1

Internship Report on

Rehabilitation / Improvements of Sewerage System, Jhang PHASE-I

PCC Slab & Sewer Lines under Public Health Engineering
Department

GC UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD LAYYAH CAMPUS

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Rehabilitation / Improvements of Sewerage System, Jhang PHASE-I PCC Slab &

Sewer Lines under Public Health Engineering Department

Student Name: Muhammad Hasnain Haider

Roll Number: 2268
Training Period: 04 Month(04/11/2020 to 25/02/2021
Training Organization: Public Health Engineering Department
Submitted to Engr. Mesum Haider

Department of Civil Engineering Technology

Govt.College.University
Faislabad Layyah Campus
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Abstract:
Collection, treatment, operation and management of municipal solid waste (MSW) at
home and abroad are presented in the paper, expounding the development trends of
disposing MSW, which are to classify and collect garbage, promote recycling
benefits, make resource and harmless disposal of non-recycle. It is recommended
that each city choose reasonable waste disposal methods; learn from foreign
advanced technology and experience, according to the characteristics of geography,
economy and MSW in local areas. Some specific suggestions are also provided in
the paper
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DEDICATION

We dedicate this humble effort

Our sweet, honorable and great
“Parents and Teachers”
Whose prayers, encouragement and
Love made us able to Complete this
Internship Work

Acknowledgment

All praise to Allah, the source of all knowledge and wisdom, with in beyond our
comprehension, who gave me the will and interest to complete this project. I would
like to express my deepest gratitude to Eng. Measum Haider for his guidance,
support and encouragement throughout this study. I am thankful to the staff of
hydraulics for their help and assistance during the experimental work. Lastly, I am
grateful to my parents, other family member, friends and to all those who prayed and
wished for my success.

Activities of Organization :

A . Planning: Maintaining the Proper Staffing Levels is essential for this company.

B. Budgeting: In organization must have a solid budgeting process and success will
suffer.

C. Reporting: Reporting throughout his entire organization foam entry level

employees to the highest points in his organization chart, reporting is an essential
element for this company

Summary of Report :
The project involved in two phases .The First phase of the project is trade center &
the other is residential apartment . The report contains a construction summary that
includes a brief side description,& gerenal notes related to the project .
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Table of Contents
Industrial Training Log Book Training Information………….………………….8
Daily Training Log………………………………………………………………..09
Decleration ……..…………………………………………………………………09
Chapter 1:
Background of training Organization……………………….………………….….10
1.1 Profile of Organization………………..…………………..…………………...10
1.2 Vision & Mission………………………………………………….…………...10
1.3 Organogram………………………………………………………….…………10
1.4 Title and Position of Supervisor Incharge……………………………………...10
1.5 Site Joining……………………………………………………………………...10

Dry Wet Wall………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12

Pump House…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…17
Exevation……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………18
Construction Waste Disposible process……………………………………………………………………..21
Field Work………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22
Types of Brick Masonry work……………………………………………………………………………………..27
Saver Line………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34
Types of Plyster…………………………………………………………………………………………………………37
Brick Blast………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41
Pcc Lab start……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..50
Disposible Excavation………………………………………………………………………………………………..56
Concrete work progress…………………………………………………………………………………………….61

CHAPTER-3………………………………………………………………………..66
Working Experience……………………………………………………………….66
3.1 Project carried out (If Assigned by on the Job Trainer)……………………66
3.2 Hand on Skill acquired……………………………………………………..66
3.3 Problem Encountered………………………………………………………68
3.4 Problem Solving Process…………………………………………………..69
 Define the problem……………………………………………………..69
 Generate alternative solutions…………………………………………..69
 Evaluate and select an alternative………………………………………69
 Implement and follow up on the solution………………………………69
3.5 Supervisory Works…………………………………………………………70
3.6 Quality Management System in place……………………………………...70
3.7 Safety at Work……………………………………………………………...70
CHAPTER-4………………………………………………………………………..71
4.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….71
4.2 References………………………………………………………………….71
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4.3 Appendix…………………………………………………………………...71
4.4 My Performance during executing the work……………………………..72
4.5 Final Comments…………………………………………………………..73
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INDUSTRIAL TRAINING LOG BOOK

TRAINING INFORMATION

Personal Details
Student Name : Muhammad Hasnain Haider
Student Roll : 2268
Address : chak Ghumnana chah Murad wala toba
road Jhang
Course of Study : BSC.Civil.Engineering & Technology
Year/Semester of Study : 7th(2017-2021)
Training Start Date : 04-10-2020
Training End Date : 25-02-2021

Training Organization:
Name : Public Health Engineering
Department
Contact Person : Abdul Khaliq SDO
Contact Number : 0309-1111089
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Daily Training Log

Training Weeks : 16

Date Time Entry

04-11-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
11-11-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
18-11-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
25-11-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
02-12-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
9-12-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
16-12-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
23-12-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
30-12-2020 9:00AM to 5:00PM
06-01-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM
13-01-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM
20-01-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM
27-01-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM
03-02-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM
10-02-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM
17-02-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM
23-02-2021 9:00AM to 5:00PM

Declaration:
I hereby declare that this training report entitled “A Training Report on Residential
Apartments building” at has been undertaken by me. This training report has been
prepared with respect to a part of B.sc Civil Engineering Technology of G.C
University of Faisalabad (layyah campus) in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the Degree in final year. It is my original work and has not been
submitted by any other person. I also declare that this report is the result of my own
efforts and that the same has not been submitted to any other university institution
for the award of any degree or diploma.

Signed by Traninee Date Signed by

Supervisor
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Back Ground of Training Organization:

1.1 Profile of Organization
Department : Public Health Engineering Department
XEN : Kashif Fiyaz
SDO : Abdul Khaliq
Site In charge : Irshad Hussain
1.2 Vision and Mission:
These statements are the words leaders use to explain an organization
purpose and direction. When expressed clearly and concisely they can
motivate your team or the organization as a whole with an inspiring vision of
the future.
1.3 Organogram An Organogram:
is a graphical representation of an organization structure. An Organization to
both visualize reporting relationship and communicate employee’s between
managers and people who report to them.
1.4 Title and Position of Supervisor in Charge:
A Supervisor also known as boss, facilitator, monitor or coordinator, is the
job title of a medium level management position that is primarily based on
authority over a worker or a charge of a work place.
1.5 Site Joining:
I joined the site on 04/10/2020 and worked until that date 25/02/2021 & my
experience on the site was great I spent 4 months there and I gain
knowledge about construction field.
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Chapter 2

Preliminary treatment of wastewater consists of the following steps:

Screening

Fig.1 Screening

The first unit operation generally encountered in wastewater treatment plants is

screening. A screen is a device with openings, generally of uniform size, that is used
to retain solids found in the influent wastewater to the treatment plant. The principal
role of screening is to remove coarse materials (pieces of wood, plastics, rags,
papers, leaves, roots etc.) from the flow stream that could:
1. Damage subsequent process equipment e.g. pumps, valves, pipe lines,
impellers.
2. Reduce overall treatment process reliability & effectiveness, or contaminate
waste way
Design of screening chamber:

The objective of screens is to remove large floating material and coarse solids
from wastewater. It may consist of parallel bars, wires or grating placed across
the flow inclined at 30o-60o. According to method of cleaning; the screens are
hand cleaned screens or mechanically cleaned screens. Whereas, according to
the size of clear opening, they are coarse screens (≥ 50 mm), medium screens
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(25-50 mm) and fine screens (10-25 mm). Normally, medium screens are used
in domestic wastewater treatment.

Fig.2: Screening Chamber

Dimensions of an approach channel

Used in wastewater treatment is mostly rectangular in shape. Wastewater from the

wet well of the pumping station is pumped into the approach channel from where it
flows by gravity to the treatment plant. Its main function is to provide a steady and
uniform flow after pumping.

 Select the size of bar/clear opening, say 10mm x 10 mm (medium screens)

 No. of bars; {(n + 1) + (n) = B}, and {Be = B – (width of bar)(n)}
 Head loss, hL = 0.0729 (V2 – Vh2) ------ {Vh 0.75m/sec, hL ≤ 0.5 ft}
 For perforated plate; amount of screening produce = (1-2) ft3/MG
 Length of bar; L = D/sinθ, and Lh = L * cosθ.
 Screen chamber. Lc = inlet zone (2-3 ft) + Lh + outlet zone {outlet zone =
width of p plate + (0.5-1.0 ft)}

Dry wet wall

There are a number of reasons why water can build up in your walls – floods
and pipe leaks are two common ones.  Whatever the reason, if moisture builds
up inside the walls, this can lead to the growth of dangerous things like black
mould and fungi and even lead to the weakening of the structure.  The good
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news is that there is a number of different ways that you can dry out walls and
stop the problem.

Fig 3: Dry Wet Wall

How Do I Dry out Walls after Water Damage
After an event that causes water damage in your home, not only would the floors be
affected, but often the walls are as well. Thus, it’s essential to know how to dry wet
walls—or call a restoration company immediately. Quick drying reduces the risk of
structural damage and prevents mold from growing.

Understanding how water saturates drywall 

Before you learn how to dry a wall after water damage, here’s a look into how water
saturates drywall. Water that enters a room from ground level will cover the floor
and floor covering. It will then begin to “wick” up the wall because of capillary
action in porous materials. The extent of this movement depends on the wall’s
construction, the amount of water, and the water’s height on the wall material.
Drywall is an absorbent material that contains gypsum and a cardboard-like
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paper on both sides. Drywall can wick water up to 30 inches! The water will
be present on both sides of the wall. Often, however, it’s higher on the inside
due to restricted evaporation on that side of the drywall. While water damage
is sometimes visible, at other times, the wall does not show signs of this
moisture.
How to dry a wall after water damage:
To begin with, decide whether to handle the problem yourself or call a professional
company. We recommend the latter if you don’t know how to dry wet walls or the
damage is extensive. Sometimes, the water damage is obvious, but most times,
it’s hidden, and those not trained in water damage restoration may miss it.

If you want to DIY, here’s how to dry wet walls out: 

If a burst pipe led to the water intrusion, turn off the water source. Hire a plumber to
fix the broken pipe before any drying can take place. Accelerate drying by opening
windows and doors. Use fans to move air around the damp walls. Dehumidifiers can
help remove moisture from the air, which indirectly removes it from the walls, too.
To speed up evaporation, remove molding and baseboards to prevent moisture from
entering behind them. Store the molding in a dry, safe place to avoid damaging it.
Also, remove objects hanging on the wall, such as paintings and portraits. Remove
wallpaper if you have it. This takes patience, but it’s important as the
wallpaper forms a “seal” that holds moisture in the wall. Wallpaper removal
solutions, which dissolve the adhesive, are available at your hardware store.
You will also need 3”-6” broad knives to scrape the wallpaper once released.
Note that fully drying out walls takes time, so don’t rush the refinishing until
the walls are dry. A moisture meter can help you be sure. Once
completely dry, you can reverse the process and refinish your room. Inspect
the removed items for any moisture or mold growth before reinstalling. Drying
wet walls quickly and correctly is crucial. If you can’t dry your walls
immediately, don’t let the problem get worse by waiting. Call a water damage
remediation specialist and leverage their expertise, experience, and equipment.
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How restoration professionals dry damp walls after water damage

First, technicians determine the extent of the water using a range of water damage
restoration tools. One choice is a non-invasive moisture meter. This meter uses
radio waves to test for water without putting holes in the wall. Another professional
instrument is an infrared imaging (IR) camera. Since the evaporation from wet
walls makes them cooler than dry walls, the IR camera can find water in walls. It
does so with no holes or other invasions of the wall material. Once the professionals
identify wet walls, they use specialized drying equipment to dry them.

If the walls aren’t insulated: 

In this case, the restoration professional can dry wet walls out without holes or
removing the baseboard. The technicians place high capacity air movers along the
wall every 10 to 14 feet. These air movers remove moisture from wall’s surface,
evaporating it quickly. As the moisture evaporates, more moisture goes to the surface
where it evaporates.

The restoration expert will also install a low grain refrigerant dehumidifier in the

damp wall. Depending on the moisture levels, one or more will be needed. This
advanced drying equipment reduces the humidity levels to help with drying and
prevent mold growth.

When proper, the restoration professional will install an inner-wall drying system by
putting small holes above the sill plate and forcing air into the wall cavity. Studies
have shown that this solution is the best and fastest way to dry walls with water
damage.

Additionally, if there‘s a moisture barrier on the outside or inside the wall, the drying
plan changes. Moisture barriers are coatings or materials that inhibit the movement
of moisture from the wall material.

Most latex paints are permeable and don’t make up a barrier. But, glossy paints may
create a barrier and enamel paint or vinyl wall coverings create a complete barrier.
Technicians will need to perforate or remove them to allow moisture to escape and
the walls to dry. If there’s plastic or foil on the inside of the wall, then technicians
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will need to remove the wall. That’s because drying will not occur properly and mold
will develop in such situations.

If the walls are insulated:

If there is fiberglass insulation with paper backing, then an inner-wall drying system
can be used, as described above. But, if the insulation is foil-backed fiberglass,
blown-in cellulose, or a Styrofoam material, then it can’t be dried successfully.

In those cases, removing the damaged portion of the wall along with the insulation is
necessary to allow rapid drying and to prevent mold growth.

Monitoring the drying system 

Regardless of the procedures used by the restoration professional, homeowners
should know that the equipment must operate, without stopping, throughout the
drying process.

Finally, restoration professionals will monitor the drying system at least once a day.
That ensures the equipment is operating correctly during the drying process.
Monitoring includes moisture measurements to determine when the materials will
successfully dry. Material dryness is measured against similar unaffected contents in
that structure. When dryness levels are equal, the drying is finished, and the
equipment removed.

To recap, this is how to dry out damp walls

1. After addressing the water source, remove paintings and other objects
from the wall.
2. Follow up by removing moldings, baseboards, and wallpaper.
3. Open windows and doors to help speed up the drying process.
4. Use fans to move air around the damp walls. Also use dehumidifiers,
which can help remove moisture from the air and walls.
5. Professionals use tools like moisture meters, infrared imaging devices,
dehumidifiers and heavy-duty fans. That ensures the walls are truly dry before
further repair, painting or refinishing.
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For drywall water damage drying and repair, call the pros! 

A professional restoration company, such as PuroClean, understands and uses the

principles and procedures of how to dry damp walls. For efficient drywall water
damage repair, call your local PuroClean office. Our trained and certified technicians
can dry walls and other items quickly and thoroughly, preventing further damage and
mold growth.

Pump House

The Different Stages of Constructing a Pump Station

Pump stations are facilities which house pumps which are used to transport water or
sewage from one location to another via a network of pipes. If you are planning to
have a pump station built on your property, you may be wondering about the
different phases of construction undertaken during the project. Below is a guide to
the various steps a construction crew will take during a new pump station
construction.

Fig 4: Pump House

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Access roads
Pump stations are often built in remote or hard to reach places. The first thing a
construction crew will do is assess the level of access which is currently available. If
the roads leading to the site are not large enough to support the transport of the
equipment needed to construct the pump station, the construction crew will build
new access roads.

Excavation
The next phase is the excavation of the site. The construction crew will use heavy
equipment to dig the foundation of the pump station. If the pump station will be
drawing water from the ground, they will bore down under the earth into the water
table. 

Construction
Once the foundations are in place, the construction contractors will build the shell of
the pump building using concrete and brick. An electrical contractor will then install
the wiring and fuse box before connecting the building to the power supply. If there
isn't access to the public power supply, you may need to consider installing a solar
panel or wind turbine which will provide the electrical power needed to operate the
pump.

Once this is completed, and the flooring and roofing are in place, the pump itself and
the valves which control the flow of water or sewage will be installed along with the
relevant control panels. Finally, any cosmetic work to make the building look nice
will be completed such as landscaping the surrounding area and planting trees to hide
the pump house.

Pipe laying
Trenches will then be dug so that sections of pipe can be laid in the ground and
connected together. When this task is completed, the pipe will connect the pump with
the public utility system and your property.

If you would like further advice about constructing a pump station on your property,
you should contact a construction and contractor company. The staff will be happy to
look over your plans and to discuss how they can help you to achieve your goal.
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Station design and layout

Fig 5:Station Design and layout

The lack of tidal variation in tower cooled, or indirect cooled, systems allows
the pump house design to be achieved without such deep excavation as on coastal
sites and this usually allows the pumps to be placed fairly close to ground level.
Pump suction conditions are still determined by the approach flow but this is now
totally within the control of the designer. Velocities are in the order of 2 m/s in the
channels approaching the fore bay (often called the suction dock). Levels are set by
the locations out of the cooling towers. These will normally be designed so that the
maximum still water level in the tower pond is at or about site level. Theoretically
the water in the tower pond only needs to be deep enough to provide the necessary
gradient to make it flow towards the pumps, but in this case the system is quite
highly tuned. With continuous loss of water through purge and evaporation a failure
in the make-up system would rapidly lead to loss of pump suction. For this reason,
most modern stations have a substantial reserve capacity in the cooling tower ponds
(up to 2 m working range) and this reflects on the lowest operating level in the pump
forebay, which also has to account for the hydraulic gradient losses in the tower
flumes. Figure 2.65(b) shows the hydraulic gradient for Drax power station.
The requirements for screening are much reduced on the tower cooled design but
coarse-raked screens are now being considered to deal with the substantial problem
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of wind blown debris, such as plastic bags, which otherwise may end up on the
condenser tube plates.

Isolation arrangements are required to allow removal of a pumpset without draining

down the forebay, which is always common to all units.

The pumphouse may also house auxiliary pumps for duties such as compressor

cooling, hydrant systems and auxiliary cooling water.

Machinery used in disposal construction

As urbanization continues to accelerate, the number of urban construction waste is

also growing rapidly. People enjoy the urban civilization, it is also subjected to the
annoyance urban waste, and construction waste will occupy a large proportion of
total waste accounts for about 30% to 40%. According to the information, only a
year arising from construction of the building and construction waste discharged to
more than 1 billion tons, with building renovation, demolition, building materials
industry the amount of waste generated by the construction will reach several million
tons. So how to process and efficient recycling of construction waste, has become all
levels of government departments and construction waste disposal units are facing a
major problem.

Fig 6: Disposal construction

In order to achieve urban construction waste can be recycled recycling, Zhengzhou

Yifan Machinery Co., Ltd. R & D Center features combined crushing and screening
product development to keep trying, and finally the successful launch of construction
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waste disposal equipment - mobile crusher station. Construction waste disposal

equipment technology to jaw crusher, impact crusher, vertical impact crusher,
hydraulic cone crusher, vibrating screen, vibrating feeder and other special
equipment to construction waste crushing and screening. Processed recycling of
construction waste can be widely used in unburned, road infrastructure, construction
and other industries, for urban construction of the road into a virtuous cycle provides
a new development idea.

Complete construction waste crushing equipment:

Mobile crushing station includes: PE series large jaw crusher, PF series impact
crusher, spring cone crusher, vibrating feeder, circular vibrating screen, belt
conveyors.

Construction waste disposal process:

Vibration feeding system >> Concrete crushing system >> Separation System >>
High-pressure washing system >>Secondary and tertiary crushing system >>
Wastewater recycling system >> Dust purification systems >> Automatic Control
System

Urban construction waste applications - Customer Case:

Fig 7 : Construction Waste Disposal Process

Construction waste - concrete recycling:

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1. Construction waste in scrap steel, scrap wire, scrap wire, and various accessories,
scrap metal, etc. After sorting, concentration, re-melted, it can be processed into a
variety of steel products manufacturing;
2. Bamboo wood waste can be used to manufacture artificial wood;
3. Brick, stone, concrete and other waste by crushing, they can on behalf of sand for
masonry mortar, plastering mortar, playing concrete pads, etc., can also be used to
produce blocks, pavement bricks, tiles and other building materials lattice.
4. Construction waste can be processed into recycled concrete aggregate, new wall
materials, raw materials, filling materials such as road base.

Fig 8. concrete recycling

Field Work

Excavation
Date 4 to 10 November
In construction terms, excavation is the process of removing earth to form a cavity in
the ground.

On small sites or in confined spaces, excavation may be carried out by manual means
using tools such as picks, shovels and wheelbarrows. Larger scale excavation works
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will require heavy plant such as bulldozers and backactors. For more information,
see excavating plant.\

Types
Topsoil Excavation
This involves the removal of the exposed layer of the earth’s surface, including any
vegetation or decaying matter which could make the soil compressible and therefore
unsuitable for bearing structural loads. The depth will vary from site to site, but is
usually in a range of 150-300 mm.

Earth Excavation
This involves the removal of the layer of soil directly beneath the topsoil. The
removed material (referred to as 'spoil') is often stockpiled and used to construct
embankments and foundations.

Rock Excavation
This is the removal of material that cannot be excavated without using special
excavation methods such as drilling (by hand or with heavy machinery) or blasting
with explosives.

Muck Excavation
This is the removal of excessively wet material and soil that is unsuitable for
stockpiling.

Unclassified Excavation
This is the removal of a combination of the above materials, such as where it is
difficult to distinguish between the materials encountered.

Date 11 to 17 November
Methods used for preparing the ground for concrete placement depend on the job.
The types of projects include foundations, industrial and commercial floors, roads
and highways, and other exterior slab-on-grade hardscapes. The construction
sequence starts with the removal of surface vegetation and topsoil, excavation of
high areas of grade, surface preparation and fill placement, followed by concreting.
Each successfully completed step makes it possible to continue to the next phase.
The reverse is also true. For example, when soils are excavated from one location
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and are used for fill in other areas without proper compaction, the resulting
settlement over time destroys even the best concrete work. This is also the case when
foundations and utility trenches are backfilled without compaction and concrete
elements placed on top.

Proper soil preparation is very important to the performance of a project. This

includes the removal of weak materials from the surface, sub-grade evaluation, the
selection of suitable materials for use as fill, proper compaction, control of moisture,
and providing flat uniform surfaces for concrete placement. Normally, grading
contractors bring the site to rough grade through excavation, fill placement, and
compaction while concrete contractors cover fine grading and compaction of the
upper few inches in their contracts. Both parties should be included in
preconstruction meetings to agree on specifications and details.

Soil Basics
The ground under concrete must have the proper engineering characteristics to
support anticipated loads without experiencing bearing capacity failure or excessive
settlement. For instance, a concrete foundation must support the loads associated
with columns or bearing walls without shifting or settling more than can be tolerated
by the building's frame. The ground under an industrial floor slab must support the
weight of forklifts and materials stored on the slab. Structural engineers specify the
load that the ground must support for every application. Then geotechnical engineers
sample the soil on the site to determine if it can meet the load support requirements.
If it can't, there are several options available to improve support capability. Soil can
be removed and replaced with suitable materials, aggregates can be mixed with the
soil to improve strength and compressibility, or layers of more suitable materials can
be placed above weaker soils to better distribute applied loads. In general the denser
a soil is, the more load it can carry. Achieving the proper level of density is
accomplished through the control of moisture within the soil and proper compaction.

Kevin MacDonald, vice president of engineering services for Cemstone, Mendota

Heights, Minn., says that there are two primary types of soil: coarse grained and fine
grained. There are organic soils too, but they aren't appropriate to use as a bedding
material for concrete and should be removed (see Table 1). Coarse-grained soils
include sand and larger aggregate particles, with sand sizes typically ranging from
0.003 to 0.08 inches in diameter and aggregates as large as 1½ inches. Fine-graded
25

soils include clay and silt. Clay and silt particle sizes can be less than 0.00004 inches
in diameter, are cohesive in nature, and are much more affected by water.
MacDonald adds that clays and silts have much more surface area than coarse-
grained materials and can be chemically active. When you mix coarse-grained
aggregates into clay and silt, the ability to support loads can be greatly increased.
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Fig 9: PCC Slab

Brick Masonry

Date: 18 November to 1 December

Brick masonry is a highly durable form of construction. It is built by placing bricks
in mortar in a systematic manner to construct solid mass that withstand exerted loads.
There are several types of bricks and number of mortars which can be used to
construct brick masonry.

Types of Brick Masonry Work

1. Brick Work in Mud

 The mud is used to fill up various joints brick masonry work.

 Thickness of the mortar joint is 12 mm.
 it is the cheapest type of brick masonry
 employed for construction of walls with maximum height of 4 m.

2. Brick Work in Cement

This type of brick masonry is construction by laying bricks in cement mortar rather
than mud which is used in brick work in mud. There are three major classes of brick
work in cement which are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Different classes of brick work in cement and their descriptions.

Classes Descriptions
First Class Cement of lime mortar is used,
The surface and edges of bricks are sharp,
And the thickness of mortar joints doesn’t
exceed 10mm
Second Class Ground moulded bricks are used,
Bricks are rough and shape is slightly irregular,
The thickness of mortar joint is 12 mm.
Third Class Bricks are not hard ,rough surface with distorted
shape,Used for temporary structures,
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Types of Bricks

There are different types of brick used in the construction of brick masonry which
include:

 Common Burnt Clay Bricks

 Concrete Bricks
 Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
 Fly ash Clay Bricks
 Engineering Bricks
 Other Brick Types include bullnose, channel, coping, cownose and hollow
bricks.

Brick Masonry Construction

 Materials and Equipment Used in Brick Masonry Construction
 Mortar Mix or Mason Mix Bricks
 Tape measure
 Hammer
 Hose, level, or theodolite
 Trowel Level
 Wheelbarrow
 Goggles
 Jointer
 And other equipment according to project ans personal preferences
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Brick Masonry Construction Preparations

 Check the level of the ground using level, theodolite or transparent hose
level.
 Set the layout of the structure.
 Setting out layout of masonry structure
 Setting out layout of masonry structure
 Trace of building axis and wall alignment using gypsum powder, chalk, or
similar, marking the trenches for foundation.
 After that,install foundation wall, cure foundation for minimum two days
before beginning of brick masonry construction.
 Distribute bricks in several stacks along project site to cut time and effort
later.
 Wet bricks few hours prior to the work. Not only does this avoid absorbing
too much water from mortar but also improve adherence of bricks and mortar.

Brick Masonry Construction Procedure

1. Initially, mix the mortar with water and blend it until a smooth and plastic
mortar is produced.
2. After that, place the mortar on foundation line evenly using trowel (25mm
thickness and one brick wide is recommended for laid mortar).
3. Then, lay the first course of stretcher bricks in the mortar. Start with second
brick, apply mortar to the head joint end of each brick, After that shove the
bricks into place firmly so that the mortar is squeezed out of all side of the
joints.
4. Utilize a level to examine the course for correct height. ensure that bricks are
plumb and level.
5. Place another mortar line alongside the first course, then begin laying the
second course.
6. Use the two half bricks to begin the second to ensure that the first two courses
are staggered for structural purposes.
7. To finish the second course of the lead, lay three header bricks and make sure
that they are plumb and level.
30

8. The third and fifth courses consists of stretchers similar to the first course.
The fourth course begins with single header, followed by stretchers. Use the
level to make sure that the lead is true on each course. Lastly, this pattern of
brick laying is used till the target height is reached.
31
32
33
34

Fig 10:Bricks
35

Saver Line
Date: 2 to 8 December Plaster

1. Sewers are expensive to construct and if not built correctly remedial works can be
disruptive, time consuming, costly and, in some circumstances, have adverse effects
on a company’s reputation. In many instances, a lot of mistakes can be avoided by
considering the specification and requirements before and during construction. This
is an on-site guide for contractors and operatives constructing sewers.
2. Safety in sewers and excavations
It is a contractor’s responsibility to ensure that all operatives are competent and
experienced to complete works to the required standards.
3. Trenches and Excavations
Trenches must be adequately supported, free from boulders and tree roots must be
taken out. Muddy ground, water and soft areas in the trench base must be removed.
Materials, spoil and equipment must be stored safely and plant should be operated
within a safe working distance. The trench must be adequately protected from slips,
trips, falls, site traffic and have a safe means of access and egress.
4. Control of site and Trench groundwater
An addition, care must be taken to prevent site debris, sludge or silt from entering the
sewer network which could ultimately cause flow restrictions, blockages, flooding,
pollution and also affect the receiving wastewater treatment works. Costs associated
with such incidents may be recovered from those responsible. In addition, should an
inappropriate discharge of site groundwater or construction material cause a
pollution incident, this may lead to prosecution.
5. Agreed drawings
For sewer adoption and diversion works, construction must comply with the agreed
drawings. Similarly, for public sewer connections, works must comply with the
details which have been agreed by the Local Authority, the relevant Building Control
Authority and the approval given by the contractor for the works to proceed. It is
recommended that a site copy of the agreed drawings are available to those carrying
out construction to avoid any mistakes or deviation from specification.

6. Construction Materials
36

All materials including pipes must comply with the agreed drawings to Water
Industry Standards (WIS) and be Kitemarked or have a similar EU certification
mark. • All materials should be handled with care and stored safely in accordance
with manufacture’s recommendations.
7. The Kitemark was first introduced by BSI (the British Standards Institute) in 1903.
It is commonly found on many products, including construction products. It indicates
that the product has been independently tested by BSI to confirm that it complies
with relevant British Standards, and that BSI have licensed the product manufacturer
to use the Kitemark.
8. Manhole chambers
Manholes should be constructed where there is a change of direction and/or a change
of gradient, or where access is required for maintenance purposes. Such changes in
direction or gradient must be made within the channel and not outside of the manhole
or concealed by benching.
9. Manholes should also be positioned 0.5 m away from curb lines, preferably with
the manhole cover positioned away from the wheel line of traffic.
10. Sizing of manhole chamber
Manhole bases should be sized to accommodate the main channel; lateral connection
channels and provides a minimum 600 x 600 sq. mm landing area beneath the step
rungs or ladder for main channels up to 375 mm. However, should there be several
channels the size of the chamber may need to be increased.
11. Manhole base and channel construction
The manhole base should be a minimum of 225 mm deep to the barrel of the channel.
To prevent the ingress of ground water and associated calcified deposits bleeding
through the benching, the concrete should not be a dry mix and sufficiently
compacted or pokered to remove voids and entrained air. Channels must be steep
sided to at least the crown of the pipe.
12. Channels
The pipe joint adjacent to the channel should be a minimum of 100 mm from the
internal face of the manhole. Lateral connections into the manhole must also enter
the chamber as channels, again at 100 mm from the internal face of the chamber and
connect to the main channel at soffit to soffit level, swept with the direction of main
flow.
37

13. Minimum length of channel Chamber diameter Minimum length of channel 1200

950 1500 1050 1800 1150 2100 1300 2400 1450 2700 1550 3000 1700
14. Channel types
Channel inverts must be constructed using channel fittings for pipe diameters up to
300 mm. Clay and suitably fixed plastic channels are acceptable. Granolithic
channels formed for smaller diameter channels often are either not sufficiently
finished or the profile of the channel is not maintained, causing the accumulation of
solids and associated odour complaints and as such are not acceptable.
15. Granolithic channels above 300 mm diameter must be finished with a steel float.
Preformed plastic bases constructed within manhole rings are also not permitted.
Preformed concrete and plastic coated concrete bases are permitted.
16. Lateral connection manhole channels
Lateral connections within manholes must meet the main channel at ‘soffit-to-soffit’
level with the channel commencing 100 mm from the chamber wall. All lateral
channels must meet the main channel, swept in the direction of the main flow.
17. Manhole benching
Benching should be self-cleansing and formed with high strength concrete at a
gradient of between 1:10-1:30. To maintain a smooth flow within the main channel,
the benching must be formed vertically from the edge of the channel to at least the
crown of the pipe.
18. Stub and rocker pipes
The manhole stub pipe must terminate within 150 mm from the external face of the
manhole. The length of the rocker pipe used must correspond to the sewer diameter.
For sewers up to 600 mm diameter, the rocker length must be 500-750 mm long.
19. Setting out position of 1st ring and cover slab
The underside of the manhole ring must be situated between 50-300 mm above the
crown of the pipe. The distance from finished ground level to the top step rung
beneath the cover slab must not exceed 675 mm. A minimum distance of 150 mm
between the undersides of the cover slab to the top step iron must also be provided. It
is recommended that the site engineer sets out the cover slab, concrete base and
manhole ring levels to ensure that the above distances are provided.

20. Manhole rings and step irons

38

Manhole rings must be seated on a mortar bed and adequately pointed to prevent the
ingress of ground water. Alternatively, proprietary bitumen or mastic bedding
materials can be used. Manhole ring lifting eyes must be pointed flush with the
chamber walls.

Types of plaster by binder

There are a number of different types of plaster, depending on the binder that is used.

Gypsum plaster
Gypsum plaster, or ‘plaster of Paris’ (POP), is the most common form of plaster for
interior walls. It is produced by heating gypsum to around 150°C (300 °F). When
mixed with water, the dry plaster powder re-forms into gypsum. Unmodified plaster
starts to set about 10 minutes after mixing, but it will not be fully set until 72 hours
have elapsed. Gypsum plaster has good fire-resistant qualities.

Lime plaster
Lime plaster is a composite of calcium hydroxide (lime) and sand (or other inert
fillers). It may sometimes be strengthened with animal hair to preventing cracking
and reduce shrinkage. The plaster sets through contact with carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere which transforms the calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate
(limestone). It is typically more flexible and breathable than gypsum and cement
plasters, and is most commonly used on older properties.

Cement plaster
Cement plaster is a mixture of sand, cement and water. It is normally applied to
masonry interiors and exteriors. While it is capable of achieving a smooth surface,
interiors will sometimes require an additional finishing layer of gypsum plaster.
Cement plaster offers greater moisture resistance than gypsum plaster.

Clay plaster
Clay plaster is considered to be a more sustainable alternative to modern plasters,
with a lower embodied energy than gypsum, cement or lime based plasters. It is
available with fibre additives to increase its strength, and in a range of ‘natural’
colours. It is breathable and does not need to be painted.
39

Types of plaster by application

Plasters can also be categorized by application:
 Board finish plaster is used on plasterboard.
 Bonding plaster is used as an undercoat, applied to new walls.
 Browning plaster is used as an undercoat for particularly absorbent surfaces.
 Dri-coat plaster offers moisture resistance for walls that have had a damp
proof course (DPC) inserted or injected.
 Hardwall plaster is similar to browning plaster, but is faster drying and has
better impact resistance.
 Heat resistant plaster is used for walls and chimney breasts where
temperatures may exceed 50°C.
 Multi-finish plaster is a top coat plaster.
 One-coat plaster is typically used as a patching plaster.
 Tough coat plaster has exceptional impact resistance.

Plastering techniques
Plaster is typically built up in layers, with the number of layers depending on the
roughness of the surface being plastered. Rough, bare walls could require three coats
of plaster, while plasterboard might just require a finishing skim of 2 to 3mm.

The plaster compound, which is typically supplied dry, must first be mixed with
water, with care being taken to achieve the correct creamy consistency. Mixing is
best achieved by adding the plaster to the water, not the other way round.

The plaster can then be applied to the wall. The first coat is applied, scratched and
left to dry. This is followed by the second coat and finally a third finishing layer.

Plastering is a labour intensive and time-consuming process and as a result it has

gone into something of a decline in recent years, with techniques such as dry lining
gaining in popularity.

While plaster is durable, it can be prone to cracking if the building experiences

settlement or if it has been applied incorrectly.
40

Fig 12 Concrete Work in progress

41

Brick Ballast

Date: 16 to 22 December

Ballast is material like broken stone, gravel or any other granular material. It can, for
example be spread and packed below and around sleepers. It provides good drainage
for the track structure and holds sleepers in the correct position by preventing
movements caused by lateral load.

Types of ballast include

 Broken stone
 Kankar
 Gravel
 Moorum
 Brick ballast
 Blast furnaces slag
 Sand
 Ashes/cinders
 Selected earth

Broken stone
These are obtained from hard stones and should be strong, hard, tough, durable,
angular and do not flake when broken.

Advantages
 They are strong, durable and provide maximum stability to track.
 These can be used for high speed track.
 These types of ballast can be cheaper in the long run.

Disadvantages
 The main disadvantages of this type of ballast is that its initial cost is more.

Moorum
This is normally used as an initial ballast in new construction. It is red or sometimes
yellow in colour. It is suitable for station yards.
42

Advantages
 It is cheaper.
 It may serve as soiling when stone ballast is spread afterwards.
 Drainage is good.

Disadvantages
 It may turn into powder under heavy loads.
 It may produce dusty track.
 Maintenance of track with this type of ballast is difficult.

Sand
Coarse sand is generally used as ballast.

Advantages
 It is cheap.
 It is easily available.
 It has good drainage properties.
 It produces less noisy track.
 It will not allow vegetation to grow.
 It is used on temporary and unimportant track.

Disadvantages
 Maintenance of tracks is difficult.
 Sand may blown by wind or may washed by rain.
 It may spread due to vibrations and thus maintenance is difficult.
 It may lead to wear if it gets into the moving part of trains.

Kankar
Kankar are used as ballast where other materials are not easily available.

Advantages
 It is cheap.
 It has got good drainage properties.
43

 Used for M.G. and N.G. tracks having light traffic.

Disadvantages
 It is soft and hence it may convert into powder under heavy load.
 It may have corrosive action on rails.
 Maintenance of track is difficult.

Brick ballast
It is generally in the form of broken over burnt brick.

Advantages
 It is cheap.
 Its drainage is good.
 It prevents growth of vegetation.
 It is easily available.

Disadvantages
 It may have adverse effects on rails and metal sleepers as it may corrugate
them.
 Maintenance of track is difficult.
 It may produce a dusty track as it turns into powder under heavy load.

Ashes
These are residue obtained from coal.

Advantages
 It is very economical.
 Available in abundant quantity.
 It has very good drainage properties.

Disadvantages
 It has corrosive properties and hence affects the rails and metal sleepers.
 It may make laid track dusty as it gets easily reduced to powder under heavy
load.
44

Gravel
It is one of the best materials used as ballast next to broken stone, consisting of
smooth, round-shaped material obtained from riverbeds.

Advantages
 It is cheaper than broken stone.
 Its drainage good.
 It is useful for main lines.

Disadvantages
 Due to its rounded shape, it can easily roll down due to vibrations and this
results in loosening of sleepers.
 Washing is required if gravels are obtained from pits.
 Screening is required as there is variation in size and quality.
 Uniform grading of gravel is required.

Blast furnaces slag

A byproduct obtained from the manufacture of iron.

Advantages
 It is cheap.
 It has good drainage properties.
 It is strong and holds track in the correct gauge and alignment.

Disadvantages
 It is not available in large quantities.

Selected earth
These are indurate clay and decomposed rocks. They are used as ballast when tracks
are to be laid on new formation. After consolidation, the surface becomes hard then
good ballast is laid.

Advantages
 It prevents loss of good ballast on new formation.
 It may be used on sidings and tracks.
45

Fig 13 Brick Blast Fig 14 Sand

46

Fig 15:Lawrance pore Sand

47

Fig 16 : Aggregate
48

Bed of PCC Slab

Date: 23 to 29 December

A slab is a structural element, made of concrete that is used to create flat horizontal
surfaces such as floors, roof decks and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches
thick and supported by beams, columns, walls, or the ground.

Concrete slabs can be prefabricated off-site and lowered into place or may be poured
in-situ using formwork. If reinforcement is required, slabs can be pre-stressed or the
concrete can be poured over rebar positioned within the formwork.

Fig 17:Covering Block

49

PCC Slab Start

Date: 30 December to 5 January

Material Used in Plain Cement Concrete

The general specifications of materials used in PCC are –
Webinar on The Secret Science to Getting Rich
1. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate used in the PCC must be of hard broken stone of granite or similar
stone, free from dust, dirt and other foreign matter. The stone ballast shall be 20 mm
in size and smaller. All the coarse material should be retained in a 5mm square mesh
and should be well graded so that the voids do not exceed 42%.

2. Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate shall be of coarse sand consisting of hard, sharp and angular grains
and shall pass through a screen of 5 mm square mesh. Sand shall be of standard
specifications, clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matter. Sea sand shall not be
used.

3. Cement
Portland Pozzolana cement (P.P.C) is normally used for plain cement concrete. It
should conform to the specifications and shall have the required tensile and
compressive stresses and fineness.

4. Water
Water used shall be clean and reasonably free from injurious quantities of deleterious
materials such as oils, acids, alkalis, salts and vegetable growth. Generally, potable
water shall be used having a pH value not less than 6. The maximum permissible
limits for solids shall be as per IS 456:2000 Clause 5.4, Page No 15.
50

PCC Slab
Date: 6 to 19 January
Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate(sand) and coarse
aggregate without steel. PCC is an important component of a building which is laid
on the soil surface to avoid direct contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil and
water.

Proportioning of Plain Cement Concrete

 The proportioning is done based on the requirement or given specification.
Generally 1:2:4 or 1:3:6 mix is used.
 The measurement of material can be done by weight batching or volume
batching.
 In volume batching, coarse aggregate and sand shall be measured by
measuring box of 30cmx30cmx38cm of a suitable size equivalent to one bag
cement of 1/30 m3or 0.035 m3.
 Sand shall be measured on the basis of its dry volume.
 While measuring the aggregate, sacking, ramming or hammering shall not be
done.
51

Mixing of Plain Cement Concrete

Mixing of PCC can be done either manually or by the means of machines :

Hand Mixing
 PCC is allowed to be done by hand-mixing only for small-scale works.
 The base on which the concrete is mixed must be clean, watertight slab or a
steel platform.
 Sand and cement are mixed thoroughly followed with the addition of coarse
aggregate. Lastly, water is added and the mixture is mixed properly to gain an
even colour and consistency.

Machine Mixing
 A measured quantity of dry coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and cement shall
be placed in their respective hoppers.
 The dry materials shall be mixed in the mixing drum for at least four turns of
the drum after which the correct quantity of water shall be added gradually
while the drum is in motion.
 The total quantity of water for the mixing shall be introduced before 25% of
the mixing time has elapsed and shall be regulated to achieve the specific
water-cement ratio.
 The mixing shall be thorough to have a plastic mix of uniform colour.

Note: - The quantity of water to be used for each mix of 50kg cement to give the
required consistency shall be as follows:

 Not more than 34 lit – 1:3:6 mix

 Not more than 30 lit – 1:2:4 mix
 Not more than 27 lit – 1:1 ½:3 mix
 Not more than 25 lit – 1:1:2 mix.

Laying of Plain Cement Concrete

 The PCC is laid in the layers of not more than 150mm thick and thoroughly
vibrated by the means of mechanical vibrators till a dense concrete is
obtained.
52

 Wherever needed, hand compaction shall be done with the help of wooden
tamping rods so that concrete is thoroughly compacted and completely
walked into the corners of the formwork.
 Compaction shall be completed before the initial setting starts that is within
thirty minutes of addition of water to the dry mixture.

Curing of Plain Cement Concrete

 Freshly laid concrete shall be protected from rain by suitable covering.
 After the concrete has begun to harden- that is about one to two hours after it
has been laid- it shall be protected with moist gunny bags, sand or any other
materials against quick drying.
 After 24 hours of laying of concrete, the surface shall be cured by flooding
with water of about 25mm depth or by covering with weight absorbent
materials.
 Curing shall be done for a minimum period of 14 days

Dos and Don’ts of PCC Works Dos

 PCC shuttering should be of the exact size and thickness
 Water should be mixed with a bucket, in a measured quantity, as per w/c
(water/ cement) ratio.
 Use the chute or additional labor to pour the concrete where the depth is
more.
 Remove any loose material from the sides of the pit, so that no soil or other
material will collapse in the pit during concreting.
 If the water table is high, then de-watering should be carried out at the same
time during concreting.

Don’ts
 Do not mix the materials on bare land.
 Do not allow the PCC without formwork.
 Do not pour concrete without levelling and compacting.
53

 Do not pour concrete in the pit from a height of more than 1.5 m.
 Do not allow extra cement mortar on top of PCC. for smooth finishing.

Advantages of Laying Plain Cement Concrete

 Required cover to bottom reinforcement is ensured, as cover blocks rest on a
firm PCC.
 The effective depth of RCC members is achieved as the formworks can be
easily, uniformly and sturdily fixed, resulting in better dimension accuracy of
foundation RCC member.
 Reinforcement steel bars placed on PCC, are never in touch with the ground
soil, which may be chemically active and may lead to steel corrosion in the
immediate future.
 Ease in the placement of steel cages and increased productivity.
 Concrete does not bond with ground soil (clay); PCC acts as a barrier to soil
and bond well to overlayed structural grade concrete.

Fig 18 :PCC Slab

54

Disposal Excavation
Date: 20 to 26 January

The production of waste on a construction site is often unavoidable. In fact, in 2016,

61% of waste generated in the UK was from the construction, demolition, and
excavation industries.

However, if your business produces waste, it is legally required to properly manage it

and confirm that it’s following the waste management hierarchy, which helps you to
reduce, reuse, and recycle your waste before disposing of it. This is crucial in order
to help the UK minimize its environmental impact and reduce the demands placed on
our landfills.

To help you dispose of waste suitably and safely on a construction, demolition, or

excavation site, this article will provide you with an overview of how to follow a
suitable process.

Why is Construction Waste Management Important?

According to government statistics, in 2016 construction and demolition businesses
in the UK generated 66.2 million tonnes of waste. However, they managed to recover
60.2 million, which equates to a recovery rate of 91%. This means that, despite the
UK’s high output of waste from construction and demolition, our reuse and recycling
processes are overall positive.

To help maintain this high standard and limit how much we send to landfills, your
business must understand how to properly manage its waste. This is important
because resources are finite and you should do your part to help, particularly if they
can easily be reused or not wasted in the first place.

The benefits of proper construction waste management include:

Compliance
Under the Waste (England and Wales) Regulations 2011, it is a legal requirement for
businesses to control their waste. This applies to those that produce, import or export,
carry or transport, keep or store, treat, or dispose of waste.
55

High standards of health and safety

Proper waste handling and segregation will protect workers and members of the
public from accidents. You’ll prevent materials from being left in inappropriate
places. For example, where they could fall onto people or cause a trip hazard.

Reduced costs
Proper construction waste management reduces costs in multiple ways. You’ll reduce
spending by reusing materials and you’ll prevent double costs, which refers to paying
for a material that goes to waste and then paying again to have it removed.

Corporate social responsibility

Managing your waste will help you limit how much you generate and dispose of, as
well as ensure it’s properly processed once removed from your site. This will help to
conserve our planet’s natural resources and minimise the energy required to transport
and reprocess waste.

Improved reputation
Businesses that demonstrate they’re doing their part for the environment will develop
a positive reputation, which improves their relationships with customers and clients.
It can even help you gain opportunities with government-funded projects, which
often require certain standards of waste management.

Improved company-wide awareness

When workers adopt safe, sustainable waste management practices at work, they
may then feel compelled to apply these practices to other aspects of their work and
their personal life.

Common types of construction waste include:

 Concrete, bricks, tiles, cement, and ceramics.

 Wood, glass, and plastic.
 Insulation and asbestos materials.
 Bituminous mixtures, coal tar, and tar.
 Metallic waste (such as pipes).
 Soil, stones, and dredging.
 Paints and varnishes.
 Adhesives and sealants.
56

Screening Chamber
Date: 27 January to 2 February

The bar screen chamber is used to separate plastics and other non-decomposable
matter from incoming waste water to prevent clogging of pipelines and pumps
thereby causing break-downs

Wet Wall

Rising temperatures, increasing food demand and scarcity of water and land
resources highlight the importance of promoting the sustainable expansion of
agriculture to our urban environment, while preserving water resources. Treating
urban wastewaters, such as greywater and hydroponic wastewater, may represent a
strategic point for the implementation of urban farming, ensuring food security,
reducing pressures on water resources and promoting climate change mitigation. The
WETWALL design concept proposes a unique ecotechnology for secondary
wastewater treatment at an urban scale, which brings the novelty of a modular living
wall hybrid flow. This concept is based on the integration of two established nature-
based solutions/ecomimetic designs: constructed wetlands and a modular living
walls. First presented is an overview about the state of the art in the scope of living
walls treating wastewater, in order to identify the main design aspects related to the
performance of such systems, which mainly concerns the removal of nitrates and
phosphates. Second, the WETWALL design concept is presented. A scheme
regarding the selection of the main components, such as plants and substrate, is
proposed, and potential structure developments and operation strategies are
discussed. In addition, considering the scope of integrating the circular economy with
the design process, potential interactions between this technology and the urban
environment are discussed. The main goal of this article is to substantiate the
potential of the WETWALL design concept as an innovative wastewater treatment at
an urban scale.
57

Steel Fixing in Progress

Date: 3 to 9 February
Steel fixing is shaping and fitting the steel bars or mesh structures in construction
projects.

The steel fixing process includes:

The positioning of steel — Steel must be positioned correctly, otherwise, the strength
of the structure can be significantly weakened.

Roof
The roof is the distance from the outside of the concrete to the nearest surface of the
reinforcement. If this distance is insufficient, the steel will rust. As the steel oxidizes,
the diameter of the actual steel decreases and the strength provided by the steel
decreases. Shorten the life of the building. It is also important to maintain the
strength of reinforced concrete during the fire. Depending on the length of time,
reinforced concrete must withstand fire, the type of concrete and the location of
concrete.

Spacer
The spacer is used to maintain the cover. They keep the steel at the desired distance
from the edges of the concrete.

Fixing
Steel fixer or fixing is the steel reinforcement bars so that they remain in the
correct position with each other.

Steel must remain in place:

 When the workers walking,

 At the same time, the concrete is laid
 and during compaction.

At the intersection of the bar, they are fastened with a wire:

 It must be tight.
58

 The free ends should not protrude in the cover space.

 Before concrete, all pieces of wiring must be removed from the formwork,
otherwise soon rust spots will appear.

Bending
If the diameter is too small then it will weaken the steel. Excessive diameters can
cause problems such as lack of anchoring (a form of joint failure) or difficulty
keeping another reinforcement in the correct position.

Reinforced fasteners install reinforcing bars and meshes in reinforced concrete to

strengthen and protect buildings and other large structures during construction. They
need to decide where the reinforcement is needed and calculate the size, shape and
amount of the required reinforcement. Machinery and tools are used, including
59

cutting and bending equipment, to help place the bar .

60

Fig 19.Wet Wall

Concrete Work in Progress

Date: 10 to 16 February
Concrete is the most commonly used man-made material on earth. It is an important
construction material used extensively in buildings, bridges, roads and dams. Its uses
range from structural applications, to paviours, kerbs, pipes and drains.

Concrete is a composite material, consisting mainly of Portland cement, water and

aggregate (gravel, sand or rock). When these materials are mixed together, they form
a workable paste which then gradually hardens over time.

Benefits of concrete
There are numerous positive aspects of concrete:
 It is a relatively cheap material and has a relatively long life with few
maintenance requirements.
 It is strong in compression.
 Before it hardens it is a very pliable substance that can easily be shaped.
 It is non-combustible.

Limitations of concrete
The limitations of concrete include:
 Relatively low tensile strength when compared to other building materials.
 Low ductability.
 Low strength-to-weight ratio.
 It is susceptible to cracking.

Characteristics of concrete
The characteristics of concrete are determined by the aggregate or cement used, or by
the method that is used to produce it. The water-to-cement ratio is the determining
factor in ordinary structural concrete with a lower water content resulting in a
stronger concrete.

This, however, reduces the workability (and pumpability) of the concrete, which can
be measured using the slump test. The grading, shape, texture and proportion of
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aggregate can also have a similar affect. If a particularly strong concrete is required,
the amount of aggregate can be reduced in relation to the cement. However, cement
is a significant cost factor, and increasing its proportion in the mix will increase the
overall price.

Concrete strength
Concrete strength is determined by the force required to crush it and is measured in
pounds per square inch or kilograms per square centimetre. Strength can be affected
by many variables including moisture and temperature.

The tensile strength of concrete can be improved with the addition of metal rods,
wires, cables or mesh. Where very high tensile stresses are expected (such as in wide
unsupported spans in roofs or bridges) concrete can include pretensioned steel wires.
This creates compressive forces in the concrete that help offset the tensile forces that
the structure is subject to.

Sacrificial probes can be integrated within concrete to provide strength determination

and this is likely to help improve construction methodologies.

Formwork
Formwork is a temporary mould into which concrete is poured and formed.
Traditional formwork is fabricated using timber, but it can also be constructed from
steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics and other materials.

Formwork may be; temporary, re-usable, or stay-in-place. There are also a number of
proprietary systems such as those used to support vertical formwork while concrete
cures, consisting of a series of tubes and ties.

Efficiency within concrete construction is being improved by the adoption of hybrid

solutions and innovations in formwork such as self-climbing forms.

Sustainability
Concrete has a relatively high embodied energy, resulting from its extraction,
manufacture and transportation. Waste materials can be included within the concrete
mix such as Recycled Crushed Aggregate (RCA), Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace
Slag (GGBS) and Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA).
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In addition, moves are being made to assess the potential of using recycled concrete,
however, issues such as moisture content and material variability may make this
unviable.

Concrete is a very durable, low maintenance material and can provide thermal mass,
helping reduce the energy consumption of buildings in operation.

TYPES OF CONCRETE
Date :17-23 February 2021

1. PLAIN OR ORDINARY CONCRETE

Main constituent materials of this type concrete are cement, aggregate and water. As
the reinforcement is missing in this type of concrete, it is suitable for the structures in
which high tensile strength is not necessary.

2. REINFORCED CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete is introduced to rectify the issue in plain concrete that is
introduction of reinforcement to the plain concrete. Reinforcement is provided by
steel rods, wire mesh or steel rods. The combination of rebar and plain concrete
withstand the tensile, compressive force and behave as a single material. Nowadays
most of the building structures use this type of concrete.

3. LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Lightweight concrete is a type of concrete which contains an expanding agent. That
expanding agent is the lightweight aggregate of lightweight concrete. That agent
increases the volume of the concrete mixture and reduces the dead weight of the
mixture. Lightweight concrete is prepared using light weight aggregates such as
pumice, scoria, shales and clays. Lightweight concrete is a good fire resistive
material but lightweight concrete is sensitive to water, takes much time for the
preparation and can be breakable like a glass material (brittleness).

4. HIGH DENSITY CONCRETE

High density concrete is prepared using crushed rocks to provide heavy weight
concrete mixture. This type of concrete is commonly used in structures where
radiations are needed to be controlled.
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5. PRECAST CONCRETE
Precast concrete means concrete is prepared then cast on reusable moulds and cured
on a factory. Normally structural components are prepared using precast concrete.

6. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is used to prepare structural elements such as floor beams,
railway sleepers, piles and etc. Prestressed concrete element is prepared by applying
the determined stress in advance to prevent the stress that will be applied on the same
element by loading. The prestressed concrete withstands the load by the induced
stress in the whole prestressed concrete element.

7. GLASS REINFORCED CONCRETE

Glass reinforced concrete is prepared from a concrete matrix which containing
strengthened alkali resistant glass fibres. The composite material performs well to
withhold the weight of load. This type of concrete is used in exterior cladding works.

8. AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE
Air-entrained concrete is prepared by applying air entraining admixtures to the
concrete mixture when it is prepared. A certain percentage of tiny air bubbles are
introduced to the plain concrete as to create chambers for water to expand into when
it freezes. Purposes of air entrained concrete are increasing the durability of the
hardened concrete during climatic conditions such as freeze thaw and to increase the
workability of concrete in plastic state.

9. SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

Self compacting concrete needs a mechanical support to spread the concrete mixture
as the Self compacting concrete is a non-segregating or non flowing concrete
mixture. Now-a- days complex structural frames uses this type of concrete.
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9. SMART CONCRETE
Smart concrete is introduced as the stress or strain can be identified before the
concrete structure fails or they help to heal the cracks as the cracks can be
identified at the initial stage.

Fig 20
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CHAPTER-3
Working Experience
I have gained good working experience by working with SIA Engineers and Contractors
during my internship. I worked as a Supervisor in this organization. I have gained confidence
by talking to the seniors and workers. It will definitely help me to achieve my goals in the
future.

3.1 Project carried out (If Assigned by on-the-Job Trainer)

This project hand over April 2021 and there are two reason why the project hand over
occurs. It can be scheduled part of a project plane whereby at the end of a certain phase
The Project Handed Over to Another Term for The Father Work or Indeed for final delivery
to the client themselves.

3.2 Hand on Skill acquired

The list of hands on Skill is given below.

 Problem Solving Skills

Problem solving is all about using logic, to make sense of a situation and come up with an
intelligent solution. In fact, the best problem solvers actively anticipate potential future
problems.

 Time management skill

Without proper time management skills, you simply lack the capacity to organize your time.
That’s why the time management is the key of success.

 Strong work ethic

Having a strong work ethic involves upholding the values and goals of the company by
performing your job to the best of your ability. It means focusing on completing assigned
tasks on time.
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 Self confidence

Everyone like self-confident person. Self-confident people seem at ease with their work.
They invite trust and inspire confidence in others. There are attractive qualities of a self-
confident person.

 Communication skills

Developing your communication skills can help all aspects of your life, from your
professional life to social gatherings and everything in between.

 Critical thinking
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully applying,
analyzing, and evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reasoning, or communication.

 Motivation Skills

Successfully motivating others is an important skill. Employees can use motivation skills to
increase their chances of getting positive results when interfacing with customers, upper
management, suppliers, team members, and supervisors.

 Ability to wok under pressure

The ability to work under pressure involves dealing with constraints which are often outside
of your control - these might be resource or time constraints, the difficulty of the task or
having insufficient knowledge required to complete the task.
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3.3 Problem Encountered

Find below the list some of the most common problems that project teams
face.
 Lack of trust
Trust is crucial to teamwork, and it starts with people knowing each other. Team members
absolutely need to be acquainted, both professionally and personally, particularly in
projects where tensions will run high at some point.

 Conflict and tension

Conflict of opinion can be healthy and, if carefully managed. It can make people think
differently and expanding knowledge.

 Low engagement
Team engagement is crucial to business success. If engaged, team members on a given
project will be interested in what they do, committed to the project mission. They are there
in body as well as mentally and emotionally.

 Poor management

Change is constant and unless carefully managed. Change starts and ends with
communication. Whenever you think you’ve communicated enough, you need to
communicate some more – and it needs to be interactive.
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3.4 Problem Solving Process

 Define the problem

Reviewing and documenting how processes currently work (i.e., who does what, with what
information, using what tools, communicating with what organizations and individuals, in
what time frame, using what format).

 Generate alternative solutions

Postpone the selection of one solution until several problem-solving alternatives have been
proposed. Considering multiple alternatives can significantly enhance the value of your
ideal solution. Once you have decided on the "what should be" model, this target standard
becomes the basis for developing a road map for investigating alternatives.

 Evaluate and select an alternative

Skilled problem solvers use a series of considerations when selecting the best alternative.
They consider the extent to which:

 A particular alternative will solve the problem without causing other unanticipated
problems.

Leaders may be called upon to direct others to implement the solution. Involving others in
the implementation is an effective way to gain buy-in and support and minimize resistance
to subsequent changes.
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3.5 Supervisory Works

In an Organization a Supervisor overseas the day-to-day performance of employees.

Successful Supervisor should have an excellent Organizational and communication skills.
These skills help them transfer information from upper management to employees and
communicate their team performance or need to high level manager.

3.6 Quality Management System in place

A Quality management system (QMS) is a systematic process to achieve quality for his
organization. In the QMS an Organization process his policies which continuously focus on
meeting member requirement and improving in satisfaction.

3.7 Safety at Work

In an Organization the safety work is very important. A safe and healthy work place is not
only protecting workers from injury it can also reduce the expenses incurred on injury. It
can also increase the turnover, productivity, quality and raise the employee morale. During
work to wear safety belt and safety helmet is a perfect example of safety.
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CHAPTER-4
4.1 Conclusion

It was a wonderful and learning experience for me which working on this

project. This project took me through many phases of project development and
give me real experience of this organization. The joy of work and the thrill
involved while tackling the various problems and challenges gave me a feel of
develops organization. After completing this project, I have acquired a lot of
knowledge. It was a very pleasant experience for me in making this project.
4.2 References
 Get help with internship report format.

 A text book of Building Construction

 https:// Wikipedia

 Get some help from senior.

4.3 Appendix
SBC:
SBC is stand for Safe Bearing Capacity. Bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the
loads, maximum pressure which can be supported without failure.

QMS:
QMS is stand for Quality Management System. A quality management system (QMS) is
defined as a formalized system that documents processes, procedures, and responsibilities
for achieving quality policies and objectives.

PCC
PCC is stand for Plain Cement Concrete. Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement,
fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate without steel. PCC is an important component
of a building which is laid on the soil surface to avoid direct contact of reinforcement of
concrete with soil and water.

RCC
Reinforced concrete (RC), also called reinforced cement concrete (RCC), is a composite
material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated
for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility.
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4.4 My Performance during executing the work

Absolutely good! The reason behind this performance was that I integrated with all
workers within a short time and get involved in different site works to gain more
knowledge about the working environment in the site and improved myself with
more site works and office work. Since the site work was very repetitive, I was
working in different section to get involved and pass-through different piece of
works. Especially the work tasks I was performing in the office work were very
impressive because I didn’t have any knowledge about the quantity works, cost and
report writing etc. In general, in the last four months I performed all my duties
sincerely and nicely and got knowledge of the practical world and relate it with the
theory I have learned in the class in the last three years. Also, I transformed myself to
another level of skill, ethics, knowledge and leadership using this internship class
and I performed it well
Final Comments:

Summer training is very useful in the engineering. It plays a major role in the student life.
Without practical knowledge a student cannot be a successful engineer. For me this training is a
completion of my study. At site i learnt, what is the use of my theoretical knowledge that i got in
my university.
I think there is improvement in my knowledge due to training. Here i came to know what type of
new technologies is present to do a work on site with an easy way.

Again Thanks to

Public Health Engineering Department Jhang