Faculty of Science

Alexandria University

Motion in a Central Field Potentials

Submitted by

Mohamed Adel Saied Mohamed El-Bassiouny

ID:20141437950

Under Supervision of

Professor Salah Badawi Doma

Department of Mathematics
Applied Mathematics

2019

1
 Contents

1 Angular Momentum
2 Separation of Schrödinger
Equation in Polar Coordinates
3 Motion in A Central Potential
4 Examples of Central Potential
5 Hydrogen Atom

2
 Angular momentum

Introduction

Angular momentum plays a central role in both classical and quantum

mechanics. In classical mechanics, all isolated systems conserve angular
momentum (as well as energy and linear momentum); this fact reduces
considerably the amount of work required in calculating trajectories of
planets, rotation of rigid bodies, and many more.
Similarly, in quantum mechanics, angular momentum plays a central
role in under- standing the structure of atoms, as well as other quantum
problems that involve rotational symmetry.
Like other observable quantities, angular momentum is described in
QM by an operator. This is in fact a vector operator, similar to momen-
tum operator. However, as we will shortly see, contrary to the linear mo-
mentum operator, the three components of the angular momentum opera-
tor do not commute.
In QM, there are several angular momentum operators: the total angu-
lar momentum (usually denoted by ~ J), the orbital angular momentum
(usually denoted by ~ L) and the intrinsic, or spin angular momentum
(denoted by ~ S). This last one (spin) has no classical analogue. Confus-
ingly, the term “angular momentum” can refer to either the total angular
momentum, or to the orbital angular momentum.
.

3
o Orbital angular momentum
Let us consider particle of mass . we denote by its momentum and
by its position vector with respect to a fixed origin . In classical me-
chanics the orbital angular momentum of this particle with respect to is
defined as a vector .
( )

This vector points in direction at right angles to the plane containing

and , and is of magnitude , where is the angle between
and .
Now, in Cartesian coordinates ( )

| | ( )

} ( )

The corresponding operators representing and in quantum

mechanics are obtained by replacing and by the appropri-
ate operators obeying the fundamental commutation relations. Using the
position representation of wave mechanics, such that ̂ ̂ ̂

and ̂ ̂ ̂

We find that the operators and are given by

. /

. / ( )

. / }

4
 In other words, the orbital angular momentum is represented in the
position representation of wave mechanics by the vector operator

( ) ( )

The commutation relations satisfied by and are

[̂ ̂ ] ̂

[̂ ̂ ] ̂

[̂ ̂ ] ̂

Let us derive the rules for commutation of the angular momentum op-
erators with coordinates,

, - ( ) ( ) { ( )( ) ( ( ))}

{ }

, -
Hence similarly,

, - ( ) ( ) { ( )( ) ( ( ))}

, -

, - ( ) ( ){ ( )( ) ( ( ))}

, -
Similarly

, - , - , -
[ ] [ ] [ ]
, - , - , -

5
Proof of the relation [ ̂ ̂ ] ̂

[ ] ( ) ( )

{( )( )

( )( )}

{( )}

{ }

[ ] { }

Hence
[ ̂]

Similarly
[̂ ̂ ] ̂

[̂ ̂ ] ̂

The operator representing the square of the magnitude of the orbital

angular momentum is defined as

Now finding , - [ ]
Since the commentator of with itself vanishes,
We have , - and
, - [ ]
[ ] , -
[ ] [ ] , - , -

6
 ( ) ( )
The orbital angular momentum operators in spherical polar coordi-
nates ( ) which are related to the Cartesian coordinate ( )

Where
Now Angular momentum in spherical coordinates obtained by

. /

. / ( )

0 . / 1 ( )

(to be proved)

It should be noted that and are purely angular operators,

which do not operate on the radial coordinate .
Therefore, these operators commute with any function of r
, ( )- [ ( )] , ( )- , ( )-

To prove equations

( )

7
 The spherical polar coordinates ( ) of a paint the
position vector of with respect to the origin is .

} [ ]

√
√

( )

Since ( )

Diff
( ) ( )
( )

⁄ ( ) ⁄
⁄
√

8
 ⁄ ( ) ⁄

√ ( )

( )
( )

Similarly,

√ ( )

( )

and

( )

⁄
( )

( )

and

diff

( )

Using equations (9), ..., (16) in equations (8) we get

9
Since ̂ . /

̂ ( )

̂ 64 5 7

̂ [ ]

̂ . /

̂ [ ]

[ ]

̂ [ ]

̂ [

[ ]

10
Since

8( )( )

( )( ) 9

8 4 5

4 5

4 5

4 5 9

8 9

8 ( ) 9

11
 Separation of Schrödinger equation in polar coordinates

Al though they are applications of quantum mechanics in which Car-

tesian coordinates can be usefully embayed, many interesting physical
systems particularly atoms and nuclei, are much more nearly spherical
than they are rectangular. Spherically symmetric systems, where the po-
tential ( ) is independent of the direction of , are usually best treated
using spherical polar coordinates.

Schrödinger equation ( ) ( )

Schrödinger equation can be written in spherical polar coordinates as

6 ( ) ( ) 7 ( )

( )
We now proceed to separate the variables. We first put ( )
( ) ( ), substitute into ( ), divide through by ( ) ( )and mul-
tiply by to get

6 ( ) 7

6 ( ) 7 ( )

The contents of the first square bracket are independent of and

those of the second are independent of so they must be separately
equal to constants, and the sum of the two constants must be equal to
we call this constants – and obtain

. / . / ( )

and

12
 . / ( )

Equation ( ) does not contain the potential this means that if we can
solve ( )for ( ), the solution will represent the angular parts of the
wave functions for any spherically symmetric potential ( ) and we then
'only' have to solve the radial equation ( ) to complete the wave function
in a particular case. We shall now show how the general solutions to ( )
are obtained and return to the solution of the radial equation for particular
potentials later.
Continuing the separation process, we put ( )
( ) ( ),substitute into ( ),multiply through by ⁄ we get.

0 . / 1 0 1 ( )

The equation ( ) isseparated, so they must each be equal to a constant.

We call these constants – and get

. / ( )

and

( )

The solution of ( ) is giving

( ⁄ ) ⁄
0 1 ( )

Where is constant. We can now apply the condition that the wave
function and hence , must be single Valued so that
( ) ( )

( ⁄ ) ⁄
Thus 0 1
⁄
So that ( ⁄ ) ( )

Where is an integer which can be positive or negative or Zero. sub-

stituting back into ( ), we get

13
 ( ) ⁄ ( )
So that ( )

⁄
Where the factor ( ) is included as a first step to normalizing the
wave function; it ensures that

∫ | | ( )

We have now completed the solution of one of the three differential

equations and obtained one quantum condition ( ) along with one quan-
tum number, .
Returning to the equation for ( ) we can substitute from ( ) and
rearrange to get

. / ( ) ( )

Where ⁄ The solution of this equation is made simpler if

we make the substitution.
( ) ( )

( )

equation( ) then becomes

0( ) 1 0 1 ( )

we first consider the simpler special case where is equal to Zero

equation ( ) is then

0( ) 1 ( )

Let ∑

[( ) ] ∑( )

14
 ∑ ( ) ∑ ( )

∑ ( )( ) ∑ ( ) ( )

Substitute from ( ) into ( )

∑{ ( )( ) ( ( ) )}

This can be true only if the coefficient of each power of is Zero, so

we obtain the recurrence relation
( )
( )
( )( )

Thus, for large the series is identical to the Taylor expansion of the
function ( ) which diverges to infinity at the point such a
divergence in the wave function is not consistent with physical boundary
conditions.
It can be avoided if the series terminates at some finite value of , say
, and if when is odd and when is even. We there
fore obtain the second quantum condition.

( ) ( )

Where is an integer which is greater than (or) equal to Zero. Thus

now written as These polynomials are known as the Legendre poly-
nomials. Explicit forms corresponding to particular values of can be ob-
tained from (18) and (17); for example:

15
 ( )
( )
( ) ⁄ ( )

( ) ⁄ ( ) ( )

( ) ⁄ ( )

( ) ⁄ ( )
}
Now retiring to equation ( )
( ) . ( ) / ( )

Observe that for ( ) reduces to Legendre's equation the DE( )

and its solutions, called associated Legendre functions can be developed
directly from Legendre's equation and its solutions to show this, we will
need the Leibniz formula for the derivative of a product

( ) ∑ . / ( )

if is a solution of Legendre's equation, that is, if

( ) ( ) ( )

we wish to show that ( ) ( )

is then a solution of ( ).By taking derivatives of( )

[( ) ] ( ) ( )

which, by applying the Leibniz formula ( ) becomes

( ) ( )

4 5 ( )

Collecting like terms gives us

16
 ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( )- ( )

Where for notational convenience we have set by introducing

the new variable ( ) ⁄ , or equivalently

( ) ⁄

We find that ( ) takes the form

( ) [ ( ) ⁄ ] ( ) [ ( ) ⁄ ]

, ( ) ( )- ( ) ⁄ ( )

Carrying out the indicated derivatives in ( ) leads to

⁄ ⁄ ⁄
[ ( ) ] ̀( ) ( )

. ̀ /( ) ⁄ ( )

and similarly

⁄
( ̀ ) ( ) ⁄
[ ( ) ] 6 ̀ 7( ) ( )
( )

finally, the substitution of ( ) and ( ) into ( ) and cancellation of

the common factor ( ) ⁄ then yield
( ̀ ) ( )
( )6 7
( )

( ) . ̀ / , ( ) ( )-

( )
( ) ( )

( )
, ( ) ( )-

( ( ) ( ))
( ) , ( ) -

( ) 0 ( ) 1 ( )

17
Which is equation ( )
We defined the associated Legendre functions by ( )
| |⁄ | |
| |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( )

(Note: is not a power in this case)

We can use ( ) to obtain a condition restricting the allowed values of
is a polynomial of degree so its | | derivative, and hence
| |, will be Zero if | | is greater than But if | |is Zero, the
whole wave function must be Zero over all space, and this is physically
un realistic.
We therefore have the condition ( )
We have now solved in and so we can combine the solutions
to obtain expressions for the angular part of the wave function which we
now write ( ) the suffices and emphasizing the importance of
these quantum numbers in characterizing the function. We have
⁄
( )( | |) | |
( ) ( ) 6 7 ( )
( | |)
( )
Where it can be shown that the factor in square brackets ensures nor-
malization of the function when it is integrated over all solid angles, that
is

∫ ∫ | ( )| ( )

The phase factor ( ) in ( ) are arbitrary. but chosen in accordance

with established convention. The functions are known as spherical
harmonics.
Explicit expressions for the spherical harmonics with less than or
equal to tub are given below and their shapes

18
 ( ) ⁄
⁄
. /
⁄
. /
( )
⁄
. / ( )
⁄
. /
⁄
. / }

Figure-2

19
o The Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions of and
Let us consider a single particle for which the orbital angular momen-
tum operator is given by ( )
We know that the operator commutes with any component of but
the two components of can not accurately be known simultaneously.
Thus simultaneous Eigen function of and of one of its components can
be found. Since we have seen that the components of as wall as are
purely angular operators ( ) More over, because the expression for
issimpler than those for and in spherical polar coordinates, it is
convenient to look for simultaneous Eigen functions of and of the
component
We notice that is identical to the differential equation determining
the angular dependent part of the energy Eigen function in central field.
It follows directly that the Eigen values of are
( )
Where isa positive integer ( ) Zero and the corresponding Eigen
functions are
⁄
( | |) | |
( ) ( ) 6 7 ( )
( | |)
Now using

So the function are the simultaneous Eigen functions of and

that we have been looking for the Eigen values of are given by
where

20
 Motion in Central Potentials

The study of non-relativistic motion of spineless particle of mess in a

central potential (that is a potential ( ) which depends only on the mag-
nitude of the position vector) .We shall see that the properties of the or-
bital angular momentum obtained in chapter 1 are of particular
importance in this analysis.
Our first task is to express the Hamiltonian Operator

( )

In these coordinates. The potential energy ( ) is already given in polar

coordinates , ( ) may be written in these coordinates as

0 . / . / 1 ( ) ( )

or

0 . / 1 ( ) ( )

Where is given by ( ). The corresponding time independent

Schrödinger equation is

2 0 . / 1 ( )3 ( ) ( ) ( )

In order to simplify the solution of this equation, we first recall that the
operators and do not operate on the radial variable Hence,
( ) we have , ( ) -
, ( ) - Moreover, and also commute with the kinet-
ic energy operator and remembering that , - Therefore,
, - , -
21
 Remembering that the operators and do not commute among
themselves, we see that a set of commuting operators can be taken to be
and any one of and Taking this set to be and it
follows that it is possible to find simultaneous eigenfunctions of these
three operators, or in other words to obtain solutions of the Schrödinger
equation ( ) which are also Eigenfunctions of and Since the
spherical harmonics ( ) are simultaneous Eigen functions of and
we can look for solutions of the Schrödinger equation having the sepa-
rable form
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Where ( ) is a radial function which remains to be found. It is

worth stressing that the angular dependence of the Eigen function ( ) is
entirely given by the spherical harmonic ( ) it is the proper one as-
sociated with Eigenvalues of and characterized by the orbital angu-
lar momentum quantum number andthe magnetic quantum number
These two quantum numbers, together with the energy can thus be
used to 'label' the Eigen function
Inserting ( ) into the Schrödinger equation ( ) and using the fact
that ( ) ( ) ( ) we obtain for the radial function
the differential equation
We obtain for the radial function the differential equation
( )
0 . / ( )1 ( ) ( ) ( )

Note that the magnetic quantum number does not appear in this
equation. The radial function is therefore independent of this quantum
number. For this reason we have written ( ) ( ) and equation
( ) becomes

22
 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

We introduce the new radial function

( ) ( ) ( )

Using ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
0 . / ( )1 ( )

̀ ( ̀ ̀) ( ̀ )
. / . / ( )

Using ( ) in Radial equation ( )we obtain

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( )
Where ( ) ( )

Is an effective potential which, in addition to the interaction potential

( ) also contains the repulsive centrifugal barrier term
( ) ⁄ .The equation( ) is then identical in form to the one-
dimensional Schrödinger equation .

23
The Most Important Examples of Central Potential

1. The Free Particle

We shall now look for solutions of the free particle Schrödinger equa-
tion of the form ( ), that is simultaneous Eigenfunction of and
corresponding to definite values of and . The free particle radial
function ( ) are therefore solutions of the radial equation ( ) with
( )
( )
0 1 ( ) ( )

Where ⁄ using( )and the fact that in the present case the

( )
effective potential is just centrifugal barrier term ⁄ .

We see that the free-particle functions ( ) ( ) are solutions of

the differential equation

( )
0 1 ( ) ( )

Let us first consider the case . From ( ) we see immediately

that the solution ( ) which vanishes at the
origin( ( ) )
Up to a multiplicative constant, by ( ) so that
( )
For the equation ( ) is more difficult to solve and it is conven-
ient to return to the radial equation ( ) which can be solved in terms of
known functions for all values of ( ) Indeed, if we change

24
variables in ( ) to and white ( ) ( ) we obtain for
( ) the equation
( )
0 . /1 ( ) ( )

Which is called the spherical Bessel differential equation. Particular

solutions of this equations are the spherical Bessel function .
⁄
( ) . / ⁄ ( ) ( )

And the spherical Neumann function

⁄
( ) ( ) . / ⁄ ( ) ( )

The functions ( ) and ( ) are also given by the expressions

( ) ( ) . / ( )

And ( ) ( ) . / ( )

From the above equations, the first few functions ( ) and ( ) are
readily found to be
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( ) . / ( ) . / ( )

These functions are plotted in the Figure-3.

25
 Figure-3

We may also use equations ( ) to obtain the leading term of ( )

and ( ) for small and Large values of .
For small . upon expanding and in a power series in ,
it is found that

( )⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )
( )
( )
( )⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )

26
 Asymptotically, for Large values of , the leading term is that propor-
tional to , and one obtains

( )⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . / ( )

( )⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . / ( )

Equations ( ) are in fact useful approximations for some what larg-

er than ( ) .
For every the two functions * ( ) ( )+ provide a pair of linearly
in dependent solutions of the spherical Bessel differential equation, so the
general solution of this equation can be written as a linear combination of
these two functions Another pair of linearly independent solutions is giv-
en by the spherical functions of the first and second kinds, which
are defined respectively by

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
And ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 ( )1 ( )

The first few spherical functions of the first kind are

( )
( ) ( )

( )
( ) . / ( )

( )
( ) . / ( )

Using ( )and ( ) we also find that the asymptotic behavior of the

spherical functions is given by

27
 ( ) ,( )-
( )⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )

( ) , ( )-
( )⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )

As seen from ( ) the spherical Neumann function ( ) has a pole of

order at the origin and is there fore an irregular solution of
tion( ). From their definition ( ). We note that the spherical
function, which contain ( ). Are also irregular solution of ( ). On the
other hand, the spherical Bessel function ( ) is finite at the origin and is
thus a regular solution of ( ). In fact, is finite everywhere, so the
radial Eigen function of the Schrödinger equation for a free partied is

( ) ( ) ( )

Where a constant
Hence, the full Eigen function of the free particle in spherical polar co-
ordinates as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

These wave function will be called spherical waves. The Eigen Values
of ( ) can take on any value in the interval ( ), so that energy

Can assume any value in this interval, and the spectrum is continuous.
Every free-particle Eigen function ( ) can thus be labeled by the two
discrete indices land and by the continuous index ( ). Since for
affixed value of the Eigen functions ( ) are labeled by the two quan-
tum numbers land , such that

28
 2. The Three-Dimensional Square Well Potential
the next example of central potential which we shall analyze is the
three-dimensional spherically symmetric square wall of depth and
range

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Figure-4

Where and are positive constants. The corresponding effective

potential ( ) is shown in Fig. and we shall only be interested in the
bound states, for which the energy is such that .
Because the potential ( ) is central we know that there exist solutions
of the Schrödinger equation hawing the form ( ).
The radial functions ( ) are solutions of the differential equation
( ), which in the present case becomes

29
 ( )
0 . / 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

and
( )
0 . / 1 ( ) ( ) ( )

Let us first analyze the equation ( ), which holds inside the will
( ). If we define the quantity
⁄
0 ( )1 ( )

Change variables to , write ( ) ( ) we find that for

the radial function ( ) satisfies the spherical Bessel differential
equation. Just as in the case of free particle, the condition that ( ) must
be finite every where including at the origin-restricts us to the spherical
Bessel function and we have, inside the wall,
( ) ( ) ( )

where is a constants.
We now turn to equation ( ), which is valid outside the will
( ). This equation is for wall identical to the free particle equation,
but we must remember that in the present case. It convenient to
write ( ) so that
⁄
. / ( )

The general solutions of ( ) are similar to ( ) but is now an

imaginary number that is we must replace by and, hence, the solu-
tion are given by Linear combinations of ( )and ( )
( ) , ( ) ( )- ( )

Where B is normalization constant

( )
From ( ) we see that the first threefunction ( ) are
( )
( ) ( )

30
 ( )
( ) . / ( )

( )
( ) . / ( )

The solutions that need to be retained in ( ) must be finite every

where, as can be in freed from ( )
( )
Only the functions of first kind ( ) are finite at Large
( )
Values of the function ( ( ) diverge for Large Values of ). Thus,
the wave functions outside the well that are physically meaningful are
those expressed in terms of the functions of the first kind

( ) √
( ) 4 5

√ √
( ) ( ) ( )

The continuity of the radial function and its derivative at

( ) ( )
( )
( ) | ( ) | ( )
( )

For the states, this equation reduces to

( )
This continuity condition is analogous to the transcendental equation ob-
tained when study the one-dimensional finite square well potential.
The negative energy case corresponds to the continuous spectrum (un-
bound or scattering states), where the solution is asymptotically oscillato-
ry. The solution consists of a linear combination of ( ) and ( ),
⁄
( )

Since the solution must be finite everywhere, the continuity condition at

determines the coefficients of the linear combination. The particle
can move freely to infinity with a finite kinetic energy ⁄

31
 3. The Isotropic Harmonic Oscillator
The radial Schrödinger equation for a particle of Mass in an iso-
tropic harmonic Oscillator potential
( ) ( )

Is obtained

( ) ( )
0 1 ( ) ( ) ( )

Solving the equation by examining the behavior of the solutions at the

asymptotic limits ( ). On the one
hand, when the and terms become too small com-
pared to the ( ) term. Hence reduces to
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

( )
The solution of this equation are of the form ( ) . On the
other hand, when , the and ( ) terms become to
small compared to the term; hence the asymptotic form of ( )
when is
( )
( ) ( )

Which admits solutions of type ( ) combining ( ) ( )

we can write the solution of ( ) as
( ) ( ) ( )

Where ( ) is function of .
Substituting this expression into ( ) to obtain an equation for ( )

( ) ( )
( ) [ ( ) ] ( ) ( )

32
Let try a power series solution
( ) ∑ ( )

Substituting this function in to ( ), we obtain

∑ 2 ( ) . / 0 ( ) 1 3 ( )

Which in turn reduces to

∑ 2 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 3 ( )

For this equation to hold, the coefficient of various powers of must

vanish separately. For instance, when the coefficient of is in-
deed Zero:
( ) ( )

Note that need not be Zero for this equation to hold. The coefficient
of corresponds to in ( ); for this coefficient to vanish, we
must have
( ) ( )

Since ( ) cannot be zero, because the quantum number is a

positive integer, must vanish.
The coefficient of results from the relation

∑ {( )( ) [ ( )] } ( )

Which leads to the recurrence formula

( )( ) 0 ( )1 ( )

This recurrence formula shows that all coefficients corresponding to

odd values of are zero, since ( ( )). The function ( )
must therefore contain only even powers of
( ) ∑ ∑ ( )

Where all coefficients with are proportional to

33
 Now note that when the function ( ) diverges, for it behaves
asymptotically like To obtain a finite solution, we must require the
series ( ) to stop at a maximum power hence it must be polynomial.
For this, we require to be zero. Thus, setting into the re-
currence formula ( ) and since we obtain at once the

( ) ( )

or
. / ( )

Where is even ( ( )) Denoting by where we

rewrite this energy expression as

. / ( ) ( )

Where

The ground state, whose energy is is not degenerate; the

first excited state, is threefold degenerate; and the second ex-

cited state, is sixfold degenerate ( ). As show in the
following example, the degeneracy relation for the level is given by

( )( ) ( )

Finally, since the radial wave function is given by ( ) ( )

where ( ) is listed in ( ) with ( ) being a polynomial in of de-
gree ( ) the total wave function for the isotropic harmonic oscilla-
tor is
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

34
 Table Energy levels and degeneracies for an isotropic harmonic
oscillator.

Where takes only odd or only even values. For instance, the ground
state corresponds to ( ) ( ) its wave function is
⁄
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
√√
The ( ) configuration of the first, second, and third excited states
can be determined as follows. The first excited state has three degenerate
states: ( ) with The second excited states has degener-
ate states: ( ) and ( ) with The third excited
state has degenerate states: ( ) with and ( )
where Some of these wave functions are given
by
⁄
( ) ( ) ( ) √ ( ) ( ) ( )
√
⁄
( ) ( ) ( ) √ ( ) ( ) ( )( )
√
⁄
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
√ √

35
 The Hydrogen Atom

The hydrogen atom consists of an electron and a proton. The wave

function then depends on six coordinates ( ) and ( )
where and are the electron and proton position vectors, respectively.
The time-independent Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom is
given by

[ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( )

Where and are the Laplacians with respect to the proton and the
electron, and ( ) is the potential (interaction) between the electron and
the proton is given by the coulomb potential:

( ) ( )

And E is the total energy of the electron-proton system. Since de-

pends only on the relative distance between the electron and the proton,
instead of the coordinates and it is more appropriate to use the coor-

dinates of the center of the mass, ⃗ ⃗ and the relative co-

ordinates of the electron with respect to the proton, ⃗ .The

transformation from to ⃗ is given by

⃗ ( )

We can verify that the Laplacians and are related to

as flows: ( )

Where ( )

36
 are the total and reduced masses, respectively then the time-
independent Schrödinger equation becomes

0 ( )1 ( ⃗ ) (⃗ ) ( )

(⃗ ) (⃗ ) ( ) ( )

substituting this wave function into ( ) and dividing by ( ⃗ ) ( ) we

obtain

[ ( )] 0 ( ) ( )1 ( )
(⃗ ) ( )

The first bracket depends only on ⃗ where as the second Bracket de-
pends only on Since ⃗ and are independent vectors, we can reduce
( ) to the following two separate equations:

(⃗ ) (⃗ ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

With the condition

Equation ( ) shows that the centre of mass moves like a free particle
of mass The solution has the form
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
(⃗ ) ( ) ⁄
( )

Where ⃗ is the wave vector associated with the centre of mass. The
constant given the kinetic energy of the centre of mass
in the system.
The second equation ( ) represents the Schrödinger equation of a fic-
titious particle of mass moving in the central potential ⁄
The Schrödinger equation ( ) for the relative motion has the form of
an equation for a central potential.
The wave function ( ) that is a salutation to this equation is a product
of an angular part and a radial part. The angular part is given by the
37
spherical harmonic ( ). The radial part ( ) can be obtained by
solving the following radial equation
( )
0 1 ( ) ( ) ( )

Where ( ) ( )
Consider asymptotic behavior of the radial function for very small val-
ues of ( ) reduces to
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Whose solutions are of the form

( ) ( )

where A and B are constants. Since ( ) vanishes at the se-

cond term which diverges at must be discarded, thus for small
the solution is
( ) ( )

Now, in the limit of very large values of by approximate ( )

( )

For bound state solutions, which correspond to the states where the
electron and the proton are bound together, the energy E must be nega-
tive.
Hence, the solution takes the form ( )

Where √ ( )
Since diverges for large values of so, for large values of ( )
behaves like
( ) ( )

The solutions to ( ) can be obtained by

( ) ( ) ( )

Where ( ) is dependent function.

38
 Substituting ( ) into ( ) we end up with a differential equation that
determines the form of ( )
( )
. / 0 1 ( ) ( )

let ( ) ∑ ( )

∑ ∑ ( ) ( )

Substituting ( ) ( ) into ( ) we get

∑ 2 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 3
( )
Indicial equation
(( )
( )

∑ ( )

equation ( ) leads to the following recurrence relation (by changing

to in the last term):

( ) 0 ( ) 1 ( )

, ( ) -
Hence ( )

To obtain physically acceptable solutions, the series ( ) must termi-

nate at a certain power N. Hence, the function ( ) becomes a polynomi-
al of order
( ) ∑ ( )

This requires that all coefficients have to vanish.

When the recurrence formula yields

39
 ( ) ( )

Since √ and using the notation

( )

where is known as the principal quantum number and as the radial

quantum number, we can infer the energy

( )

Which it can written as

( )

Where is the Bohr radius is given by

and can written in terms of as follows:

√ √ ( )

Since the allowed values of are non integers

.For a given values of the orbital quantum
number can have values only between and
( )
The physically acceptable solution of equation ( ) may be expressed
in terms of associated Laguerre polynomials is defined by
( ) ( ) ( )

where

( ) ( ) ( )

40
We can verify that ( ) satisfy the following deferential equation:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

The last equation is identical to the hydrogen atom radial equation

( ) Using the change of variable
√
( )

and (Bohr radius), equation ( ) reduces to

. / . /
0( ) 1 ,( ) ( )- . / ( )

Where ( ) ( ) we have used ⁄

Now equations ( ) and ( ) are identical the solution to ( ) is
given by associated Laguerre polynomials ( )
the radial wave function of the hydrogen atom given by
( )
. / . / ( )

Where is constant obtained by normalizing the radial function ( )

∫ ( ) ( )

Using the normalization condition of associated La guerre

,( )-
∫ [ ( )] ( )
( )

41
Where ) we can show that is given by
⁄ ( )
. / √ ,( )-
( )

The wave functions of the hydrogen atom are given by

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Where the radial functions ( ) are

⁄
( )
( ) ( ) √ ( ) ( )
,( )-

The radial wave functions of hydrogen atom behave as follows:

 they behave like for small
 they decrease exponentially at Larger, is dominated
by the highest power
 Each function ( ) has radial nodes, is
a polynomial of degree

42
Figure-5

43
REFERENCES

1- Bransden, B. H., & Joachain, C. J. (2000).

Quantum Mechanics 2ndedn (Harlow).

2- Landau, L. D., & Lifshitz, E. M.

(2013). Quantum mechanics: non-relativistic
theory (Vol. 3). Elsevier.

3- Zettili, N. (2003). Quantum mechanics: con-

cepts and applications.

4- Larry , Andrews, L. C. (1992). Special func-

tions of mathematics for engineers (p. 407).
New York: McGraw-Hill.

44