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Fish catches among riverside communities around Lago Grande

de Monte Alegre, Lower Amazon, Brazil

Article  in  Fisheries Management and Ecology · August 2000

DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2400.2000.007004355.x

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Fisheries Management and Ecology, 2000, 7, 355±374

Fish catches among riverside communities around

Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, Lower Amazon,
Brazil
R. G. P. CERDEIRA & M. L. RUFFINO
Projeto IARA/IBAMA, SantareÂm, PA, Brazil

V. J. ISAAC
Departmento de Biologia, Centro de CieÃncias BioloÂgicas, Universidade Federal do ParaÂ, BeleÂm, PA, Brazil

Abstract Forty-six families living around the Amazon floodplain lake of Lago Grande de
Monte Alegre, Brazil, were monitored between April 1993 and March 1995 with respect to
their fish catches. The average catch per fisherman was 22 kg day±1. There were significant
differences between subsistence and commercial fishing, and also across different seasons of
the year. Catch was higher in the dry season and in the lake environment, followed by the river
environment. The flooded forest was exploited in the rainy season. Out of a total of more than
70 fish species, 10 taxa comprised 75% of the catch. The catch in the Monte Alegre region
concentrated on smaller species for local consumption. Prochilodus nigricans (Spix & Agassiz)
was the most important species, followed by Liposarcus pardalis (Castelnau) and Plagioscion
spp. Comparisons between quantities of fish consumed and fish marketed indicated that the
fishery has a much more important role in the region than previously thought.
k e y w o r d s : Amazon, floodplain, Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, socio-economics,
subsistence fishery.

Introduction
Fishing is one of the more important traditional extractive activities in the Amazonian region.
Fish are the main source of protein in local riverside communities. For example, per capita
consumption of fish in the towns of Manaus and Itacoatiara has been estimated at between 100
and 200 g day±1 (Shrimpton & Giugliano 1979; Smith 1979; Amoroso 1981), whereas about
369 g day±1 of fish are consumed by riverside communities around the floodplain lakes of
Middle Amazonia (Cerdeira, Ruffino & Isaac 1997).
Traditionally, Fisheries in Amazonia have been integrated with other local economic activities
which utilize natural resources, and typically, are directed towards stocks in lakes and flooded
areas, near human settlement. Fish capture techniques include hooks, spears, bows and arrows,
and rarely, driftnets or castnets (VerõÂssimo 1895; Mendes 1938). Since the 1960s, and concurrent
with the implementation of government policy for the development of the Amazon, fishing has
become a full-time professional activity for many people. The decline of other natural resources
Correspondence: Mauro Luis Ruffino, ProVaÂrzea/PPG7, Rua JoaÄo Ministro GoncËalves de Souza, s/n, 69.075-830,
Manaus, AM, Brazil (e-mail: ruffino@argo.com.br).

ã 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd 355

356 R. G. P. CERDEIRA ET AL.

which traditionally provided income, such as rubber or jute, coupled with an increasing urban
demand for fish, encouraged this socioeconomic transformation. The introduction of
monofilament nylon and diesel engines, and the establishment of freeze-packing plants provided
technical support for this change, and consequently, increased fishery productivity (McGrath,
Castro & Futemma 1993). Hence, there evolved the wandering, lone fisherman (Furtado 1993),
who fishes professionally mainly in the river channels, in places far away from his dwelling, and
sells his catch to packing plants or in the main urban markets of the region.
Nowadays, with the seasonal and spatial distribution of captured species, Middle Amazon
fisheries can be divided in two categories: (1) the fisheries of floodplain lakes and other flooded
areas; and (2) the fishery of river channels. Within these fisheries categories there are two
fishery modes: (1) subsistence; and (2) commercial (Isaac & Barthem 1995; Isaac, Milstein &
Ruffino 1996). Typically, subsistence fishing is conducted by one or two people using a canoe
or small boat, and employing a small set of relatively simple fishing gear, with family
consumption being the main use of their catch. Those who engage in commercial, canoe-
equipped fishing sell a considerable part of their catch to freezer vessels (i.e. those containing
ice boxes for preserving fish) or directly to markets in large urban centers.
Fishing in floodplain lakes has been traditionally subsistence based. Because of the fragile
nature of their vessels, fishermen remain in this environment for as long as possible, even
during the dry season. Commercial fishing focuses mainly on the capture of migratory species
in the river channels (Goulding 1980), and therefore, is carried out primarily in the dry season.
During the heavy rains, when fishing in the river channel is poor and technically difficult,
commercial fishing also exploits lakes in search of alternative stocks such as Hypophthalmus
species. (Ruffino, Mitlewski, Isaac, & Oliveira 1999). Industrial fishing takes place in the
estuary, which serves as a feeding and nursing ground for catfish such as Brachyplatystoma
vaillantii (Valenciennes) (Barthem & Petrere 1995), along the coast to capture Ariidae and
Sciaenidae species, and on the continental shelf influenced by the Amazon River to catch
penaeid shrimp (Isaac, Dias Neto & Damasceno 1992).
There is little information on the quantity of fish captured in the Brazilian Amazon and on the
productivity of local fisheries. Preliminary estimates based on data from several sources indicate
a yearly production of between 100 000 and 200 000 t (Bayley & Petrere 1989; Isaac &
Barthem 1995). In the Middle Amazon, `Project IARA ± Management of Fishery Resources of
the Middle Amazon: States of Para and Amazonas' (IBAMA 1995) began to collect statistical
data in 1992 on landings in eight towns along the Amazon River (Isaac & Ruffino 2000a) to
estimate fisheries production in the region. Recent papers have dealt with catch characteristics
and landings in the town of SantareÂm (Isaac et al. 1996; Isaac & Ruffino 2000b). However, the
relative importance of fishing for local consumption and household economies was not
evaluated. Subsequently, studies of fisheries in riverside communities were conducted with
families living around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, State of ParaÂ, to estimate the number of
fishermen and describe local fishing practices (Cerdeira et al. 1997; Ruffino et al. 1999).
The present paper evolved from these studies. The objectives were to estimate the volume of
fish captured by the riverside communities around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, and through
this, to quantify the relative importance of subsistence and commercial fisheries to these
communities. Ultimately, the goal was to estimate the fishery potential of the region.

ã 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Fisheries Management and Ecology 2000, 7, 355±374
 FISH CATCHES IN THE LOWER AMAZON 357

Study area
Lago Grande de Monte Alegre is a lake on the northern bank of the Amazon River, between
coordinates 54° 009±54° 309 W and 02° 309±02° 009 S, some 65 km from SantareÂm (Fig. 1). It
is a typical, permanent, shallow, floodplain lake influenced both by the white (turbid) waters of
the Amazon and Gurupatuba rivers, and by the black (clear) waters of the Maicuru River. The
lake is subject to seasonal water level oscillations as a consequence of the seasonal rain cycle.
Estimates of the area occupied by the lake vary between 30 000 (Loureiro & Loureiro 1987)
and 57 611 ha (Vieira & Hartmann 1989). Both of these values may be correct, depending on
the time of the year measurements were taken.
Ruffino et al. (1999) classified the communities around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre as:
(1) those whose members fish for commercial purposes, called commercial fishing (CF)
communities in the present study; (2) those whose members predominantly catch fish for their
own or family subsistence (subsistence fishing, SF); and (3) those where both of kinds of
fishing operate (mixed fishing, MF). Overall, CF communities inhabit a shoal (floodplain) area
to the south, between the lake and the Amazon River; SF communities are spread along the
northern and eastern edges of Lago Grande de Monte Alegre; while MF communities occupy
the western edge of the lake (Fig. 1). Ruffino et al. (1999) reported the existence of seven CF,
11 SF and 13 MF communities in the region. A population census identified 1235 subsistence
and 619 commercial fishermen out of a total population of 8275 inhabitants in these
communities.

Methods

Based on the stratification method of Ruffino et al. (1999), data were obtained on a daily basis,
on six consecutive days (Monday through Saturday), from April 1993 to March 1995, in six
communities around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, two per category, i.e. Curicaca and Aldeia
(SF), SaÄo Diogo and Jurunduba (MF), and Santa Rita and Campinas (CF) (Fig. 1). Data
collecting weeks were randomly chosen by lottery, in a total of 24 weeks.
Forty-six families (31 subsistence and 15 commercial fishery households) were randomly
selected within the communities, making up approximately 15% of households in each stratum.
For logistical and practical reasons, all selected households were maintained as data sources
throughout the survey.
The data collected included information on catch size by species and by day, gear employed,
total fishing time, place of fishery, type of fishing environment, and number of participating
fishers. The ratio between catch sold and catch destined for family consumption was also noted.
Species were registered according to their local names and similar species were grouped into
groups of common designations; for example, the designation `surubim' included all species of
the genus Pseudoplatystoma, while the designation `piranha' referred to many species of the
fish subfamily Serrasalminae (Table 1).
Data forms were completed by the fishermen themselves, after being trained by researchers
of Projecto IARA/IBAMA. Communities were visited every two months in order to control the
quality of data collecting, as well as to pick up completed forms and distribute new ones. Data

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358 R. G. P. CERDEIRA ET AL.

were controlled ± extreme or improbable values being eliminated ± and later entered into a
computer database.

Figure 1. Map of Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, Monte Alegre MunicõÂpio (County), State of ParaÂ, Brazil, indicating
the location of the communities surveyed.

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 FISH CATCHES IN THE LOWER AMAZON 359

As a measurement of productivity, catch per participant per day (catch per unit effort, CPUE)
was estimated for each fishing trip, allowing comparisons among fishermen and among
seasons. Monthly frequency of fishing per household was estimated by addressing the number
of days fished per week. Monthly mean frequencies for all households per fishery category
(subsistence or commercial) were then calculated. Parametric and non-parametric descriptive
statistics, and one- and two-way analyses of variance were used for comparisons.
Estimates of the monthly fishery yield in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre were calculated by
means of the following equation:

C = sCPUEi * Fi * ND * Nf (1)

where C = monthly catch; CPUE = mean monthly catch per unit effort (kg fisherman±1 day±1);
i = index of fishery category (subsistence or commercial); Fi = mean monthly frequency of
fishery category (0 < Fi > 1); ND = number of days in each month (e.g. January = 31 and
February = 28); and Nfi = total number of fishermen around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre in
fishery category i (619 commercial fishermen and 1235 subsistence fishermen).
The total catch for the period was calculated by summing monthly production values.
The number of fishermen per household (Nfh) and the total number of fishermen in each
fishery category (Nfi) were obtained in the census around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre
conducted by Ruffino et al. (1999). This census also calculated the mean number of fishermen
per household (MNfh) participating in fisheries. The degree of engagement fishing in the lake
was calculated by comparing census values (Nfh) with current data (MNfh), allowing for an
index of engagement (EI) defined as:
EI = MNfh/Nfh (2)

Results

Total production

In the period under survey, fishery production in Monte Alegre totaled 17 531 t (7507 t in the
9 months in 1993, 8320 t in 1994 and 1704 t in the 3 months in 1995), resulting in a mean value
of 8766 t year±1. Mean catch per person per day was 22 kg for the entire period and for both
fishery categories. Catch per unit effort had an asymmetrical distribution, with a median of
13 kg person±1 day±1, and lower and upper quartiles of 6 and 29 kg person±1 day±1, respectively.
The mean fishing frequency for both strata was estimated as 0.59, meaning that each
household fishes for 215 days in a year. Thus, the mean yield of each fisherman in Lago
Grande should reach between 2.8 and 4.7 t year±1, depending on use of median or mean values
for calculations.
There was considerable variation in the engagement of household members in their
respective fishing activities. Sometimes two households would join forces to increase fishing
effort, while in other instances, only part of a given household would engage in fishing, thus
allocating work potential to other activities. However, on average, the number of household
members engaged in fishing was the same as the number of fishermen declared in the census.

ã 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Fisheries Management and Ecology 2000, 7, 355±374
 360

Table 1. List of fish species captured in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre and the respective designations of these fish

Order/family Designation Local names Scientific names

Rajiformes
Potamotrygonidae Arraia Arraia Potamotrygon spp.
R. G. P. CERDEIRA ET AL.

Clupeiformes
Clupeidae Apapa ApapaÂ-amarelo, apapaÂ-branco Pellona flavipinis, P. castelnaeana

Osteoglossiformes
Arapaimidae Pirarucu Pirarucu Arapaima gigas
Osteoglossidae AruanaÄ AruanaÄ Osteoglossum bicirrhosum

Characiformes
Characidae MatrinchaÄ MatrinchaÄ Brycon cephalus
Pacu Pacu-comum, pacu-jumento, pacu-olhudo Metynnis argenteus, M. hypsauchen, Myleus schomburgki, M. torquatus,
Mylossoma aureum, M. duriventre
Piranha Piranha-branca, piranha-caju, piranha-mafuraÂ, Pygocentrus nattereri, Serrasalmus calmoni, S. elongatus, S. rhombeus,
piranha-mucura, piranha-preta S. spilopleura, S. aff. eigenmmanni
Sardinha Sardinha-comum, sardinha-comprida, sardinha-papuda Triportheus albus, T. elongatus, T. flavus
Tambaqui Tambaqui-amarelo,tambaqui-preto Colossoma macropomum
Curimatidae Branquinha Branquinha-comum, branquinha-cascuda, Curimata inornata, Cyphocharax abramoides, P. rutiloides, Steindachnerina
branquinha-cabecËa-lisa cf. bimaculata
Aracu Aracu-comum, aracu-amarelo, aracu-cabecËa-gorda Leporinus aff. affinis, L. fasciatus, L. friderici, L. trifasciatus, Rhytiodus
argenteofuscus, R. microlepis, Schizodon fasciatus, S. vittatus
CurimataÄ CurimataÄ Prochilodus nigricans
Jaraqui Jaraqui-escama-fina, jaraqui-escama-grossa Semaprochilodus taeniurus, S. insignis

ã 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Fisheries Management and Ecology 2000, 7, 355±374
 Erythrinidae TraõÂra TraõÂra Hoplias gr. malabaricus

Siluriformes
Callichthyidae Tamoata Tamoata Hoplosternum littorale
Doradidae Bacu Bacu-pedra Lithodoras dorsalis
Cujuba Cujuba Oxydoras niger
Hypophthalmidae Mapara Mapara Hypophthalmus edentatus, H. fimbriatus, H. marginatus
Loricaridae Acari Acari-pedra, acari-bodo Hypostomus emarginatus, Liposarcus pardalis
Pimelodidae Filhote Filhote, piraõÂba Brachyplatystoma filamentosum
Dourada Dourada Brachyplatystoma flavicans
Jandia Jandia Leiarius marmoratus
Fura-calcËa Fura-calcËa Pimelodina flavipinnis
Mandi Mandi Pimelodus blochii, P. altipinnis
Cara-de-gato Cara-de-gato Platynematichthys notatus
Surubim Surubim-palhacËo, surubim-flamengo, surubim-lenha, Brachyplatystoma juruensis, Merodontotus tigrinus, Pseudoplatystoma
surubim-canela, surubim-tigre, surubim-pintado fasciatus, P. tigrinus

Perciformes
Cichlidae Acara AcaraÂ-acËu, acaraÂ-cascudo, acaraÂ-bararuaÂ, Acarichthys heckellii, Astronotus crassipinis, Caquetaia
acaraÂ-bicudo, acaraÂ-disco, acaraÂ-prata, acaraÂ-rosado, spectabilis, Cichalasoma amazonarum, Geophagus proximus,
acaraÂ-roxo, acaratinga Heros sp., Symphysodon aequifasciatus

ã 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Fisheries Management and Ecology 2000, 7, 355±374
Tucunare TucunareÂ-acËu, tucunareÂ-pinima Cichla monoculus, C. ocellatus
Sciaenidae Pescada Pescada-comum, pescada-preta Plagioscion auratus, P squamosissimus, P. surinamensis, Plagioscion sp.
FISH CATCHES IN THE LOWER AMAZON
361
362 R. G. P. CERDEIRA ET AL.

Thus, the mean index of engagement (EI) was close to 1, indicating that the 1854 people
registered in the census are regularly engaged in fishing.
Despite fishing frequency being more or less constant, total production and mean yield per
fisherman differed significantly among seasons, reflecting variation in the water level of the
river. Total catch was higher in the dry season, particularly between September and November
(Table 2). Correspondingly, productivity per fisherman was also higher during this period,
reaching mean values of over 40 kg person±1 day±1. By contrast, the rainy season and its
corresponding increased flooded area resulted in a decline in fishery yield, which reached a
mean value of 15 kg person±1 day±1 in 1994 (Fig. 2).
Table 2. Catch per unit effort (CPUE), fishing frequency and monthly total catch by fishery category

CPUE (kg fisherman±1 day±1) Frequencies (%) Catch (t)

Year Month Commercial Subsistence Commercial Subsistence Commercial Subsistence

1993 April 34.38 15.74 0.59 0.61 377 356

1993 May 48.08 11.87 0.47 0.59 434 268
1993 June 37.59 13.95 0.61 0.60 426 310
1993 July 38.37 14.14 0.55 0.60 405 325
1993 August 39.87 19.29 0.48 0.51 367 377
1993 September 37.14 15.14 0.59 0.63 407 353
1993 October 44.49 20.88 0.61 0.61 521 488
1993 November 39.94 25.33 0.72 0.73 534 685
1993 December 37.57 16.02 0.65 0.66 469 405
1994 January 32.61 14.69 0.51 0.67 319 377
1994 February 24.92 16.38 0.52 0.63 225 357
1994 March 25.25 14.47 0.47 0.56 228 310
1994 April 29.35 12.25 0.68 0.65 371 295
1994 May 25.82 11.49 0.62 0.64 307 282
1994 June 22.55 10.67 0.53 0.64 222 253
1994 July 28.25 10.16 0.51 0.58 276 226
1994 August 34.67 15.78 0.52 0.68 346 411
1994 September 43.83 21.00 0.51 0.55 415 428
1994 October 39.79 21.02 0.65 0.63 496 507
1994 November 45.06 23.06 0.59 0.56 494 478
1994 December 35.93 18.75 0.50 0.49 345 352
1995 January 15.10 12.33 0.45 0.39 130 184
1995 February 40.40 14.81 0.54 0.52 378 266
1995 March 40.44 14.42 0.57 0.55 442 304
Average ± 35.06 15.99 0.56 0.60 372 358
Total ± ± ± ± ± 8933 8595

With respect to fishery category, there were significant differences in mean catch per
fisherman: 35 and 16 kg person±1 day±1 for CF and SF, respectively. Medians also were
different, estimated at 10 and 23.5 kg person±1 day±1 for CF and SF, respectively. Considering
the mean values and the mean frequency of fishing, the annual yield per fisherman was
3.4 t year±1 for SF and 7.5 t year±1 for CF. For median values, the same variables are 2.1 and
5.1 t year±1 for SF and CF, respectively.

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 FISH CATCHES IN THE LOWER AMAZON 363

Figure 2. Mean catch per unit effort (kg fisherman±1 day±1) in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre from April 1993 to
March 1995.

On average, commercial and subsistence fishermen spent between 7 and 8 h fishing per
excursion, with a slightly longer period at the end of the rainy season and a shorter one during the
dry season. Commercial fishermen spend more time fishing than do subsistence fishermen
(Fig. 3), especially during the harvest months in the second half of the year. The period between
harvests coincides with the rainy season, when the time devoted to fishing is practically the same
for both commercial and subsistence fishers. Occasionally, as happened between April and June
1994, CF communities recorded less time fishing less time than SF ones.

Figure 3. Mean time devoted to fishing by the inhabitants around Lago Grande de Monte Alegre from April 1993 to
March 1995.

Fishing gear

The following types of fishing gear are utilized in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre: gill nets
(malhadeira and miqueira), drift nets (bubuia), castnets, harpoons and different kinds of lines
(e.g. handlines, fishing rods and longlines). The malhadeira is a multifilament thread gill net
with mesh sizes specifically configured to targeted species. The miqueira is a monofilament

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364 R. G. P. CERDEIRA ET AL.

thread gill net of variable mesh. The bubuia is a mono- or multifilament thread drift net with
one end attached to a canoe and the other attached to a buoy. Castnets are round, multifilament
thread nets of 3±6 m in diameter, with lead weights along the rim and a mesh size of about
5 cm. Harpoons are made with 2.5-m-long wooden rods and a metal point which forms two
large hooks. Handlines are made of clear-coloured monofilament nylon thread with a sinker
and a small hook at the end. Fishing rods are thin, 2.0-m-long sticks with a long monofilament
nylon line attached at the midpoint and at the end, and also with a lead sinker and a small hook,
the latter attached some 10 cm below the former, which is fastened after about 2 m of free-
running line. Longlines are ropes of variable length tied between two trees or sticks, or to a
canoe; these are stretched approximately 20 cm below the water surface with a number of
hooks separately attached to the main line.
The most frequently used fishing technique (37.8%) was a combination of different gears. A
typical combination comprised a gill net and a castnet, or a gill net and fishing rods fished
simultaneously. Independent use of malhadeira, miqueira and castnest was reported in 24%,
14% and 10% of the recorded cases, respectively.
Commercial fisheries preferred gill nets or a combination of more than one kind of gear.
Efficiency was very high, with mean values of over 40 kg fisherman±1 day±1. Subsistence
fishing used more diversity in gear choice: castnets, fishing rods, and bows and arrows
appeared frequently in their activities, but gill nets were the most efficient gear for the
subsistence fishermen, with a mean productivity of almost 28 kg fishermen±1 day±1 (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Relative efficiency of the different kinds of fishing gear as measured by catch per unit effort (CPUE,
kg fisherman±1 day±1) for both fishing categories: (mixed-bag) a combination of gears.

Overall, gill nets of both kinds were used all year long and practically with the same
frequency. A combination of gear types was also employed throughout the year, but more
frequently in the first 6 months of the year. Fishing lines were preferentially used in the second

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 FISH CATCHES IN THE LOWER AMAZON 365

half of the rainy season (from March to May) and castnets predominated in the dry season
(from September to November).
As for catch volume, fishing with a combination of more than one kind of fishing gear was
responsible for 43% of the total production. Out of all types of gear used independently, the
malhadeira was the most productive (27% of the total weight of the catch), followed by the
miqueira (23%) and castnets (almost 3%). The other kinds of gear captured less than 2% each.

Fishery environments
Considering the size of Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, it is not surprising that, within the region
as a whole, 63.7% of the total catch in weight and 50% of fishery operations, originate from this
environment. However, the few flooded forests around the lake and at the banks of tributary
rivers accounted for 22% of the trips and 14.4% of the catch in weight. Flooded areas (igapoÂs)
were particularly exploited by subsistence fishermen. The Amazon River and other tributaries of
the lake accounted for 18% of the fishery activities, corresponding to 13.5% of the catch weight.
In all cases, the lake produced the highest yield: 47 kg person±1 day±1 for CF; and
20 kg person±1 day±1 for SF. The river and flooded areas produced a lesser yield (Fig. 5).

Figure 5. Productivity of fishing environments measured by catch per unit effort (CPUE, kg fisherman±1 day±1) for
both fishing categories.

According to the monthly distribution of catches by type of environment, it was noticed that
fisheries occur in the lake and in the river throughout the sampled period, but more intensely
and more productively in the ebbing and dry season. With the coming of rains and flooding of
forests, fishermen also exploit flooded areas.

Specific composition of catch and fishery ecology

More than 70 fish species were registered in the catches in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre
(Table 1). However, only 10 taxa account for over 75% of the total catch. In terms of catch
volume, the most outstanding species were Prochilodus nigricans, Liposarcus pardalis and
Plagioscion spp., each contributing > 10% to the total catch. Hypophthalmus spp., Colossoma

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366 R. G. P. CERDEIRA ET AL.

macropomum Cuvier and Pseudoplatystoma spp. followed in importance, each contributing

> 5% to the total catch (Fig. 6a).

Figure 6. Relative yield of different species groups by (a) total catch weight and (b) the number of fishery operations.

Considering only frequency of occurrence of the different species in fishing operations, 74%
of the catch comprised 10 different taxa. Besides the above-mentioned species, even in small
numbers, other groups such as acara (cichlids listed in Table 2), Cichla spp., Leporinus spp.,
Rhytiodus spp., Schizodon spp., Metynnis spp., Mylossoma spp. and Osteoglossum bicirrhosum
Cuvier occur in > 5% of all catches (Fig. 6b).

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 FISH CATCHES IN THE LOWER AMAZON 367

All the main species captured can be placed in separate life-history-strategy categories: (1)
sedentary species which do not perform trophic or reproductive migration between the lake and
the river (i.e. Plagioscion spp., L. pardalis, Geophagus proximus and O. bicirrhosum); (2)
migratory characoid species (i.e. P. nigricans, C. macropomum, Leporinus spp. and Mylossoma
spp.) which exploit the lake and flooded areas as feeding grounds, but perform dispersive and
reproductive migration in the ebbing and dry season; and (3) catfish with different strategies for
the use of lakes and floodplains, but which migrate through the river channel in the dry season
[i.e. Brachyplatystoma flavicans (Castelnau), Pseudoplatystoma spp. and Hypophthalmus spp.].
Sedentary species such as L. pardalis or Plagioscion spp. were caught in greater numbers in
the lake, especially in the ebbing and dry season, but also in lesser quantities during the rainy
season. In this latter season, cichlids were mainly found in flooded areas (Fig. 7a±c).
Among the catfish species, B. flavicans showed marked seasonality, with its capture being
concentrated in the river channel and restricted to the ebbing period, particularly between
September and October (Fig. 7d). Pseudoplatystoma spp. exhibited a similar pattern of
seasonality, but was captured both in the river and in the lake (Fig. 7e). By contrast,
Hypophthalmus spp. was captured practically all year long in the lake, but more intensely at the
beginning of both the flooding and ebbing periods (Fig. 7f).
Representatives of the migratory characoids followed a similar pattern, also being caught
predominantly in the lake and in lesser quantities in the river. Captures were more intense and
productive in the dry season. These species also exploited flooded environments during the
rainy season (Fig. 7g±i). Colossoma macropomum catches showed a clear pattern of alternation
between environments: (1) flooded areas in the rainy season; (2) rivers in the ebbing period;
and (3) the lake in the dry season (probably immature individuals) (Fig. 7h).
Subsistence and commercial fisheries exhibited differences in target species which were
related to the market destination. L. pardalis and P. nigricans were the most sought after
species in subsistence fisheries. However, the commercial fishery mainly targeted
Hypophthalmus spp. and Plagioscion spp.

Commercialization
Both those who declared in the census that they were subsistence fishermen and those included
in the commercial fisheries category would sell at least part of their catch. On average, the latter
sold about 71% of their catch, while subsistence fishermen sold about 36% of their catch. Out
of the 46 households which participated in the survey, only seven declared never having sold
their catch and six other families marketed less than 10% of their yield.
Although usually with little appeal for local consumption, catfish were the group sold in
larger proportions. The most sought after catfish species were Platynematichthys notatus
(Jardine & Schomburgk), Pimelodina flavipinnis (Steindachner), Hypophthalmus spp., B.
flavicans, Brachyplatystoma filamentosum (Lichtenstein) and Pseudoplatystoma spp. Fish with
little commercial value, such as Pygocentrus nattereri (Kner), Serrasalmus spp. and Triportheus
spp., were not sold in great numbers, and usually ended up consumed by the fishing families.
The average price of fish sold from Lago Grande de Monte Alegre varied between US$0.20
and US$1.20 kg±1, depending on the species. Arapaima gigas Schinz was the most expensive

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R. G. P. CERDEIRA ET AL.

Figure 7. Monthly catch (kg) of (a) Liposarcus pardalis, (b) Plagioscion spp., (c) Geophagus proximus, (d) Brachyplatystoma flavicans, (e) Pseudoplatystoma spp., (f)
Hypophytalmus spp., (g) Prochilodus nigricans, (h) Colossoma macropomum and (i) Leporinus spp. in the period between April 1993 and March 1995.

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species (US$1.2 kg±1), followed by Hoplostermum litoralle (Hancock) (US$0.82 kg±1) and C.
macropomum (US$0.50 kg±1). In general, species caught in larger numbers commanded good
prices in the local markets. This was the case of Pseudoplatystoma spp., Cichla spp., B.
flavicans and P. nigricans, which attained average prices of around US$0.40±0.50 kg±1. An
exception occurred for species caught between harvesting seasons, such as Hypophthalmus
spp., P. flavipinnis and Plagisocion spp., which only sold at approximately US$0.30 kg±1.

Discussion

The wide variation in water levels in Amazonian rivers, a consequence of the seasonality of
rains, determines the variations observed in local fisheries. Floodplain areas which constitute
favorable environments for the fisheries are subject to alternate rainy and dry seasons. As a
form of adaptation, fish migrate within the system to find environments favorable for feeding
and reproduction. The migratory patterns and ecology of these fish determine the seasonality of
their capture (Bittencourt & Cox-Fernandes 1990). This pattern probably contributes to the
sustained maintenance of artisanal fisheries (Fischer, Chagas & Dornelles 1992), protecting
some species during a part of the year. In the dry season, fish catches are higher because of fish
concentration and subsequent vulnerability. In the rainy season, the fisheries target schooling
species, or fish which dwell in flooded areas for shelter and food.
The main difference between catches reported by households living around Lago Grande de
Monte Alegre, and the landings observed in the town of SantareÂm relate to the relative
importance of pimelodid catfish to the total catch. In the commercial fisheries of the middle
Amazon, B. flavicans, Hypophthalmus spp., Pseudoplatystoma spp. and B. vailantii (all catfish)
constitute > 50% of the total production (Ruffino & Isaac 1994; Isaac et al. 1996; Ruffino &
Barthem 1996; Isaac, Ruffino & McGrath, 1998). The relative importance of the lacustrine
environment and the lesser degree of commercialization by fishermen in Lago Grande de
Monte Alegre means that sedentary fish and migratory characoids take first place among
captured species. However, as for markets, the catfish were sold preferentially, while most
scale fishes were reserved for local consumption. This pattern reflects better market prices for
catfish and the food taboos among local communities with regard to non-scale fish.
Capture of migratory characoids such as P. nigricans, C. macropomum and Mylossoma spp.
takes place both in the lake and in the river, and exploitation is more intense during the dry
season when schools of adult fish with maturing gonads are leaving the lake to migrate
upstream (Isaac, Rocha & Mota 2000). Capture in the rainy season is mainly aimed at young
individuals and adults who enter the flooded areas in search of food and shelter from predators
(Junk, Bayley & Sparks 1989).
Sedentary species such as Plagioscion spp., L. pardalis and O. bicirrhosum remain in
floodplain lakes throughout the year, where these fish spawn over a long period (Worthmann
1982; Junk et al. 1989). L. pardalis is caught mainly in the dry season, when it is mature
(Neves & Ruffino, 1998); this species is particularly valued for its use in the making of dry fish
flour (Cerdeira et al. 1997).
Among the catfish species reported in catches are Hypophthalmus spp. and Pseudoplatys-
toma spp., which are primarily captured during the period when these fish are in the lake.

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Hypophthalmus spp., a group which feeds on plankton in the water column and enters the lake
during the rainy season (AlcaÃntara Neto 1994), is a low-value fish with little appeal for local
consumption (Cerdeira et al. 1997; Ruffino et al. 1999). However, it is an alternative when
preferred fishes are not available. Many Hypophthalmus spp. fishermen from Tocantins River
now journey to Lago Grande de Monte Alegre in the rainy season because the species becomes
rare in that river (AlcaÃntara Neto 1994). The capture of the great migratory catfish, such as
Brachyplatystoma spp., whose schools swim through the main channel of the Amazon River
(Barthem 1992; Barthem & Petrere 1995), was relatively unimportant to the Lago Grande
fisheries and exploitation of these fish was restricted to CF, particularly for those living on the
shore (probably because of their easy access to the river).
From the standpoint of economics, the present study indicates that fishing has an important role
in the community life of riverside dwellers. The average yield of 35 and 16 kg fisherman±1 day±1,
estimated for commercial and subsistence fisheries, respectively, and the general mean value of
22 kg fisherman±1 day±1, are roughly equivalent to the values of 35.5 and 23 kg fisherman±
1
day±1 cited by Goulding (1979) for the region of Cachoeira de TeotoÃnio (State of Amazonas),
and the Middle and Upper Madeira rivers, respectively. Figures for annual production per
fisherman (3.4 and 7.5 t fisherman±1 year±1 for subsistence and commercial fishermen,
respectively) are much higher than those provisionally estimated by Vieira & Hartmann
(1989) for Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, i.e. 0.5±4 t fisherman±1 year±1. These differences
indicate that fishing in the region is much more important than was initially imagined.
Furthermore, the large proportion of the catch which is sold shows that, even on a small-scale,
fishing has great importance as an economic activity and source of income.
In addition, it is known that the per capita consumption by locally registered fishermen
(Cerdeira et al. 1997) is approximately twice that estimated in the late 1970s for other regions
in Amazonia (Shrimpton & Giugliano 1979; Smith 1979; Amoroso 1981), and much greater
than the consumption observed elsewhere in Brazil, or in other countries (FAO 1997). If a
family in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre utilizes a little less than 800 kg year±1 of fish for food
on average (Cerdeira et al. 1997), and considering an annual catch of about 3 t fisherman±1, it
is clear that selling the catch is essential to the economy of riverside communities. The
importance of fishing in the daily life of local inhabitants becomes even clearer when one
considers that fishing is practiced for 7 h day±1, 215 days year±1.
Therefore, these results bring into question the classification of fishing in Brazilian
Amazonia. According to the concepts hitherto utilized, CF is carried out by professionals
focused on selling their catch and dedicating practically all of their time to fishing. These
commercial fishermen are classified as `univalent' (Furtado 1990). On the other hand, SF is
carried out primarily for consumption by the fishing family, with any excess being sold
(Ruffino & Isaac 1994; Isaac & Barthem 1995). Subsistence fishing is also carried out in
conjunction with various other activities, such as agriculture, small-scale cattle ranching and
extractive activities (Vieira & Hartmann 1989; Furtado 1990; Petrere 1992; Barthem, Petrere,
Isaac, Ribeiro, McGrath, Vieira & Valderrama 1997). According to MaueÂs & MaueÂs (1990),
fish sold from the subsistence fishery should not be considered as a sale of surplus, but rather as
a transaction of the part of the catch that has no intended consumption value, and that has to be
sold to obtain consumer goods.

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 FISH CATCHES IN THE LOWER AMAZON 371

However, the present study indicates that subsistence fishermen sell a considerable portion of
their yield and that they catch far more fish than they need for their own sustenance. In this
case, fishing, although not intensive, is not only for familial consumption, but also represents a
source of income for other familial necessities. In general, excess catch is sold in the local
communities to retailers, or occasionally, to freezer vessels.
Nevertheless, significant variations were observed in productive yield between commercial
and SF, and subsequently justify a distinction between the two categories, indicating the
existence of different degrees of utilization of resources between the two groups. Despite the
same number of hours being dedicated to fishing in the two categories, the better productivity
attributed to CF is probably a result of the use of larger, more numerous and more efficient
fishing gear. Gill nets, drift nets and longlines are more expensive than castnets, rods or
handlines, but are responsible for the larger number of fishery excursions, and for most of the
production in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre, as well as in many other regions of the Amazonian
Basin (Petrere 1978; Smith 1979; McGrath, Calabria, Amaral, Futemma & Castro 1991).
Therefore, it seems that the passage from the category of SF to CF could be also a matter of
availability of material resources for obtaining more efficient kinds of fishing gear. Studies on
the profitability of each of the economic activities in riverside communities, as well as their
cost±benefit relationships, were not found in the available literature and should be conducted to
better understand the dynamics of the allocation of available labour, and the degree of pressure
exerted on natural resources.
Brazilian legislation does not take into account the SF category, thus the lack of this category
avoids the regulation and control of the fishing activities of these inhabitants. Considering the
important role of fishing within riverside communities, it is evident that any reduction in the
availability of fishery resources will necessarily bring large changes in income distribution, labour
structure and the quality of life of all local fishermen. Therefore, studies on the economic dynamics
of communities and their impact on the availability of natural resources must be considered
priority. In this way, the necessary scientific basis to support the choice of adequate policies of
management and measures of organization for the utilization of those resources will be available.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank IBAMA, GOPA-GTZ and PTU/CNPq for the financial support for data
collection, and particularly, biologists Vera LuÂcia C. Rocha and Adriane Hager, and
agriculture technical Gerson Luiz ReÃgo for help with the fieldwork. A special acknowl-
edgement is due to all the fisherman in Lago Grande de Monte Alegre who helped with the
data collection.

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