulose boiled granules swell & rupture
-Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose resulting to
-Pyroxylin: Soluble guncotton/ translucent
Cellulose Trinitrate mixtures solution
to make collodions ▪Pregelatinized Starch –all the granules have been
ruptured in the presence of
obtained by the action of
water
nitric & sulfuric acid in
serve as plasma expander in
cotton
Collodion = Pyroxylin + Ether/ Alcohol 6% concentration
Flexible Collodion = Collodion + ▪Hetastarin –water-soluble form;
3% Castor oil+ >90% amylopectin;
Camphor plasma expander
-Cellulose acetate phthalate
-Caboxymethylcellulose
2. Chitin structural polysaccharides in animals & fungi
homopolyglycan of N-acetylglucosamine
Galacturonic Acid present in Chitin that cannot be ▪Sodium Starch Glycolate – a semisynthetic sodium
found in cellulose salt of carboxymethyl
3. Starch Storage of Polysaccharide In plants ether of starch
reserve carbohydrate of plants – disintegrating agent in
components: tablet formation
Amylose Amylopectin ▪Glutens – tacky proteins removed from corn & wheat
-amylose -amylose in the preparation of starch
Linearity Linear Branched 4. Glycogen – storage polysaccharides in animals
- 1,4 (every 25-30 units) more branched than starch
- 1,4 & -1,6 (branches every 10 units)
Solubility Less soluble More soluble in stored in the liver & skeletal muscles
in H2O in water water similar structure w/ Amylopectin
Size 250-300 >1000 units 5. Inulin Polyfructan
units abundant in the substance
Iodine Dark-blue Blue-violet members of family Asteraceae
Iodine Test confirmatory test for starch Improve digestion
consists of a greater proportion of amylopectin than used in culture media as a fermentative identifying
amylase agent for certain bacteria & in spinal laboratory
Amylose hydrolysis product of starch methods for the evaluation of renal function
responsible for forming a Diagnostic aid to estimate GFR
dark complex w/ Iodine (Glomerular filtration rate)
*-amylaseenzyme in pancreatic juice & saliva -filtration
*-amylaseremoves maltose units from the -reabsorption
non-reducing ends of -secretion
polysaccharide molecules 6. Dextran – homopolyglycan -1,6
usually isolated from: Rhizome from sucrose by the action of transglycolase
Fruit enzyme system in Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Seed plasma expander
Official Sources of Starch: iron dextran – hematin IV/IM
▪Corn ( Zea mays) 2) Heteroglycan more than one type of polysaccharides
▪Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Ex: D-gluco – D-mannan
▪Rice (Oryza sativa)
▪Wheat ( Triticum aestivum)
Unofficial Sources of Starch:
▪Arrow root ( Maranta Arundinacea)
Uses of Starch:
Dusting powder
Tablet-diluent,binding,(starch paste)
Tablet disintegrant
Antidote for iodine toxicity
E. Metabolically-related Drugs
1. Acids
Cherry juice – Prunus cerasus
Malic Juice
to make cherry syrup
Citric acid – tricarboxylic acid
COOH
HO COOH
COOH
lemon juice; -first isolated by Scheele
buffer, acidulants in effervescent formulations
salt = Systemic Alkalinizer – Potassium Citrate
(Acalka®)
Anticoagulant – Citrated Tubes
Lactic Acid Alpha Hydroxy Propionic Acid
– lactic fermentation of sugars
acidulant in infant feeding formulation
substance accumulates in the muscle as a
result of vigorous exercise
Tartaric Acid – dicarboxylic acid
by product of the wine industry
buffer,acidulant in effervescent formulation
Denige’s Test – used to differentiate
citric & tartaric acids
(citrates & tartrates)
Sugar Acids produce from the oxidation of Disaccahrides &
Monosaccharides (except sucrose)
Aldonic Acid produce from the oxidation of sugar’s
aldehyde group (group 1)
Oxalic Acid an organic acid found in fruits of
Averboa balimbi
is used as Bleaching Agent
Acetic Acid laxative action; used as Food Preservative
Concentrated Acid change monosaccharide to Furfural
2. Alcohols
Ethanol >92.3% by weight,
94.9% volume of ethyl alcohol at 15.56C
from fermentation & distillation
70% = localanti-infectives
Diluted alcohol – 48.4 to 49.5 % ethanol at 15.56C
Distilled Spirits: (produced by Distillation)
Brandy – distilled fromWine
Whiskey – distilled from Malted Grain
Rum – distilled from Molasses
III. GLYCOSIDES
I. Lactone Glycosides
1. Coumarin lactone of -hydroxycinnamic acid
fragrant odor, bitter aromatic, burning taste
Tonka Beans (Dipterex adorata)
flavoring agent
2.Bishydoxy coumarin/ Dicumarol
improperly cured leaves of sweet clover Melilotus officinalis
first oral anticoagulant, precursor of warfarin
3. Cantharide Spanish/ Russian/ Blistering Flies
(Cantharis vesicatoria)
Cantharidin – Vesicating principle
Irritant, vesicant remove warts
urgenital tract priapism
aphrodisiac
4. Psoralens Photosensitizing furocoumarin
Family: Rutaceae & Apiaceae
Bishop’s Flowers – Ammi majus
Methoxsalen : Xanthotoxin
Uses: Repigmentation in vertigo
For symptomatic psoriasis
5. Santorin Artemisia cing, Amaritima
Antihelminthic, Toxic
6. Isoflavones Soybean (Glycine soja)
phytoestrogens – bind to estrogen receptors
alleviate menopausal symptoms
7. Skimmin
8. Aesculin
J. Phenol Glycosides
1. Uva ursi Bearberry ( Archtostaphylo uva ursi)
Arbutin
available in the form of herbal teas
diuretic, astringent
2. Poison- Ivy & Oak Rhus spp.
Urushiol a non-volatile principle producing
allergic symptoms
– cause delayed contact dermatitis
IV. Tannins
Tannins non-crystallizable hydrocolloid mixture of polyphenols
amorphous, polyhydroxy-phenolic compounds
form colloidal solutions in water
acid puckering taste (astringent taste)
precipitated by Cu, Pb, Cr2O72
precipitated gelatin, alkaloids
astringent – precipitate proteins
carcinogenic potential
alkaloidal Antidote
groups of compounds that make s wood darker in color
produced Deep Red w/ Potassium Ferricyanide & Ammonia
animal hide tanningleather
tannins
Hydolyzable Non-hydrolyzable
Other names Pyrogallotannins Phlobatanins
condensed
Hydrolytic Pyrogallol X
products (given soluble Phlobaphenes
compounds w/ red polymerization
lead acetate) products
FeCl3 Blueblack Greenblack
Leather Type Bloom Leather Tanner’s Red
Br2 () (+)
VI. VOLATILE OILS ▪ Enfleurage fleu (flower) – w/ the use of cold fat
aka: Essential Oils, Ethereal Oils, Olii Distillati, is suitable in obtaining small amounts of volatile oils
Oleo Aetherea in some countries in plant parts such as a flower petals
may act as insect repellant & insect attractant was formerly used extensively in the production of
also employed as Carminative perfumes & pomades
soluble in organic solvent (most are soluble in alcohol) ▪ Ecuelle is a general method for obtaining citrus oils by rolling
odorous principles in various plants (secretory structures) the fruit over a trough lined by sharp projections,
▪ Rutaceae (citrus) shizogenous, lysogenous ducts which are long enough to puncture oil glands in the
▪ Pinaceae (pine) shizogenous, lysogenous ducts epidermis
▪ Apiaceae/Umbelliferae oil tubes or vittae ▪ Solvent Extraction nonpolar solvent like benzene,
(dillweed) petroleum ether
▪ Piperaceae (pepper) modified parynchymal cells ▪ Enzymatic Hydrolysis
▪ Lamiceae/ Labiatae (mint) glandular trichomes Sinigrin Myrosin Allyl Isothiocyanate
Chemical Constituents: (mustard volatile oil)
Terpenes acetate – mevolnate pathway ▪ Clavenger Apparatus used to distill Volatile oils that heavier
building blocks: Isoprene Units (CN: Isopentanyl than water & lighter than water
pyrophosphate)
#C #Isoprene Units
Monoterpenes 10 2
Fixed oils Volatile oils
Sesqui 15 3
Composition Ester of FA + Terpenes,
Di 20 4
Glycerol aromatic compounds
Tri 30 6
(stereoptene + oleopten)
Tetra 40 8 Rancidity
*Monoterpnenes are found commonly in volatile Resinity
oils (exposure to light
*Sesquterpenes form the largest class of autooxidation resinification)
terpenoids Grease spots (+) ()
Aromatic compounds Shikimate pathway Distilled
Shikimic Acid precursor of the Saponified
aromatic ring in
microorganisms & Volatile oil Fixed Oil
higher plants Also called as an essential Also called as natural non-volatile oil.
Components: oil.
▪Stereoptene solid, oxidized hydrocarbons Volatile oil can evaporate Fixed oils do not evaporate at room
menthol, thymol, anethole, camphor when placed under room temperature
temperature
▪Oleoptene liquid, hydrocarbons No permanent grease on Leaves Permanent grease on paper
eucalyptol, eugenol, methyl salicylate paper
High refractive index = able to bend light Upon exposure to light & Becomes rancid upon oxidation
optically active able to rotate plane-polarized light air, oxidize & resinify
They can be extracted They require some specific techniques
immiscible in water soluble in water just enough to impart odor easily by the distillation for extraction.
to water (aromatic water) process
General Uses of Volatile Oils: Spices & condiment There is no spot (no Some type of spot (permanent stain)
Flavorant & odorant permanent stain) left after left after evaporation
Carminative evaporation
They are unable to undergo Fixed oils can be easily saponified
Methods of obtaining Volatile Oils: saponification w/ alkalies with alkalies
▪ Wet Distillation w/ water; can either use: Mixtures of cleoptenes & Esters of higher fatty acids & glycerin
-water –for dried samples stearoptenes are termed as are called as fixed oils.
-steam – for fresh samples volatile oils
-water & steam – for dried & fresh Posses high refractive index Posses low refractive index
These are optically active. These are optically inactive.
Ex: Water –turpentine
Their primary source is Their major source is seeds of the
Steam –peppermint & spearmint leaves,roots,in petals and plant.
Water & steam –cinnamon clove bark.
Water Distillation employed to plant material that is
dried & not subject to injury by
boiling
Direct Steam Distillation applicable to fresh plant drugs
Water & Steam Distillation applied to either dried or
fresh substances that may
be injured by boiling
▪ Dry Distillation w/out H2O
Destructive Distillation
empyreumatic oil
families: Pinaceae, Cupressiaceae
Resultant Mass: charcoal
▪ Expression used in volatile oils, decompose upon distillation
uses Eaiele a piquer
a process employed in the extraction of volatile oils
from citrus fruits (Lemon oil, Orange oil)
A. Hydrocarbon E. Ketone Volatile Oils will form a tertiary alcohol upon reaction w/ Grignard’s
1. Turpentine Oil Pinus palustris Reagent
& -pinene 1. Camphor Cinnamomum camphora
Rectified TO = TO distilled w/ NaOH is precipitated from its alcoholic solution by the addition of
Terpin hydrate/ Terpinol = RTO + HNO3 water
Internal Uses: Stimunlant, Expectorant Forms: (+)levo = natural
Terpinol Terpinhydrate () racemic = synthetic
is formed by the reaction between nitric acid on antipruritic, rubefacient, anti infective
rectified turpentine oil in the presence of 2. Spearmint Oil Mentha spicata
alcohol (+)-carvone
3. Caraway Oil Carum carvi
B. Alcohol oxidized to CO2 & water in the body (+)-carvone
1. Peppermint Sources: American – Mentha piperita 4. Buchu Oil Barosma betulina
Japanese Mentha arvensis diosphenol
Menthol: ()levo = natural for menstrual problem
()racemic = synthetic 5. Wormwood / Absinthe Oil Artemisia absinthum
solid or crystallized portion remaining after (+)-thujone
refrigeration of the peppermint oil counterirritant
flavorant, carminative, counterirritant 6. Cedar leaf Oil Thuja accidentalis
2. Coriander Oil Coriandrum sativum (+)-thujone, fenchone
linalool counterirritant
3. Cardamon Oil Elletaria cardamom F. Phenolic Ester
cineole 1. Nutmeg Oil Myristica fragrans
4. Rose Oil/ Oil of Otto Rosa gallica myristicin, saffrole
geraniol, citronellol, nerol hallucinogen; flvorant & condiment
5. Orange Flower Oil/ Neroli Oil Citrus aurantium has a gained reputation among prison inmates of being a
linalool hallucinogenic drug
6. Juniper Oil Juniperus communis Toxicity: Tachycardia HR
borneol Xerostomia – dry mount
Flavorant, diuretic Flushing
7. Pine Oil Pinus palustris 2. Fennel Oil Foeniculum vulgare
-terpinol, pinene(hydrocarbon) trans-anethole, Fenenone
anti-eczema, disinfectant, deodorant flavoring, condiment
an ingredient of terpene hydrate elixir. 3. Anise Oil Pimpinlla anisum
aniseed
C. Phenol trans-anethole, anisaldehyde
1. Thyme Oil Thymus vulgaris flavoring, condiment
thymol 4. Chinese Star Anise Illicium verum
antiseptic trans-anethole
2. Clove Oil Eugenia caryophillus flavoring, condiment
Eugenol: dental analgesic – “toothache drops” 5. Japanese Star Anise toxic principle: Hananomin
4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol
3. Myricia Oil / Baby oil Pimenta racemosa G. Oxidative (Oxide)
eugenol 1. Eucalyptus Oil cajuput (Eucalyptus globules) –Fam: Myrtaceae
4. Creosote Fagus grandiflorus cineole ( Eucalyptol, cajuptol)
5. Juniper tar Juniperus oxycedrus Vick® (Menthol + Caphor + Eucalytus Oil)
D. Aldehyde
1. Cinnamon Oil Ceylon: Cinnamon zeylanicum
Saigon: Cinnamon laureirii
Cassia: Cinnamon cassia cassia oil
Cinnamaldehyde
flavorant, carminative, antiseptic
2. Lemon Peel Oil Citrus limon
citral limonene
3:1 = geraniol; neral
most important contributor to lemon oil flavor
Types: Terebintherate = terpenes = risk for resinification
Terpeneless = terpenes = risk fro resinification
Higher quality
,ore expensive
3. Sweet Orange Oil sweet aurantium, Citrus sinensis
decanal, limonene
4. Citronella Oil Cymbopogon citrates; C. nardus; C. winterianus
citronella insect repellant
5. Hamamelis Oil Hamamelis Virginia
2-hexanal/Acetaldehyde/ alpha-ionone/Beta-terpinol
for hemorrhoidal preparations
H. Ester
1. Gaultheria Oil, Sweet –birch Oil
Gaultheria Oil Oil of Wintergreen
Gaultheria procumbens
Sweet –birch Oil Betula Oil
Betula lentha
Methyl salicylate – local irritant, antiseptic, antirheumatic
aromatic compound found in Wintergreen
2. Lavender oil – lavender: Lavadula angustifolia
Lavadula vera
Lavadula officinale
– linalylacetate
3. Pine needle Oil – Pinus mugo
– bornyl acetate
4. Mustard oil – Brassica nigra
– sinigrin allyl isothiocyanate
a glycosidic volatile oil obtained by enzymatic
hydrolysis of the glycosides .
C. Cardiac Glycosides
IX. ALKALOIDS
basic nitrogenous compounds found in plants
that are physiologically active
are group of organic substances of biologic origin which have
different chemical structure but have a heterocyclic N in
common.
Nitrogen element responsible for the basic
pharmacological properties of alkaloids
combine directly w/ acids to form salts
form highly insoluble precipitates w/ salts of heavy metals
Chemical forms Water Nonpolar solvent
Free base
Alkaloidal Salt B. Tropane esters of Tropic Acid & Tropane
from Amino Acid – Ornithine
*free alkaloids are sparingly soluble in
water 1. Belladona Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna)
Physical forms: causes pupil dilation
▪ Solid-crystalline amorphous ()hyocyamic racemized Atropine
▪ Liquid: Coniine Poison hemlock discovered by R. Brandes
Comium maculatum Anticholinergic
Socrates 2. Hyoscyamus Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
Nicotine tobacco leaves (Nicotiana tabacum) hyoscyamine, scopolamine
derivative of Pyrrolidine 0.04% alkaloids
Sparteine Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) 3. Egyptian Hyoscyamus E. henbane (Hyoscyamus muticus)
Lupin (Lupinus mutabilis) hyoscyamine, scopolamine
used for cardiac arrhythmias 1.5% alkaloids
also used as oxytocic 4. Stramonium Dimsonweed/Jamestown weed
(D. stramonium)
Levodopa Horse bean (Vicia Faba)
(Datura fastuosa) –chief source
Extraction of Alkaloids: Process A Acid-treated
Scopolamine or hyoscine: Motion sickness
Process B Base-treated
Hyoscine N-butylbromide: Antispasmodic
Alkalodal Reagents:
is burned & inhaled for the relief of asthma
1. Mayer’s Reagent Potassium mercuric iodide, cream ppt.
5. Withania Withania somnifera (commercial source of Atropine)
2. Nessler’s Reagent Alkaline Potassium mercuric iodide, brown ppt.
6. Duboisia Duboisia myoporiodes (commercial source of Atropine)
3. Wagner’s Reagent I2/ KI, reddish brown ppt
7. Mandragora Mandragora officinarum (Europe)
4. Bouchard Reagent I2/ KI, most sensitive
Mandragorin: Emetic
5. Dragendorf Reagent Potassium Bismuth Iodide
8. Coca Sources: Huanuco-coca – Erythroxylon coca
6. Marme’s Reagent Potassium Cadmium Iodide
Truxillo coca – Erythoroxylon truxillense
7. Valser’s Reagent HgI2 , red ppt
Cocaine (methylbenzoylecgonine/benzoylmethylecgonine)
8. Sonnencheim’s Reagent Phosphomolybdic acid
-crack,coke
9. Scheiber’s Reagent Phosphotungstic acid
-psychomotor stimulant, euphoria;
10. Gold Compunds
-local anesthetic
11. Tannic Acid
-mg in Brompton’s Cocktail – analgesic for cancer pain
12. Hager’s Reagent Saturated picric acid
-Free Basing inhalation of the vapors of alkaloidal cocaine
9. Talampunay Datura metel L.
A. Pyridine-Piperidine – from Amino Acid –Ornithine
Thorn Apple
1. Nicotiana tobacco leaves (Nicotiana tabaccum)
yield Scopolamine
Nicotine: CNS stimulant
Smoking deterrent (Nicorette®)
C. Quinoline – from Amino Acid –Tryptophan
2. Areca Betel Nut ( Areca catechu) – “nganga”
1. Cinchona Sources: Red Cinchona succirubra
has been linked to high rates of oral & esophageal cancer
Yellow Cinchona calisaya
Stimulant masticatory,
Studied by Pelletier & Caventous
chewed w/ lime & Piper Betle leaves
Cinchonine & cinchonidine
Arecoline: CNS stimulant, Antiheminthic
parenteral alakaloids
Cathechin: Tannin, Carcinogen Potetial
Quinine: Antimalarial, Toxic water
Tannin is the carcinogenic constituent found in “nganga”
Thalleioquine reaction used to identify quinine
3. Lobelia Indian Tobacco Leaves (Lobelia inflate)
Quinidine: Antimalarial; Antiarrhythmic
Lobeline: CNS stimulant
Toxicity: Cinchonism –temporary hearing loss
Smoking deterrent (Bantron®)
ringing in the ears (Tinnitus)
4. Ipil-ipil yield an alkaloid of the pyridine-piperidine type.
impaired sight
Leucaena leucocephala
2. Cuprea Cuprea Bark (Remijia purdieana)
used for Ascariasis
commercial source of quinidine
VACCINES
a preparation containing weakened or dead microbes of the kind
that cause a disease, administered to stimulate the immune system
to produce antibodies against that disease
Clinical Designations of Skin Reactions
Types of Vaccines:
1. Attenuated whole-agent vaccines use living, but attenuated Designation Symbol Characteristics
(weakened) microbes Negative No reaction or no different from control
Examples: Mumps Doubtful No applicable difference from control
Measles (for children 15months or older) other than slight erythema
is culture in either avian embryo One-plus Erythema smaller than 20mm in
tissue or human diplod tissue diameter
Rubella Two-plus Erythema larger than 20mm but no
Chickenpox wheal
Sabin polio Vaccine (TOPV, Trivalent oral polio Definite wheal w/ surrounding
Three-plus
vaccine) erythema
2. Inactivated whole-agent vaccines use microbes that have been Four-plus Wheal with definite pseudopods &
killed, Usually by formalin or
erythema
phenol
Examples: Rabies
Influenza
Salk polio vaccine
Pneumococcal pneumonia
Cholera
Pertussis
Typhoid
3. Toxoid Inactivated toxins
are vaccines directed at the toxin produced by a pathogen
Examples: Tetanus
4. Subunit vaccine consist of an antigenic fragment of microorganism
that best stimulate a immune response
Recombinant vaccines a subunit vaccine that are made
or produced by
DNA techniques or
genetic engineering
technique
Acellular vaccines consist of antigenic parts of cell
Example: Hep B
5. Conjugated vaccines consist of the designed antigen & other
proteins
deal w/ poor immune response of children to
vaccines.
6. Nucleic Acid vaccines DNA vaccines
newest & most promising vaccine
made up of DNA, usually in the form of a
plasmid
Calcium Oxalate end product of acid formation in the plant & occurs
as insoluble calcium salt or raphide
Plantid Pigment commonly extracted by Acetone
BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of the composition of living matter & the 7. Mitochondria powerhouse of the cell
changes which occur in it. location of the ETC (Electron Transport Kreb’s Cycle)
the science concerned with the chemical basis of life. organ fro respiration, redox reaction, glycolysis, etc
the science concerned with the chemical constituents of ATP synthesis occurs in the inner Mitochondria.
living cells & with the reactions & process they undergo 8. Chloroplast chlorophyll;
biomolecules/ micromolecules performs photosynthesis in photoautotrophic eukaryotes
Biomolecules Building Blocks Major Function 9. Cetrosomes helpers in cell division
Nucleic Acids Genetic material involved in formation of the mitotic spindle
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid template for protein
RNA Ribonucleic Acid synthesis Cytoplasm found outside the nucleus
Proteins -amino acid Usually they are the where you can find organelles (organ-like structure), cytosol,
molecules of the cell that & inclusions
carry out work (ex: ▪in prokaryotic cell: everything inside the plasma membrane
enzymes) ▪in eukaryotic cell: everything inside the plasma membrane, &
Carbohydrate Monosaccharide Short term of energy as external to the nucleus
s (glycogenstorage from Plasma Membrane is the selectively permeable membrane enclosing
of glucose) the cytoplasm of a cell
Lipids Fatty Acids Numerous functions (ex: Cytosol fluid/ liquid portion of sytoplasm
membrane components where glycolysis & PPP found
of the long term storage Inclusion include nutrients & cell products
of energy as fat) Cytoskeleton microfilaments, intermediate filaments, & micortubules
that provide support & movement for
Biochemical System & Organelles of the Living Cells eukaryotic cytoplasm
Cells basic unit of Life Cytoplasmic Streaming the movement of cytoplasm in a
is the structural & functional unit of biology. eukaryotic cellw
Cell Membrane bilayers, composed mainly of proteins & lipids
for barrier & protection Plasmids are small, extrachromosomal circular DNA molecules found in
Peripheral Protein embedded outside cell membrane prokaryotes
receptors carry optional genes
Integral Protein embedded within cell membrane are circular DNA molecules
ion-channel are found in many rypes of bacteria
Organelles are structure with the specific shapes & specialized functions replicate independently of the main chromosomes
& are characteristic of eukaryotic cells *Each cell may contain several copies of plasmids
1. Nucleus contains genetic material that manufacture nucleic acid Histones are small basic proteins that participate in forming the
control center of the cell -(genetic material found in nucleus) nucleosomal structure of the chromatin
composed of three regions: Microsomes where fatty elongation occurs
nucleolus (nucleoli) where RNA & proteins synthesized/ Lysozyme helps in the removal of danaged cell
site of ribosome assembly contains a bactericidal agent such as lysozyme that kills
Nuclear membrane or envelope bacteria before it damages the cell
Chromatin (Chromosomes) Mitosis Meiosis
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) manufacturer & shipper Cell Multiplication Cell Division
major function: Glycosylation Cytoplasmic Division Both Cytoplasmic & nuclear
a membranous network in eukaryotic Division of Nucleus into 2 nuclei division occur
cells connecting the plasma membrane Sex Cells/ organelles
w/ the nuclear membrane Somatic Cells Products: Haploid Daughter Cells
is a system of fluid-filled cisterns Products: Diploid Daughter Cells half of the total # of
site of acylglycerol synthesis contain complete set of chromosome
Rough ER w/ ribosomes on its surface chromosome
for protein synthesis w/c mostly glycosylated Ex: Human : 46 chromosomes
Smooth ER w/out ribosomes on its surface (23 pairs)
for lipid synthesis -22 somatic chromosomes
3. Ribosomes factory sites of Protein synthesis -1 sex chromosome
Prokayotes 70S (Sub-units: 50s & 30s) Female: XX
Eukaryotes 80S (Sub-units: 60s & 40s) Male: XY
4. Golgi Apparatus/ Bodies storage site/ packaging counter of the cells
attachment of CHON in CHON products Defficiency:
storage of CHON undergo modification glycosylation Aneuploidy –abnormalities in # of chromosomes
5. Lysosomes ”suicide sacs” (kill or destroy foreign organisms) Trisomy 21/ Down’s Syndrome/ Mongoloids 47 chromosomes
containing digestive/ hydrolytic enzymes Excess: XXX superfemale
animal cells only mentally retarded
Peroxisomes H2O; oxidizes amino acids, fatty acids & alcohols short life span
use molecular oxygen to detoxify harmful XXY Klinefelter’s syndrome (male)
substances biologically male but exert female –treats
Macrophages eat foreign maté Ex: Gynecomastia –enlargement of the breast
6. Vacuoles storage tank of the cell Hypogonadism small testicles
an intracellular inclusion Short-life span
in eukaryotic surrounded by a plasma membrane Mentally retarded
in prokaryotic surrounded by proteinaceous membrane Gold Fish 90 chromosomes (45 pairs)
III. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS ACCORDING TO THEIR THREE- IV. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS ACCORDING
DIMENSIONAL SHAPE OR GROSS STRUCTURE: TO THEIR BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION:
1. Globular Proteins are soluble in aqueous system & diffuse readily. 1. Enzymes most important class of proteins
a. Albumin soluble in water & salt solution, has no distinctive act as biological catalysts
amino acids are colloids, soluble in water & diluted alcohol
b. Globulin sparingly soluble in water, soluble in salt solution exhibit optimal activity at 35-40C
c. Histones basic proteins which are soluble in water & salt are destroyed at temperature exceeding 65C
solutions retarded in the presence of heavy metals, formaldehyde,
yield on hydrolysis large amounts of arginine or lysine & free iodine
can be extracted from certain glandular tissues such as 2. Hormones proteins that regulate body processes
thymus & pancreas 3. Storage Protein serve as nutrient stores
d. Protamines are strongly basic proteins of relatively low Ex: Ferritin, Ovalbumn (eggs)
molecylar weight. 4. Transport Proteins have transport function
associated w/ nucleic acid & are obtained in large 5. Structural Proteins forms as organism structure
quantity from ripe sperm cells of fish Ex: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen
have high nitrogen content because of the presence 6. Protective Proteins
of large quantity of arginine but has no sulfur Ex: Antibodies combine with/ to foreign proteins w/c gain
Ex: Salmin from salmon sperm access to the blood stream that help fight in infection
Protamine Sulfate purified mixture of simple protein Fibrinogen & Thrombin necessary in blood coagulation
principles obtained from the sperm or testes of 7. Contractile Proteins essential elements in contractile & motile
suitable species of fish, usually those belonging to system
the genera oncorhyncus suckley
Ex: Actin & Myosin serve as the major elements in the
e. Insulins regulatory hormone for controlling metabolism
contractile system in the muscle
promotes glucose transport into skeletal muscle
8. Toxic Protein: Ex:
f. Ribonuclease enzyme controlling RNA synthesis
Snake venom plays a defensive role for the plant & animals
g. Immunoglobulions proteins involved in immune response
Clostridium Bolinum responsible for some blood poisoning
h. Hemoglobin protein involved in Oxygen Transport
i. Prolamines soluble in 70-80% ethanol, insoluble in water
2. Fibrous Proteins are water-insoluble & physically tough
V. DERIVED PROTEINS
serve as structural or protective elements in the organisms
are obtained when proteins are altered by chemical or
a. Collagen major protein of the connective tissues in vertebrates
physical methods
most abundant of all proteins in mammals,
are proteins that differ only slightly from source original
30% or more of the total proteins
proteins, & are formed by means of the action of heat,
the major constituent of skin, tendons, bones, blood
acids, alakali, water, enzymes, & mechanical shock
vessels, & connective tissues.
1. Primary Protein Derivatives are proteins that have undergone
Tropocollagen basic unit of collagen
slight intramolecular rearrangement
a triple helix of three polypeptide
through the hydrolytic action of
chain
certain physical & chemical agents
Microfibrillar Collagen a fibrous water-insoluble
a. Proteans insoluble products resulting from the action for a
material prepared from
comparatively short time of water, dilute acid or
purified bonine corium
enzymes
collegen
Ex: Fibrin from Fibrinogen
b. Elastins are present in tendons, arteries & other elastic
Myosan from myosin
tissues/ligaments
b. Metaproteins or infraproteins
c. Keratins contain large amount of sulfur as cysteine
are products of further action of acids & akalies
found in skin, wool, feathers, silk, fingernails
Ex: Acid & Alkali Albuminates
major p
c. Coagulated Proteins are insoluble products resulting from
proteins kof skin & hair
either the action of heat or alcohol
human hair 14% cysteine
Ex: Coagulated Albumin
d. Myosin found in muscle tissues
Cooked Meat
e. Fibrinogen found in blood, necessary for blood clotting.
2. Secondary Protein Derivatives: Proteoses>Peptones>Peptides
a. Proteoses soluble in water
will not be coagulated on heating
can be precipitated by saturating their solutions w/
Ammonium sulfate
b. Peptones soluble in water
will not be coagulated on heating
cannot be precipitated by saturating their solution
w/ ammonium sulfate
certain alkaloidal reagents like Phosphotungstic acid,
precipitate them
c. Peptides are combination of two or more amino acids, the
carboxyl group of one amino acid being joined to the
amino group of another
Differences :
Nucleic Acid polymers of nucleotides DNA RNA
bind together with Phosphodiester Bond. N-Base
connects successive Purines A, G A,G
monomer units through a Pyrimidine T, C U,C
phosphate residue
Pairing of Bases AT (2 H-bond) AU (3 H-bond)
attached to hydroxyl on
GC (3 H-bond) GC (3 H-bond)
the 5’ carbon of one unit
with the 3’ hydroxyl of the Cellular Nucleus, Nucleus,
next. locomotion Mitochondria Cytoplasm
responsible for genetic information Predominant (3D-structure) single-stranded molecule
Phosphate Group responsible or the acidic Structure Double-Helix in most of its biological
character on nucleic acid Watson Crick Model roles and has a shorter
-James Watson chain of nucleotides
Carbon-2 responsible for the difference between -Francis Crick
the two nucleic acid. performed by Rosalin
Two main types:
Franklin
▪ DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries genetic information
Propagation: DNA is self-replicating. RNA is synthesized from
is known as Central information storage molecule
DNA when needed.
embodies hereditary message of each organism
Types of RNA:
DNA molecules always double helical/ stranded;
mRNA random coil
two stands: always in opposite direction
tRNA cruciform/ clover leaf
Chromosome where DNA can be found (both animal & plants)
rRNA 16s RNA –(bacteria) loop/ hair pin
Chromatin substance that forms chromosomes and contains Complementarity:
cruciform
DNA, RNA, and various proteins A-T; G-C
random coil
Gene section of DNA chain that codes for a single piece of A=T
information needed by the cell C=G
Complementary: *Adenine bins to Thymine
▪ RNA (ribonucleic acid) responsible for protein synthesis A+G = T+C
*Cytosine binds to Guanine
transmitters of the genetic information
stored in the DNA Cytosin≡Guanine form a minor groove.
Nucleotides building blocks (aka Nucleoside phosphate)
composed of heterocyclic base, sugar, & phosphoric acid 3’ 5’
structural unit of nucleic acid; a component of RNA & DNA, 5’ 3’
consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group.
Nucleosides component of RNA & DNA consisting of a purine & Carbon 1’ important
pyrimidine base linked to a sugar , especially ribose or nitrogen
deoxyribose. they are attached because Carbon 3’ OH group
of base pairing Carbon 5’ Phosphate group
Purine pyrimidine only
Selected synthetic Pyrimidine & Purine Analogues:
5-Iodo-2-deoxyuridine
5-Fluorouracil
6-Azauridine
8-Azaguanine
6-Mercaptopurine
6-Thioguanine
Alloburinol
low melting point = rich in A-T pairing
Ex: (ds)double stranded- DNA 30% G, %C,A,T?
30% C
Nitrogen bases/ Heterocyclic Bases: 20 % A
Purine Pyrimidine 20 % T
Adenine Cytosine
Guanine Uracil A-DNA, B-DNA both right handed double helices
Thymine B-DNA most common form of DNA
B-DNA common(most abundant)
Nucleosides Nucleotides hydrated form; right handed
Nitrogen Ribonucleosides Deoxyribonucleosides Deoxynucleotides has 10 nucleotides per turn
base RNA DNA DNA A-DNA dehydrated form; right handed
Uracil Uridine has 11 nucleotides per turn
Thymine Thymidine Thymidylate Z-DNA rare, left-handed
Cytosine Cytidine Deoxycytidine Deoxycytidylate has 12 nucleotides per turn
Adenine Adenosine Deoxyadenosine Deoyadenylate most stable in vitro during methylation or negative supercoiling
Guanine Guanosine Deoxyguanosine Deoxyguanylate SS-DNA single stranded DNA
loop hairpin structure
Pyrimidine is a 6-membered ring, w/ two nitrogen atoms.
intrastand pairing
Thymine is present only in DNA
Palidromic sequence is a sequence made up of nucleic
Glycosidic Bond bond between the 1’ carbon of the sugar & the base acids within double helix of DNA and/or RNA that is the
nitrogen same when read from 5’ to 3’ on one strand and 3’ to 5’
Some Nucleic Bases are capable of Tautomirization. on the other, complementary strand. It is also known as
-Tautomirization refers to aldose-ketose interconversion a palindrome or an inverted-reverse sequence.
Alkylating Agents alkylate Guanine
The Central Dogma of Genetic Mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA
Types of Mutation:
Frameshift mutation alteration of amino acids/base
Transcription/
Nonsence mutation substitution of bases resulting in a
Gene expression Translation nonsense codon
DNA RNA Proteins occurs when the codon containing the
change base may become a termination
Replication (reverse transcription, reverse transcriptase) codon
Process of transferring information to DNA for conservation of Missence mutation substitution of bases in an amino acid
substitution in a synthesized protein
inherited traits. Spontaneous occur in the absence of any mutation-causing
process by which a “replica” or identical copy of DNA is made so agent
that information can be preserved and handed down too offspring Silent Mutation result of a point mutation that occurs when
Semiconservative Replication when the two starnds of the DNA UCA (coding for serine) is converted to UCU
double helix are separated, each strand can (also coding for serine
Point Mutation:
serve as a template for the replication of a
-Tranversional Mutation DNA mutation occurs when a
new complementary strand. purine replaces pyrimidine, or vice
1.template: double stranded versa
2. monomer: dNTPs (dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP) -Transitional Mutation purine replaces purine
activated form of monomers/ nucleotide -Insertion
-Deletion
3. helicases: unwind double stranded-DNA
Transcription (gene \expression)
is the synthesis of RNA from DNA
RNA copies information contained by the DNA by making
complementary strand to the latter
4. topoisomerases relieve super coiling process by which the genetic messages contained in DNA are
E.col: DNA gyrase = floroquinolones “read”, or transcribed, & carried out of nucleus to parts of the cell
5. Single strand-binding Proteins called ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs
Protein “ron out” SS-DNA
Reverse Transcription DNA from RNA
prevent intrastrand pairing
6. Primase dnaG Gene fragment of DNA
requied in the synthesis of the RNA primers Prokaryotes: 1 gene may encode several protein
7. DNA polymerase can’t initiate polymerization polycistronic
synthesis of DNA Eukaryotes: 1 gene 1 protein
responsible for removing the RNA primer on *Eukaroyte-Methionine is an accurate pairing of the
DNA organism & its start codon
I II III 1. Template = gene
only one involve in fastest enzyme one strand as template
to remove DNA repair responsible for template strand
DNA the synthesis coding strand complimentary of template strand
primers of Okazaki TEMPLATE
frament 5’ 3’ STRAND
5’ 3’
DNA A G T A C G A T A G
▪Polymerase activity strand T C A T G C T A T C CODING
3’ 5’
3’ 5’
STRAND
RNA U C A U G C U A U C
▪Exonuclease activity 5’
transcript 3’
(removal of
nucleotide from 3’
Antiparallel: “Each end of the DNA helix contains the 5’ end of
5’ direction)
one strand & the 3’ end of the other strand.”
▪Proof reading ability
2. RNA polymerase does not require a primer
5’ 3’
▪Exonuclease activity
(removal of RNA
can initiate polymerization
does not posses proof reading activity
Primer a short piec of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA), base-
primers)
paired w/ a DNA template strand & provides a
free 3’-OH end from which DNA polymerase
8. DNA ligase connect the okazaki fragments
can extend a DNA strand
Okazaki Fragments discontinous stretches in which the lagging
Rifampicin binds to bacterial RNA polymerase
strand is initially synthesized during DNA
1. mRNA act as template for translation (synthesis of protein)
replication
carrier of codons
mutation (occurs in DNA mismatch) sequence of 3 nucleotides
specifying an amino acid
2. tRNA adaptor molecule of amino acid
carrier of carrier of anticodon
The Sequence of the Major Events in DNA Replication: sequence of 3-nucleotide
1. DNA double helix is opened by helicases complementary to a specific
2. Primase creates a temporay RNA primer for each DNA strand codon.
3. DNA polymerase at the replication fork synthesize DNA in 5’ to 3’ AUC =aniticodon of AUG, methionine
direction. There are two strands, the leading & lagging strands.
3. rRNA together w/ other proteins make up the ribosomes
4. DNA polymerase removes RNA primer & fills the gaps between the
Okazaki fragments ribosomes – site of protein synthesis.
5. DNA ligase joins DNA fragments of the lagging strand, creating a 30s 5s rRNA + 16s rRNA + 20 other proteins
single DNA molecules 50s 25s rRNA + other proteins
Translation
synthesis of proteins based on the codons specified by the mRNA
process by which the genetic messages are decoded & used to
build proteins
process determining amino acid sequence; the process by which
information in messenger RNA directs the sequence of amino
acids assembled by a ribosomes during protein synthesis
Translation
mRNA Proteins
-anomer -anomer
Alpha Anomer most stable anomer of glucose
Glucose is the most important carbohydrate OLIGOSACCHARIDES condensation product of 2 -10 monosaccharides
is the major metabolic fuel of mammals (except ruminant) Examples: Maltotriose 3 glucose units
& a universal fuel of the fetus Dextrin
is stored in the liver as Glycogen Trisaccharide: Raffinose (Melizitose, Melitriose)
present in Human Blood: 60 to 90 mg in 100 mL blood Gentianose
Isomers are compounds w/c have the same molecular formula, but
have different atomic arrangement
Types of Isomers:
1. Functional Isomers differ in their physical properties
Ex:
Reactions of Carbohydrates:
1. Dehydration (action of Acid)
a. Molisch Test aka “Alpha-Naphthol Reaction”
general test for Carbohydrates
Dimethyl Ether Ethyl Alcohol gives purple colored ring
2. Stereoismers different arrangement of atoms or groups in three b. Bial’s Test for pentoses
dimensions. yields Green Color (sometime blue)
a. Geometrical or Cis-Trans Isomers the trans isomers are more
c.Tollen’s Test uses Ploroglucinol
stable than the cis isomers
gives violet-red color
Ex:
d. Seliwanoff’s Test aka “Resorcinol Test for Ketones”
indicates the presence of ketones
differentiating test for aldose & ketose sugars
gives rose pink color/ cherry red color
e. Tauber’s Test aka “Aminoguanidine Reaction”
Trans-Butynedionic Acid Cis-Butynedionic ACid for ketoses, yeilds bright Reddish purple color
(Fumaric Acid)
b. Optical Isomer also called as optical antipodes, or enantiomorphs, 2. Reaction w/ alcohols: Acetal or Glycoside Formation
or enantiomers. when an aldehyde reacts w/ 2 equivalents of alcohol,
▪ Dextrorotatry (+)a substance whose solution rotates the plane of the products is ACETAL.
polarized light to the right
▪ Levorotatry ()a substance whose solution rotates the plane of 3. Reactions w/ Oxidizing Agents: Reducing Sugars
polarized light to the left Reduction Tests:
Ex: a. Benedicts Reagent Cu2+ & Sodium Citrate (color Blue)
Traces sugar =geen
Moderate amount = yellow
and or yellow orange
Big amount of sugar = red orange or red
b. Barfoed’s Test Copper Acetate, Acetic Acid
c. Anomers difference resides in the steric arrangement about used to distinguished monosaccharides from
carbon atom one, carbonyl carbon of the linear formula disaccharides
& the ketonic carbon ex: Galactose from Lactose
these carbons are called “Anomeric Carbon Atom” Maltose from Fructose
d. Epimers differ only in the configuration of a single asseemtric c. Mucic Acid Test used to demonstrate either lactone or
carbon atom galactose or both
d. Fehling’s Test Cuprous Oxide (-indicator)
Confiramatory test for Glucose
detect Aldehydes & Sugar
gives a positive result brick red precipitate
pH of the Solution lies the difference between Benedict’s &
Barfoed’s Test reagent
4. Reduction of Monosaccharides
5. Reaction w/ Phenyhydrazine
6. Fermentation anaerobic process
hydrolysis of carbohydrates into simple alcohols &
ketones by microorganisms
7. Ester formation
CLASSIFICATIONS:
I. Storage/ Neutral Lipids 2. Unsaturated fatty acids
A.Triglycerides/ Triacylglycerols (TAGs) Monounsaturated/ Monoenoic Acid: (one double bond)
ester of glycerol fatty acids ▪ Palmitoleic Acid (16:1 ) contains 16C w/ 1 double bond
9
storage form of fatty acids in humans
(cis-9-hexadecanoic acid)
▪ Oleic Acid (18:1 ) at position between 9&10
9
(cis-9-octadecanoic acid)
▪ Elaidic Acid (18:1 ) (trans-9-octadecanoic Acid)
9
Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithins)
phosphoacylglycerol containing choline
are the most abundant phospholipids of the cell
membrane & represent a large proportion of the body’s
store of choline
a substance also present in soybean that can be found
in number of proprietary products that are useful in
Phosphatidylethanolamine controlling derange lipid & cholesterol metabolism
Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin) Choline is important in nervous transmission, as
(Cephalin)
acetylcholine, as a store of a labile methyl groups
Rosenheim’s Test used to detect the
presence of Choline
form White Crystalline ppt.
Dipalmitoyl Lecithin is a very effective surface active agent
& major constituents of the
“surfactant” preventing adherence,
due to surface tension, of the inner
Phophatidylinositol Phosphatidylglycerol surfaces of the lungs.
its absence from the lungs of
premature infants cause
“Respiratory Distress Syndrome”
Phosphatidylethanolamine (Cephalin) Plasmalogen
Phosphatidylserine (found in most tissue)
differ from phosphatidylcholine nly in that
ethanolamine / serine, respectively replaces choline.
Phosphatidylserine
Sphingosine complex amino alcohol Nitrogen Balance difference between intake & output of
Sphingomyelins are found in the nervous system nitrogenous compounds
yield fatty acids, phosphoric acid, holine, & a - Intake = Output Equilibrium Nitrogen Balance
complex amino alcohol(sphingosine) - Intake < Output Negative Nitrogen Balance
Lysophospahtidylcholine or Lysolecithin
occurs when dietary
are intermediate in the metabolism
intake is less than
of phosphoglycerols
excretion of
nitrogenous
C. Sterols precursor in the synthesis of sex hormones
compounds
Stigmasterol, Sitosterol – plants
occurs during
Ergosterol – fungi
Starvation
Cholesterol – animals
- Intake > Output Positive Nitrogen Balance
very important as structural component of all membrane
results when there is
for synthesis of sex hormones & bile acids
too much protein
for rigidity & fluidity of cell membrane structure
intake
Examples of Bile Acid derived form Cholesterol:
Liver: Cholic Acid, Chenodeoxycholic Acid
Intestine: Deoxycholic Acid, Lithocholic Acid
Bile Acid – produce in the liver but store at gallbladder.
Rotenone blocks the transport from NADH to Q Acetyl CoA + OAA Citrate
Antimycin-C blocks the transport from Q to Cytochrome-C 2C
CN/ CO blocks the transport from Cytochrome-C to O2 Acetyl CoA 2CO2 + 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 + GTP
2C
3 NADH x 3 9
Superoxide Anions is the product of the complete reduction 1 FADH2 x 2 2
of oxygen 1 GTP x1 1
Hydrogen Peroxide & Hydroxyl Radicals are the products of 1 Acetyl CoA 12 ATP
the partial
reductionof oxygen Overall reaction:
▪Acetyl CoA + 3 NAD+ + GDP + FAD+ 3 NADH + GTP + FADH2 + 2CO2
Krebs Cycle:
Steps:
1. Acetyl CoA adds to oxalacetic acid in aldol reaction & the bond to
coenzyme A is hydrolyzed to yield citric acid.
2. Citric Acid is isomerized by transfer of the OH group to yield isocitric
acid.
3. Isocitric Acid loses CO2 & is oxidized to yield -ketoglutaric acid.
4. -ketoglutaric acid reacts w/ coenzyme A & loses CO2 to yield
succinyl CoA.
5. Succinyl CoA is hydrolyzed to give succinic acid plus CoA. An ADP
molecule is also converted into ATP by an indirect series of steps.
6. Two Hydrogens are removed from succinic acid to yield fumaric
acid. The coenzyme FAD is needed in this reaction.
7. Addition of Water to the double bond of fumaric acid yields malic
acid.
8. The cycle of reaction is completed by oxidation of malic acid to
regenerate oxaloacetate acid.
Control Points:
~ The Citrate Reaction, which is inhibited by ATP
~ Isocitrate-dehydrogenase Reaction, which is inhibited by ATP
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase activated by ADP
~ -ketoglutarate dehydrogensa Reaction, which is inhibited by the
end products Succinyl CoA
& NADH
Glycolysis Glucose Pyruvate ATP-consuming stages in Glycolyis:
Insulin: glucose
Glycogenesis Glucose Glycogen ~ Irreverdible Phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate
to fructose-1,6-biphosphate
Glycogenolysis Glycogen Glucose
Gluconeogenesis Non carbohydrate Glucagon: ~ Phosphoenolpyruvate to Pyruvate
precursor glucose level
Glucose
activate Epinephrine
-Adrenaline rash causes diabetic coma
-very dangerous in diabetic people
Glucagon homone that sometimes useful in the reversal of
cardiac effects of Beta-blocker overdose because of its
ability to increase cAMP production in the heart
ATP ADP catalyzed phosphate to ATP Glucose end product of Glycolysis of Glycogen
hexokinase –has higher affinity to glucose Glucose-6-phosphatase employed to bypass the hexokinase reaction
single headed = irreversible reaction its deficiency predisposes persons taking
some therapeutic agents (ex:
3. Fructose-6-PO4-3 PFK-1Fructose-1,6-biphosphate
Aminoquinoline, Sulfonamides,
Propantheline) to hemolytic anemia
Stage 2: Pay-off Phase
is present only in the liver & kidney & not in
Glycerol Phosphate shuttle (x2)
the muscle
MalateAspartate shuttle (x3)
Hexokinase glucose to glucose-6-phosphate
most important enzyme in controlling glycolysis
NADH NADH
Fructose biphosphatase used to bypass the PFK reaction
Cytosol GPS MAS
Pyruvate Carboxylase & PEP Carboxykinase used to bypass the
Mtochodria
pyruvate kinase reaction
FADH2 NADH
of glycolysis
Pyruvate Kinase is the key enzyme that likns lycolysis, TCA cycle,
amino acid metabolism, & fatty acid oxidation
PFK (Phosphofructokinase) Fructose-6-PO4 to Fructose-1,6-bisPO4
most important in controlling glycolysis
responsible for rate limiting step in
Glycolysis
Unsaturated
assume as saturated Bothe
Example: Ketogenic Glucogenic Ketogenic &
Oleic Acid (18:149) Glucogenic
9 Acetyl CoA x 12 = 108 Leucine Valine, etc Phenylalanine
8 NaDH x 3 = 24 Lysine Tyrosine
8 FADH x 2 = 16 Tryptophan
= 148 ATP Isoleucine
= -2
= 146 ATP
(For double bonds)= -2
= 144 ATP
Ketone Bodies:
- Acetone
- Acetoacetic Acid
- -hydrocy Butyric Acid
Ketonuria presence of Ketonebodies in the urine
usually indicates uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, but it
may also occur w/ starvation & zero or low
carbohydrate diets.
Ketosis is the combination of Ketonuria & Ketonemia
Oleovitamin A & D found in liver oil or other vegetable oil. Chromium Def Glucose Intolerance
Peripheral Neuropathy
Vitamin B Complex used in the prevention of degenerative changes in the Metabolic Encephalopathy
central nervous system.
Zinc Def Alopecia
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Appebon® Infertility
occur in greatest proportion in dried yeast Poor wound healing
can treat Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Poor growth
most rapidly reduced vitamin Poor resistant to infection
Defficiency: Pernicious Anemia
Copper Def Depigmentation of Hair
Vitamin B3(Niacin) can be used in the management of hyperlipidemia
MOA: Inhibition of VLDL secretion Selenium Def RBC Fragility
naturally occurring pyridine derivative that prevents
Pellagra
manifestations of Pellagra:
- Dementia (CNS disorder)
- Diarrhea
- Dermatitis