By: Nihal Kumar

UNIT - 4
By: Nihal Kumar

Demodulator

The demodulator is a frequency down conversion block. The function of the

signal demodulator is to convert the received waveform x(t) in to an N-dimensional
vector x=[x1, x2, … xN] where N is the dimension of the transmitted signal waveforms.
Signal demodulator can be realized in two ways. They are
A) Based on the use of signal correlators (product integrators)
B) Based on the use of matched filters.

Detector:
The function of the detector is to decide which of the M possible signal
waveforms was transmitted based on the vector x. The optimum detector is
designed to minimize the probability of error.

Correlation Receiver:
The basic function of a correlator is to product integrate the received noisy
signal with each of the reference carrier signals. It decomposes the received signal
into N-dimensional vectors (x1, x2, …xN). The Figure 4.20 shows the block diagram
of correlation type receiver, using a bank of N correlators.
𝑇 x1
∫ 𝑑𝑡
0
1(t)
𝑇 X2
Received Message
∫ 𝑑𝑡
Signal 0 Decision Symbol
x(t) device
2(t)
:
: 𝑇 XN
∫ 𝑑𝑡
0
N(t) Sample at t = T

Demodulator Detector
Figure Correlator receiver
By: Nihal Kumar

Here the demodulators imply the use of analog hardware (multipliers and
integrators) and continuous signals. The mathematical operation of a correlator is
correlation; a signal is correlated with a replica of itself. The demodulator outputs
are sampled at the rate t=T to obtain the vector x=x1, x2, ….xN.
A decision device is used as a detector. The function of the detector is to
decide which of the symbols was actually transmitted. The decision rule for the
detector is to choose a symbol based on location of received vector x in the
particular decision regions of the signal space.

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By: Nihal Kumar

constellation diagram
1. A constellation diagram is a
representation of a signal modulated by a
digital modulation scheme
2. It represents the possible symbols that may
be selected by a given modulation scheme
as points in the complex plane.
3. constellation diagrams can be used to
recognize the type of interference and
distortion in a signal.

degree 90º

Logic 0
Logic 1
Amplitude(-v)
Amplitude (+v)
180º
0º

270º
By: Nihal Kumar

Geometric Representation of
Signals
• Objective: To represent any set of M energy
signals {si(t)} as linear combinations of N
orthogonal basis functions, where N ≤ M
• Real value energy signals s1(t), s2(t),..sM(t),
each of duration T sec
Orthogonal basis
function

N
0  t  T 
si (t )   sij j (t ),   (5.5)
j 1 i==1,2,....,M 
coefficient

Energy signal

• Coefficients:
T i=1,2,....,M 
sij   si (t ) j (t )dt ,   (5.6)
0
 j=1,2,....,M 
• Real-valued basis functions:
T
1 if i  j 
0 i (t ) j (t )dt  ij  0 if i  j  (5.7)

• The set of coefficients can be viewed as a

N-dimensional vector, denoted by si
• Bears a one-to-one relationship with the
transmitted signal si(t)
By: Nihal Kumar

(a) Synthesizer for generating the signal si(t). (b) Analyzer for
generating the set of signal vectors si.

So,
• Each signal in the set si(t) is completely
determined by the vector of its coefficients

 si1 
s 
 i2 
. 
si    , i  1,2,....,M (5.8)
. 
. 
 
 siN 
By: Nihal Kumar

Finally,
• The signal vector si concept can be extended to 2D, 3D
etc. N-dimensional Euclidian space
• Provides mathematical basis for the geometric
representation of energy signals that is used in noise
analysis
• Allows definition of
– Length of vectors (absolute value)
– Angles between vectors
– Squared value (inner product of si with itself)
 siT si
2 Matrix
si Transposition
N
=  sij2 , i  1,2,....,M (5.9)
j 1

Illustrating the geometric

representation of signals
for the case when N  2
and M  3.
(two dimensional space,
three signals)
By: Nihal Kumar

Also,
What is the relation between the vector
representation of a signal and its energy value?

• …start with the T

definition of average Ei   si2 (t )dt (5.10)
energy in a signal… 0

• Where si(t) is N
si (t )   sij j (t ), (5.5)
j 1

N T
 N 
• After substitution: Ei    sij j (t )   sikk (t )  dt
0  j 1   k 1 

N N T

• After regrouping: Ei  
j 1
 s s   (t ) (t )dt
k 1
ij ik j k (5.11)
0

• Φj(t) is orthogonal, so N
Ei   sij2 = si
2
finally we have: (5.12)
j 1

The energy of a
signal is equal to the
squared length of its
vector
By: Nihal Kumar

Formulas for two signals

• Assume we have a pair of signals: si(t) and sj(t),
each represented by its vector,
• Then:
T
sij   si (t )sk (t )dt  siT sk (5.13)
0

Inner product is invariant

to the selection of basis
Inner product of the functions
signals is equal to the
inner product of their
vector representations
[0,T]

Euclidian Distance
• The Euclidean distance between two points
represented by vectors (signal vectors) is equal
to
||si-sk|| and the squared value is given by:
N
si  s k =  (sij -skj ) 2
2
(5.14)
j 1
T
=  ( si (t )  sk (t )) 2 dt
0
By: Nihal Kumar

SIGNAL SPACE DIAGRAM (CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM) OF BASK

Study of signal spaces provides us with a geometrical method of conceptualizing the modulation
process.
The ASK waveform of equation for symbol 1 can be represented as,

2
s(t )  PT
s b cos(2 f ct ) s b 1 (t )
PT
Tb

This means that there is only one carrier function 1 (t ) which is a unit energy signal over
(0, Tb). The signal space diagram will have two points on 1 (t ) . One will be at zero and
other will be at PTs b . The collection of all possible signal points is called the signal

constellation.
Thus, the distance between the two signal points is d= PT s b = Eb

The decision boundary is determined by the threshold value λ. If x lies in the region Z1,
then a decision of a “1” is made. If x lies in the region Z2, then a decision of a “0” is
made.
One advantage in using the signal space representation is that it is much easier to identify
the “distance” between signal points. The distance between two signal points will be
increased which makes the received signal point less probable be located in the wrong
region.

SIGNAL SPACE DIAGRAM OF BPSK SIGNAL

We know that BPSK signal carries the information about two symbols. These symbols
are symbol 1 and symbol 0.
BPSK signal is given by s(t )  b(t ) Ac cos(wct )

 b(t ) 2Ps cos(wct )

2
 b(t ) PT
s b cos( wct )
T
By: Nihal Kumar

s b 1 (t )
 b(t ) PT

2
Where 1 (t ) = cos( wc t ) represents a unit energy signal over (0, Tb).
Tb

s b 1 (t )
If b (t) is binary 1 (+1 v), then s(t )   PT

s b 1 (t )
If b (t) is binary 0 (-1 v), then s(t )   PT

Thus on the single axis of 1 (t ) , there will be two points. One point will be located at

s b and other will be located at  PT

 PT s b . Thus it has been shown in figure below.

Geometrical representation of BPSK signal

s b on 1 (t ) represents symbol 1 and the point at

At the receiver end, the point at  PT

s b on 1 (t ) represents symbol 0. The separation between these two points represents

 PT

the isolation in symbols „1‟ and „0‟ in BPSK signal. This separation is generally called
Euclidean distance d. As the distance increases, the isolation between the symbols in
BPSk signal is more. Thus probability of error reduces.

SIGNAL SPACE DIAGRAM OF BFSK SIGNAL

The BFSK signal is given S(t)  2Ps PH (t ) cos(2 f H t )  2Ps PL (t ) cos(2 f Lt )

2 2
S (t )  PT
s b PH (t ) cos(2 f H t )  PT
s b PL (t ) cos(2 f Lt )
Tb Tb

s b PH (t )1 (t )  PT
S (t )  PT s b PL (t )2 (t )
By: Nihal Kumar

Where 1 (t ) & 2 (t ) are orthogonal carriers (also unit energy carriers) over the period Tb.

Because in one bit interval of the input signal, 1 (t ) & 2 (t ) have integral number of

cycles.
i.e f H  mfb & f L  nfb .

If the carriers are orthogonal then the distance dmin is maximum. As probability of error
depends on dmin, maximizing the distance dmin decreases the error rate in BFSK
modulation scheme.

When symbol 1 is transmitted, modulated carrier BFSK has level of PT

s b and when

symbol 0 is transmitted, modulated carrier BFSK has level of PT

s b .

Note that there are two signal points in the signal space. The distance between these two
points may be evaluated as under:
d 2  ( PT
s b )  ( PT
2
s b)
2

d  2 PT
s b  1.414 PT
s b

Signal Space diagram (Constellation) of BFSK signal

Note: dmin = PT
s b in Binary ASK

dmin =2 PT
s b in Binary PSK

dmin = 1.414 PT
s b in Binary FSK

 d min ( BPSK )  d min ( BFSK )  d min ( BASK )

 Pe ( BPSK )  Pe ( BFSK )  Pe ( BASK )
By: Nihal Kumar

SIGNAL SPACE DIAGRAM ( Phasor representation) OF QPSK SIGNAL

Symbol QPSK signal QPSK signal interms of unit energy signal
10 s(t )  2Ps cos(2 f ct  450 ) 2
s(t )  PT
s s{ cos(2 f ct  450 )}
Ts

00 3 2
s(t )  2 Ps cos(2 f ct  ) s(t )  PT cos(2 f ct  1350 )}
4 s s{
Ts

01 5 2
s(t )  2 Ps cos(2 f ct  ) s(t )  PT cos(2 f ct  2250 )}
4 s s{
Ts

11 7 2
s(t )  2 Ps cos(2 f ct  ) s(t )  PT cos(2 f ct  3150 )}
4 s s{
Ts

2
If cos(2 f c t ) (unit energy carrier) is represented by phasor  (t ) , then QPSK signal
Ts

can be geometrically represented as shown below.

By: Nihal Kumar

Minimum distance b/w signal space points dmin

s s )  ( PT
2 2
From the above signal space diagram d min = ( PT s s)

= 2 PT
s s

For QPSK, Ts = 2Tb dmin = 2 Ps  2Tb = 2 PT

s b

Thus dmin of QPSK is same as that of dmin of BPSK. It shows that noise immunities of
BPSK and QPSK are same.

Signal Space diagram or geometrical representation of M-ary PSK signals

Figure shows the signal space diagram of M-ary PSK. All signal space points lies on a
2
circle of radius P sTb and any two successive signal space points phase differed by .
M
By: Nihal Kumar

For M=8, the signal space diagram for M-ary PSK is shown below. In the figure, the
distance between signal point S1 and signal point S2 can be obtained by considering the
triangle followed by S1OA. The distance between S1 and S2 is denoted by d12.

Signal Space representation of 8-PSK scheme

d min
Distance S1A = Distance S2A =
2
 Dis tan ceS1 A
By standard relation of right angle triangle sin( )
M Dis tan ceOS1

d min

sin( )  2
M PTs s


i.e. d min  2 PT
s s sin( ) where Ts = NTb & M =2N
M

Let us verify the result for M =4, i.e 4-PSK scheme. d min  2 PT
s s sin( )
M

d min  2 Ps 2Tb sin( )
4
= 2 PT
s b

 
Let us find the result for M =8, i.e 8-PSK scheme d min  2 PT
s s sin( )  2 Ps 3Tb sin( )
M 8
By: Nihal Kumar

Signal Space diagram of MSK signal

S (t )  2Ps CH (t )sin 2 f H t  2Ps CL (t )sin 2 f Lt

2 2
S (t )  PT
s s CH (t ) sin 2 f H t  PT
s s CL (t ) sin 2 f Lt
Ts Ts

s s CH (t )H (t )  PT
S (t )  PT s s CL (t )L (t )

The carriers ΦH(t) and ΦL(t) are in quadrature. Depending on the values of CH (t) and
CL (t), there will be four signal points in ΦHΦL plane.

Spread Spectrum Concept:

• Input fed into channel encoder

– Produces narrow bandwidth analog signal around
central frequency
• Signal modulated using sequence of digits
– Spreading code/sequence
– Typically generated by pseudonoise/pseudorandom
number generator
• Increases bandwidth significantly
– Spreads spectrum
• Receiver uses same sequence to demodulate signal
• Demodulated signal fed into channel decoder
By: Nihal Kumar

General Model of Spread Spectrum System:

Gains:

• Immunity from various noise and multipath distortion

– Including jamming
• Can hide/encrypt signals
– Only receiver who knows spreading code can retrieve
signal
• Several users can share same higher bandwidth with little
interference
– Cellular telephones
– Code division multiplexing (CDM)
– Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Pseudorandom Numbers:
• Generated by algorithm using initial seed
• Deterministic algorithm
– Not actually random
– If algorithm good, results pass reasonable tests of
randomness
• Need to know algorithm and seed to predict sequence

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

• Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of

frequencies
• Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter
• Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
• Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits
By: Nihal Kumar

Basic Operation:
• Typically 2k carriers frequencies forming 2k channels
• Channel spacing corresponds with bandwidth of input
• Each channel used for fixed interval
– 300 ms in IEEE 802.11
– Some number of bits transmitted using some encoding
scheme
• May be fractions of bit (see later)
– Sequence dictated by spreading code
Frequency Hopping Example:

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Transmitter):

By: Nihal Kumar

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Receiver):

Slow and Fast FHSS:

• Frequency shifted every Tc seconds

• Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
• Slow FHSS has Tc  Ts
• Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
• Generally fast FHSS gives improved performance in noise
(or jamming)
Slow Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4,
k=2)
By: Nihal Kumar

Fast Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4,

k=2)

FHSS Performance Considerations:

• Typically large number of frequencies used

– Improved resistance to jamming
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):

• Each bit represented by multiple bits using spreading

code
• Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency
band
By: Nihal Kumar

– In proportion to number of bits used

– 10 bit spreading code spreads signal across 10
times bandwidth of 1 bit code
• One method:
– Combine input with spreading code using XOR
– Input bit 1 inverts spreading code bit
– Input zero bit doesn‟t alter spreading code bit
– Data rate equal to original spreading code
• Performance similar to FHSS

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Example:

By: Nihal Kumar

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmitter:

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Receiver:

By: Nihal Kumar

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Using BPSK

Example:

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

• Multiplexing Technique used with spread spectrum

• Start with data signal rate D
– Called bit data rate
• Break each bit into k chips according to fixed pattern specific
to each user
– User‟s code
• New channel has chip data rate kD chips per second
• E.g. k=6, three users (A,B,C) communicating with base
receiver R
• Code for A = <1,-1,-1,1,-1,1>
• Code for B = <1,1,-1,-1,1,1>
• Code for C = <1,1,-1,1,1,-1>
By: Nihal Kumar

CDMA Example:

• Consider A communicating with base

• Base knows A‟s code
• Assume communication already synchronized
• A wants to send a 1
– Send chip pattern <1,-1,-1,1,-1,1>
• A‟s code
• A wants to send 0
– Send chip[ pattern <-1,1,1,-1,1,-1>
• Complement of A‟s code
• Decoder ignores other sources when using A‟s code to
decode
– Orthogonal codes
By: Nihal Kumar

CDMA for DSSS:

• n users each using different orthogonal PN sequence
• Modulate each users data stream
– Using BPSK
• Multiply by spreading code of user
CDMA in a DSSS Environment: