PROCESS TECHNOLOGY LEVEL 2

Unit Title: Plant and Plant Services

Lesson 5: Transfer of Fluids III

PT2-6-5

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INTRODUCTION
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In our last two lessons you were introduced to pumps, used in industry
for transferring liquids. In this lesson you will meet some of the more
important pieces of equipment for moving gases from one part of a
chemical plant to another.

Remember that gases, unlike liquids, are compressible. The choice of

equipment used will, therefore, depend upon the pressure of gas
required from the equipment.

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YOUR AIMS
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When you have finished this lesson you should be able to describe the
construction, operation and use of the following types of gas transfer
equipment:

• fans
• blowers
• compressors
• vacuum pumps.

You should also be able to select a piece of equipment for a given duty.

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STUDY ADVICE
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Many of the operating principles described here are similar to those you
studied in the lessons on pumps.

As in our work on transferring liquids, an understanding of the principles

of construction and of the operational characteristics of the equipment
is required, rather than a detailed knowledge of its construction.

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MOVEMENT OF GASES – LOW PRESSURE

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FANS

Let us start by looking at fans. The fan is an item of equipment

designed to move large volumes of air or other gases at relatively low
pressures, i.e. pressures up to 2.5 kPa.

FIGURE 1 below shows one type of radial blade fan which has straight
blades. Refer to it as you read what follows.

Rotation of fan
impeller by
electric motor

Gas
outlet

High speed
impeller
Gas inlet

FIG. 1

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This fan consists of a many bladed impeller which rotates at high speed
inside a casing. Gases are drawn in near the axis of the impeller and
are thrown at high speed to the rim of the casing. The gases then pass
through an outlet duct in the casing.

The impeller is driven by an electric motor. You may wish to compare

the design and operation of this fan with the centrifugal pump you
studied in the previous lesson and you will then understand why this fan
is often called a centrifugal fan.

The performance of a fan depends on both the speed of the impeller

and the design of the blades.

FIGURE 2 and FIGURE 3 show two other radial blade designs.

Gas outlet

Gas inlet

Rotation

FIG. 2

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Rotation

Gas inlet

Gas outlet

FIG. 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRIFUGAL FANS

• The straight radial blade fan is best used where gases may contain
solids (the blades can be cleaned easily) and especially abrasive
solids, because of its sturdy construction.

• Forward curved blades are better than backward curved blades for
transferring large volumes of gases at low pressures.

• Backward curved blades usually produce slightly higher pressures

than the forward curve type, but transfer lower volumes.

As well as having blades which are like the radii of a circle and create
movement from the centre to the outside of the casing, some fans have
what are known as axial blades. These are generally similar to an aircraft
propeller and create movement along the axis of rotation (straight through
flow). A typical example is the kitchen extractor fan fitted in a window.
FIGURE 4 shows an example of an axial fan, and FIGURE 5 shows the

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different flow patterns created by axial and radial flow fans. Axial flow
fans are mainly used on ventilation/extraction duties.

Motor

FIG. 4

Flow Flow
Shaft Shaft

Impeller Impeller

[a] Radial flow fan [b] Axial flow fan

FIG. 5

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BLOWERS

Blowers are used where higher pressure and a large throughput of gas
is required. Look at FIGURE 6. You will see that this blower is designed
on similar principles to the lobe pump you met in the previous lesson.

Gas outlet
Rotor

n
tio
ta
Ro

Ro
ta
i on t

Outer
case

Rotor

Gas inlet

FIG. 6

The specially designed rotors 'mesh' together as they turn. Gas is

drawn in at the suction side (inlet), carried around the edge of the
casing and then 'squeezed' by the rotors such that it comes out at
higher pressure on the delivery side (outlet). Typical uses include
supplying the air for the conveying of powders or granules (pneumatic
and fluidised conveying).

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________________________________________________________________________________________

MOVEMENT OF GASES – HIGH PRESSURE

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COMPRESSORS

Fans are not capable of delivering gases at high pressure. The main
reason for this is that there is a poor seal between the moving impeller
blades and the fan casing. Compressors are designed to reduce to a
minimum the gap between moving and stationary parts.

After compression, the pressure of a gas should be maintained by

limiting the flow until the final point of use.

There are three basic types of compressor:

• the reciprocating
• the rotary
• the centrifugal.

We will discuss each in turn.

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The reciprocating compressor is very similar to the reciprocating pump

we met in an earlier lesson, except that gas replaces liquid.

Look at the two diagrams FIGURE 7(a) and (b).

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Inlet valve Delivery valve

[sucked open] [sucked closed]

Piston Cylinder

Moves
down [a]

Inlet valve Delivery valve

[pushed closed] [pushed open]

Cylinder
Piston

Moves
[b]
up

FIG. 7

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The action of a reciprocating compressor is illustrated; FIGURE 7(a)

shows the suction stroke, FIGURE 7(b) shows the delivery stroke.

The piston moves up and down in the cylinder. During the suction
stroke gas is drawn into the cylinder through a one way inlet valve; the
delivery valve automatically closes.

On the return stroke the inlet valve automatically closes and the gas is
compressed and passes out through the delivery valve.

When a gas is compressed its temperature rises. For this reason it is

often necessary to cool the gases leaving a reciprocating compressor.

To pump gases at very high pressures, it is often necessary to use

several stages. FIGURE 8 below shows three reciprocating units
connected in series.

Cooler Cooler Cooler

667 kPa 4000 kPa
101 kPa

Atmospheric
20 000 kPa
pressure
[3000 p.s.i.]

Stage 3
Stage 1 Stage 2

From
drive
Crank Shaft motor

FIG. 8

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As the temperature of the gas rises at each stage of compression, it

has to be cooled between each stage. Thus multi-stage compressors
require interstage cooling, otherwise the compressed gas could be
unmanageably hot after the final stage. When a gas is compressed its
volume decreases. Thus to maintain the pressure created in one
stage, the next stage must have a smaller volume, hence the reduction
in size of successive stages shown in FIGURE 8.

ROTARY VANE PUMPS

Rotary vane pumps are often used to compress a gas.

Figure 9 shows a cross-section of a rotary vane pump. Refer to this

figure as you read the description of its operation.

Sliding Vane
Rotor

Discharge Inlet
side

FIG. 9

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The rotor is mounted eccentrically (off-centre) and is fitted with spring-

loaded sliding vanes. When the rotor turns, gas is drawn into the
spaces between the vanes and propelled round to the discharge side
where it is compressed as the space between vanes reduces. Rotary
compressors are often referred to as 'silent' compressors as they are
much less noisy than reciprocating types.

THE MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

This type of compressor works on similar principles to the centrifugal

fan and is often called a 'turbo' compressor.

FIGURE 10 shows a centrifugal compressor with three stages, that is,

three impellers connected in series.

1st 2nd
Compression Compression Discharge
[Gas out]

3rd Compression

Suction
[Gas in]

Shaft driven by
electric motor
Impeller
1st Stage 2nd Stage 3rd Stage

FIG. 10

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We see in FIGURE 10 an arrangement of three fans in one. Gas is

drawn into the centre of the impeller, and is thrown out into a guide
which directs it back towards the centre of the next impeller. Thus it
advances from stage to stage until the required pressure is obtained.
The compressed gases are often cooled on leaving the compressor,
before passing on to the next stage of handling.

An axial flow compressor is also possible and its design resembles a jet
engine. These are less common in the chemical industry.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

CREATING A VACUUM
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Vacuum pumps are used to reduce the pressure inside a piece of

equipment to a level below that of atmospheric pressure.

For example, they are used to reduce the pressure in distillation

columns and evaporators, so that heat sensitive materials can be boiled
at lower temperatures.

The accepted "average" value for atmospheric pressure is 101 000 Pa

(101 kPa).

Pa is an abbreviation for pascal, the S.I. unit of pressure, and is equal

to 1 newton per square metre (1 N m–2).

Atmospheric pressure is often expressed in other units, although these

units are gradually being phased out. Thus 101 000 N m –2 is
equivalent to 14.7 pounds per square inch (p.s.i.), 760 mm of mercury,
1 atmosphere or approximately 1 bar.

We will now look at three pumps used for creating vacuums.

RECIPROCATING PUMPS

The reciprocating compressor described earlier can often be used to

produce a vacuum. The inlet to the pump would be connected to the
vessel being evacuated. Refer back to FIGURES 7(a) and 7(b) to
satisfy yourself that the inlet side of this type of pump could be made to
run under vacuum.

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ROTARY VACUUM PUMP

FIGURE 11 shows a cross-section of one type of vacuum pump, often

called a 'Nash' pump. Refer to the figure as you read on.

B
High
pressure
gas out
A

x
A
Gas in Water or oil
B B

x
A

A Inlet ports
B Discharge ports

FIG. 11

A central cylindrical rotor, carrying vanes around its circumference, is

fitted inside a casing which is elliptical in shape.

Just enough liquid (water or oil) is placed inside the casing to seal the
impeller at the points of least clearance from the casing (marked 'x')
when the rotor turns.

When the impeller is turned at high speed the sealing liquid is thrown
outward against the casing by centrifugal force. This is shown on your
diagram as the shaded area inside the casing.

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As the rotor rotates the 'space' between blades increases from A to a

maximum before reducing again at B. As the 'space' increases air is
sucked in through A, the inlet port (creating a vacuum in the inlet pipe),
until the space is full. This is then compressed as the space reduces
forcing the air out of the discharge port B.

This process continues as long as the rotor turns in the casing.

This type of vacuum pump contains no moving parts in mechanical

contact with each other. The rotor, therefore, may be made from any
non-corrodible material, and the liquid may be any liquid that is inert to
(i.e. does not react with) the gas being handled.

STEAM JET EJECTORS

The steam jet ejector is a very popular method of producing a vacuum.

FIGURE 12 shows a cross-section of a steam ejector.

The ejector consists of a steam nozzle 'A', through which high pressure
steam is blown. This steam nozzle is positioned inside a casing onto
which is attached a specially shaped tube, with a narrow section in it,
called a Venturi (marked 'B'). When steam is blown through the nozzle
down the venturi tube then gas is entrained at 'C', which is connected to
the system to be evacuated. This effect is often called the 'slip stream'
effect and is often used in a similar way in motor car racing when a car
obtains a 'tow' from another car by getting into the 'hole in the air'
(vacuum) created by the front car.

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Steam strainer

Steam in

This side
connected Steam nozzle [A]
to system to
be evacuated
Mixing region [C]

Tube [B]

Gas and steam

FIG. 12

Steam ejectors are probably the most popular equipment for producing
a vacuum.

Advantages

Some of their good points are:

• there are no moving parts, thus

• they are cheap to maintain
• they can readily handle corrosive gases.

Disadvantage

One bad point is:

• they require high pressure steam, which is expensive.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH GAS TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

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Apart from the physical and chemical nature of the gas being
transferred, there are three main hazards associated with gas transfer
equipment.

• Mechanical hazards – all gas transfer equipment (except steam

ejectors) has moving parts which may cause injury to personnel.
Guards and interlocks should be used to minimise mechanical
hazards.

• Explosion/implosion – compressors can produce high pressure

which may cause pumps/pipework to explode if the pressure gets
too high. Similarly vacuum pumps may implode (collapse) if the
vacuum becomes too high. The use of pressure relief
valves/bursting discs helps to minimise the risk of damage
occurring.

• Noise – reciprocating compressors are often very noisy and

generally are situated in a soundproof building with limited access.
Ear protection should be put on before entering the building.

Now try the following Self-Assessment Questions. Remember, this

assessment is to help you, so try to do it without looking back over your
notes.

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NOTES
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________________________________________________________________________________________

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
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1. State, in two or three sentences, the particular role of each of the

following. Try to give an example of their use from your own
experience.

(a) a fan
(b) a blower
(c) a compressor
(d) a steam ejector.

2. The following symbols are often used on flow diagrams of process

plant. Try to identify what each of them might represent.

[a] [b] [c] [d]

3. Name the three types of blade used in fans and state their
particular characteristics.

4. What is a multistage compressor?

5. Sketch and describe the operation of a steam jet ejector.

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NOTES
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________________________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

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Your answers to the questions should be along the following lines.

1. (a) A fan is designed to supply high volumes of gas (often air) but
at low pressures, e.g. combustion air to an oil burner.

(b) Blowers supply gas at higher pressure than fans. This is

because their rotors are a closer fit than those of fans. A
blower might be used to supply gas to a reactor which is
working at high pressure; a fan would not produce the
pressure to feed into the reactor.

(c) Compressors deliver gases at very high pressure, much higher

than either fans or blowers, e.g. the production of compressed
air as a Plant Service.

(d) Steam ejectors are used to produce a vacuum inside

chambers and reaction vessels, e.g. the evacuation of a
distillation column for the vacuum distillation of heat sensitive
materials.

You may have mentioned examples other than those mentioned

here.

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2. You might have suggested the following:

[a] Centrifugal fan [b] Rotary compressor

[c] Reciprocating compressor [d] Steam ejector

You might see these symbols as elementary outline sketches of the

pieces of equipment they represent, with the arrows showing the
direction of flow of the gases.

3. The three most common types of blade used in the construction of

fans are:

• straight – for abrasive material

• forward facing – for large volume rates of flow at low pressure

• backward facing – for higher pressures at lower volume rates

of flow.

N.B. The characteristics above are more guidelines than hard and
fast rules.

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4. A multistage compressor consists of several individual units

connected together in series (one after the other) such that the
following unit improves on the pressure produced by the preceding
unit.

5. An outline sketch of the steam jet ejector (as below) would suffice,
along with the following brief explanation.

Steam in

Gas from [A]

vessel being Nozzle
evacuated

Throat

Steam and
[B] gas out

High pressure steam is blown down the nozzle into the throat of
the ejector. This causes great suction at point A which is
connected to the system to be evacuated. The entrained gases
and steam leave the equipment at B.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

SUMMARY
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In this lesson you have been introduced to some of the equipment for
moving gases in a Chemical Plant. These are:

• Fans for moving gases at low pressure but high volume rates of
flow. They either operate on similar principles to centrifugal pumps
or to a marine/aircraft propeller.

• Blowers for gases at higher pressures. These operate on similar

principles to gear and lobe pumps.

• Compressors for delivering gases at very high pressures. The

most common type, the reciprocating compressor, works on the
same principles as the reciprocating pump.

• Vacuum Pumps for removing gases from reaction and other

vessels. The most popular vacuum pump is the steam ejector.

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