Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.

org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

Large-scale erosional response of SE Asia to monsoon

evolution reconstructed from sedimentary records of the
Song Hong-Yinggehai and Qiongdongnan basins,
South China Sea
LONG VAN HOANG1*, PETER D. CLIFT1, ANNE M. SCHWAB2, MADS HUUSE1,
DUC ANH NGUYEN3 & SUN ZHEN4
1
Department of Geology & Petroleum Geology, School of Physical Sciences,
University of Aberdeen, Meston Building, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, UK
2
Marathon International Petroleum (GB) Ltd, Marathon House, Rubislaw Hill,
Anderson Drive, Aberdeen AB15 6FZ, UK
3
Vietnam Petroleum Institute, Yen Hoa, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam
4
South China Sea Institute of Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
164 Xingang Road, Guangzhou, 510301 China
*Corresponding author (e-mail: l.v.hoang@abdn.ac.uk)

Abstract: The Song Hong-Yinggehai (SH-Y) and Qiongdongnan (Qi) basins together form one
of the largest Cenozoic sedimentary basins in SE Asia. Here we present new records based on
the analysis of seismic data, which we compare to geochemical data derived from cores from
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1148 in order to derive proxies for continental weathering
and thus constrain summer monsoon intensity.
The SH-Y Basin started opening during the Late Paleocene–Eocene. Two inversion phases
are recognized to have occurred at c. 34 Ma and c. 15 Ma. The Qi Basin developed on the
northern, rifted margin of South China Sea, within which a large canyon developed in a
NE–SW direction.
Geochemical and mineralogical data show that chemical weathering has gradually decreased
in SE Asia after c. 25 Ma, whereas physical erosion became stronger, especially after c. 12 Ma.
Summer monsoon intensification drove periods of faster erosion after 3–4 Ma and from 10–
15 Ma, although the initial pulse of eroded sediment at 29.5– 21 Ma was probably triggered
by tectonic uplift because this precedes monsoon intensification at c. 22 Ma. Clay mineralogy
indicates more physical erosion together with high sedimentation rates after c. 12 Ma suggesting
a period of strong summer monsoon in the Mid-Miocene.

The history and causes for the East Asia Monsoon
are controversial topics, although its proposed
links with the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau remain
a classic example of how the solid Earth may
control atmospheric processes and the climatic evol-
ution of the planet (Prell & Kutzbach 1992; Molnar
et al. 1993). Certainly the presence of a large
modern plateau plays an important role in driv-
ing the present intensity of the summer monsoon
(Manabe & Terpstra 1974; Prell & Kutzbach
1992). In contrast, the winter monsoon is charac-
terized by a cold and dry climate caused by air
circulation in the reverse direction, although this
too is linked with the growth of topography.
As well as affecting atmospheric circulation
patterns, uplift and deformation of the Tibetan
Plateau has also intensified chemical weathering
and physical erosion of source rocks as a result of
changes in rock physical properties and increas-
ing terrain gradient. This in turn has affected the
composition of sediments washed to the oceans
by the large rivers that drain the eastern flank of
the plateau.
In this paper we assess the role of the Asian mon-
soon in controlling continental erosion. Although
precipitation has been recognized as an important
control on erosion (Reiners et al. 2003; Wobus
et al. 2003) its relative role compared to tectoni-
cally driven rock uplift is unclear (Burbank et al.
2003). The South China Sea is a good place to
examine the competing effects of these processes
because the nature of the monsoon has been partly
reconstructed from studies at a series of Ocean
Drilling Program (ODP) sites on the rifted southern
margin of China (Chen et al. 2003; Jia et al. 2003;
Wan et al. 2006, 2007; Clift et al. 2008c). The

From: Clift, P. D., Tada, R. & Zheng, H. (eds) Monsoon Evolution and Tectonics –Climate Linkage in Asia.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 342, 219–244.
DOI: 10.1144/SP342.13 0305-8719/10/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2010.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

220 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

weathering and erosion records we present here can
be readily compared with monsoon intensi-
ties to assess possible linkages. Although studies
of the modern Red River suggest a dominant role
for tectonically driven rock uplift in driving
erosion (Clift et al. 2006b) this may not be the
case over longer periods of geological time.
Location and geological setting
Sediments eroded from eastern Tibet have partly
been fed into the SH-Y and Qi basins via the Red
River (Fig. 1). Although the Red River is still a
large river it has been argued that the present drai-
nage reflects major re-organization caused by
re-tilting of eastern Asia towards the east during
the Cenozoic (Wang 2004). Prior to this tilting the
Red River may have formed the dominant drainage
in SE Asia, but would have progressively lost
drainage area because of headwater capture into
adjacent systems (Brookfield 1998; Clark et al.
2004). Alternative models propose a more stable
drainage and explain the curious geometries of
river in SE Tibet as reflecting deformation, with
the rivers acting as passive strain markers (Hallet
& Molnar 2001).
Mass balancing eroded and deposited volumes
of sediments now present in the SH-Y Basin and
onshore in the modern Red River drainage indicated
that the original catchment area of the Red River
must have been much larger than that observed
today (Clift et al. 2006a). Furthermore, Nd isotope
values of sediments from the Hanoi Trough,
Vietnam (Fig. 1) show a rapid change during
the Oligocene (Clift et al. 2006a). Clift et al.
(2006a) interpreted these changes as a response to
large-scale drainage capture away from the former
Red River. Hainan island is not considered to have
been a major sediment source until it was uplifted
during a period of strong magmatism that started
c. 2 Ma (Tu et al. 1991). The influence of local
sources along the Vietnamese coast on the total
sediment influx is relatively poorly known.
The SH-Y and Qi basins together form one of the
largest sedimentary systems in SE Asia and are
mostly filled by sediment delivered by the Red
River. Thus, the sedimentary successions preserved
within them record the history of erosion onshore.
Although tectonic work can constrain the nature

Fig. 1. Location of the research area relative to SE Asia. The SH-Y Basin lies along the SE extension of the RRFZ,
while the Qi Basin is situated on the rifted margin of South China Sea. The black straight lines show the location and
length of the 2D seismic survey lines that were newly released to this study, while the red lines show those from Clift &
Sun (2006). Black-dash lines are seismic lines selected for decompaction and sediment budget estimation. The white
circles show the locations of the industrial wells used for the age assignment in this study. The black circle marks the
location of ODP Site 1148 (Wang et al. 2000). Locations of seismic profile figures are shown.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
of deformation in Tibet and palaeoceanographic
studies can reconstruct climate, it is the sediment
records in the river deltas and fans that allow us
to quantify erosion and so test for any links bet-
ween climate, tectonics and erosion. Understanding
how changing monsoon strength affects terrestrial
environments is important not just for scientific
reasons, but also because almost two-thirds of the
global population are influenced by the monsoonal
climate (Clift & Plumb 2008). Determining the
relative role of solar insolation and atmospheric
chemistry compared to tectonic processes in gov-
erning monsoon strength is important to predic-
tions of future monsoon variability.
The SH-Y and Qi sedimentary basins are situ-
ated within the Gulf of Tonkin, in the northwestern
South China Sea (Fig. 1). The SH-Y Basin lies along
the southeastern extension of the strike-slip Ailao
Shan-Red River Fault Zone (RRFZ); the Qi Basin
is situated at the southwestern end of the northern,
rifted margin of South China Sea. The basins lie in
two different tectonic settings. There is general
agreement that formation of the basins was linked
to opening of the South China Sea and motion on
the RRFZ; whether these are all linked remains
controversial. Tapponnier et al. (1982) carried out
analogue experiments suggesting that penetration
of the rigid Indian Plate into a softer Eurasia led to
the extrusion of Indochina to the SE along the
left-lateral RRFZ and consequently to the opening
of the South China Sea. However, others argue
that the opening of the South China Sea was trig-
gered by a subduction force to the south where
the Dangerous Grounds underthrust the Borneo
Trench (Holloway 1982; Hall 1996; Morley 2002;
Clift et al. 2008a).
The SH-Y is interpreted as a pull-apart basin
developed in a NW –SE orientation and controlled
by a series of transtensional faults, especially the
RRFZ, whose main trace is located on the SW
side of the basin and by the ‘No.1 Fault’ to the
NE. Modelling has demonstrated that a moderate
degree of strike-slip shear caused by the rotation
of Indochina relative to mainland China is capable
of forming the basin geometry observed by seismic
methods (Sun et al. 2003), without the need for
motion .1000 km as had been suggested (Briais
et al. 1993; Replumaz & Tapponnier 2003). The
timing of deformation within the basin was dated
by seismic methods to be before 30 Ma and to
have ceased by c. 5.5 Ma (Rangin et al. 1995).
Subsequently, Harrison et al. (1996), Wang et al.
(1998), Leloup et al. (2001) and Gilley et al.
(2003) all used radiometric isotope data to con-
strain the start of motion on the RRFZ to being
close to c. 34 –35 Ma, broadly consistent with an
acceleration of tectonic subsidence in the basin at
that time (Clift & Sun 2006).
221
In contrast, the Qi Basin was formed by rifting
of the continental margin followed by seafloor
spreading that started c. 30 Ma, as dated by marine
magnetic anomalies in the neighbouring oceanic
crust dated back to anomaly 11 (c. 31 Ma) (Taylor
& Hayes 1980; Lu et al. 1987; Briais et al. 1993;
Zhou et al. 2002), although there is a suggestion
that seafloor spreading may date back to 37 Ma in
the NE parts of the basin (Hsu et al. 2005). In any
case the Qi Basin partly overlies both the continental
shelf and continental slope (south of Hainan island),
where water depth varies from c. 200–1500 m.
Monsoon reconstructions
We have some knowledge of how the East Asian
summer monsoon varies as a result of studies
based on sediment records from ODP sites in north-
ern South China Sea (ODP Sites 1146 and 1148;
Fig. 1). Zheng et al. (2004) studied the abundance
and ratio of planktonic foraminifera, which is a
common proxy for reconstructing palaeoclimate
change. They proposed that a decrease of the
ratio of planktonic foraminifera Globigerinoides
sacculifer/G. ruber and increase of Neogloboqua-
drina at c. 8 Ma at ODP Site 1146 indicates a
lowering of the surface temperature and increased
productivity, which are interpreted to have been
caused by intensified East Asian winter mon-
soon winds. Upwelling-related radiolarian palaeo-
monsoon proxies in the southern South China Sea
suggest that the east Asian summer monsoon first
initiated close to the middle/late Miocene boundary
at c. 12– 11 Ma and reached a maximum strength at
8.8 –7.7 Ma (Chen et al. 2003).
This suggestion is consistent with work by Wan
et al. (2007) who used sediment grain-sizes at ODP
Site 1146 to indicate a stronger winter monsoon at
c. 8 Ma and both winter and summer monsoon
intensification at c. 3 Ma. However, geochemical
data derived from ODP Site 1148 show much
earlier intense chemical weathering in SE Asia,
which may be linked to monsoon enhancement
(Li et al. 2003). Continental weathering intensity
is largely controlled by moisture and tempera-
ture and thus might be expected to be linked to the
intensity of the summer monsoon rains. Wei et al.
(2006) used a combination of the traditional,
major element based ‘Chemical Index of Alteration’
(CIA) (Nesbitt et al. 1980), together with other
geochemical proxies such as Ca/Ti, Na/Ti, Al/Ti,
Al/Na, Al/K and La/Sm ratios to suggest that the
summer East Asian monsoon has affected South
China since the Early Miocene. Curiously, this
study suggested that summer monsoon rains have
gradually decreased while winter monsoon strength
has increased since that time.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
222 L. V. HOANG ET AL.
Most recently a colour spectral-based analysis of
clay mineralogy at ODP Site 1148 has shown more
complicated and significant mismatches with other
data set (Clift et al. 2008c). This record indicates
an initial intensification of weathering after 22 Ma,
followed by a period of especially strong summer
monsoon from 16– 10 Ma. The summer monsoon
would appear to weaken into the Pliocene before
experiencing moderate intensification since c. 4 Ma.
Earlier monsoon reconstructions sometimes
show inconsistent results. In some cases this reflects
different timescales and resolution of data and/or
grain-size distribution of sediments. Other apparent
discrepancies may reflect the fact that the different
proxies are measuring different things, for example,
upwelling, weathering, wind strength, which in turn
may track activity of either winter or summer mon-
soons. The spectral data of Clift et al. (2008c) are
derived from clays, whereas CIA is bulk sediment
analysis that can also be affected by grain size.
Data sources
In this paper we present new constraints on the
history of sediment flux from the Red River Basin
based on interpretation of newly released 2D multi-
channel seismic profiles from the SH-Y and Qi
basins, which allow us to augment earlier seismic
stratigraphic studies of the basins (Rangin et al.
1995; Fang et al. 2000; He et al. 2002; Gong & Li
2004; Clift & Sun 2006). In particular, our data
adds greatly to our understanding of the southwes-
tern, Vietnamese parts of the SH-Y Basin compared
to the previous regional synthesis of Clift & Sun
(2006) (Fig. 1), which was focused much more on
the eastern half of the basin. These new data allow
us to estimate the flux of sediment into the whole
basin through time more completely. We have
constrained changing weathering regimes in the
area using geochemical data from XRF whole core-
scanning of sediment from Ocean Drilling Program
(ODP) Site 1148 in the northern South China Sea
(Fig. 1). Unfortunately, no suitable core exists for
the Red River offshore, so here we have exploited a
core from the neighbouring Pearl River drainage.
This has the additional advantage of imaging a
river basin that is largely unaffected by Neogene
tectonics or drainage reorganization (Clark et al.
2004), so that changes in weathering regime can be
readily related to climate and thus to the monsoon.
Methodology
Seismic data and workflow
In this study, we analysed 2D multichannel seismic
profiles provided by BP, PetroVietnam and the
Chinese National Offshore Oil Company
(CNOOC). In total, 48 lines (c. 5500 km) from the
SH-Y Basin and 12 lines (c. 750 km) for the Qi
Basin (Fig. 1) were used to constrain the sedimen-
tary evolution. These data augment earlier pub-
lished data, largely from the Chinese sector. There
have been several interpretations carried out by oil
and gas companies for different parts of the SH-Y
Basin. However, geological correlation across the
basin has not previously been possible because
this basin straddles the international boundary
between Vietnam and China. In this study, we
used seismic data, which cover the whole area of
the SH-Y Basin (Fig. 1) in order to have better
geological interpretation and correlation from the
SW to the NE side, as well as towards the SE end,
where it meets the Qi Basin (Fig. 1). Once navi-
gation and SEG Y data (SEG Y file format is one
of several standards developed by the Society of
Exploration Geophysicists for storing geophysical
data) were loaded onto a workstation running
KingdomTM, software seismic sequence boundaries
were picked, based on conventional termination
types of seismic reflections (e.g. onlap, downlap,
erosion) (Vail et al. 1977; Miall 1991). Age con-
straints derived from biostratigraphy in industrial
wells, typically at the sub-epoch level of resolution
were assigned to these horizons prior to time–
depth conversion.
Geochemical analysis
Geochemical data have been used as a proxy for
constraining the intensity of chemical weathering,
which is controlled by a number of processes includ-
ing temperature (White et al. 1999) and moisture
(Gabet et al. 2006). These in turn may be linked to
monsoon strength (Derry & France-Lanord 1996b;
Filippelli 1997). In this study, we used cores from
ODP Site 1148, located on the deep-water slope
offshore the Pearl River (Fig. 1) to examine vari-
ations in major element chemistry. Cores from this
site were analysed at the Research Centre Ocean
Margin (RCOM), University of Bremen, Germany
by an X-Ray Fluorescence Core Scanner manufac-
tured by AVAATECH. One half of each core was
flattened and covered by plastic film before being
positioned under the X-ray beam for scanning.
The step-size for each measurement was set up at
every 7 cm. However, this resolution was changed
in accordance with lithological variation and to
avoid fractures within the core. XRF scanning
can obtain continuous data at much finer scales
than is practical for individual sampling methods.
These advantages are especially important for rela-
tively long time series and especially for high-
resolution analyses on critical boundaries/intervals.
XRF core scan data show a significantly higher
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
signal-to-noise ratio and more consistent hole-
to-hole agreement than standard logs. Use of XRF
core scan data as a tool in palaeoceanographic
and stratigraphic studies is well defined and
widely accepted (Röhl & Abrams 2000; Tjallingii
et al. 2007).
Use of major element data to constrain terrestrial
weathering intensity often involves use of the CIA
which is an established weathering proxy (Nesbitt
& Young 1982). However, CIA is dependent on
having Al, Na, K and Ca concentration data and is
susceptible to variation linked to sediment mineral-
ogy and provenance evolution. Unfortunately, the
scanner does not provide any Na concentration
data. Even if CIA can be determined, sands yield
lower CIA values compared to clays in the same
drainage system (Clift et al. 2008b).
Results
Tectonic and seismic stratigraphic evolution
Because the SH-Y and Qi basins are situated in
different tectonic provinces, they were interpreted
independently. By picking horizons along ter-
mination surfaces, fourteen sedimentary packages
were defined for the SH-Y Basin, and the sedimen-
tary formations of the Qi Basin were sub-divided
into nine packages. The age for each boundary
surface was dated by nannofossil-based biostratigra-
phy provided by the operating company from each
industrial well and/or by correlating stratigraphy
across regional cross-sections.
The cross-section shown in Figure 2 shows the
general structure of the SH-Y Basin. It shows a
classic pull-apart type basin with a relatively sym-
metrical shape around an axis developed in a
NNW–SSE direction (Dooley & McClay 1997).
Because of the limited seismic coverage and lack
of drilling data from the basin centre, the morpho-
logy of the basement as well as the nature of the
oldest sedimentary formations in the basin centre
has not been well defined. These deepest forma-
tions were estimated as being Paleocene –Eocene,
unconformably overlying pre-Cenozoic terrigenous,
carbonate sedimentary rocks with minor volcanic
rocks (Tran et al. 2003; Mai et al. 2005; Clift &
Sun 2006). The basin started to subside after
c. 50 Ma, presumably related to the regional crustal
extension seen in other parts of the South China
Sea (Su et al. 1989; Clift & Lin 2001). This phase
was followed by rapid subsidence especially after
c. 34 Ma when motion on the RRFZ started (Gilley
et al. 2003) and the pull-apart basin developed.
Active tectonic subsidence continued until the
Late Oligocene–Early Miocene. The extensional
faults and carbonate platforms of the pre-Cenozoic
basement have created a complicated basement
223
morphology and thus a highly laterally variable
sediment distribution (Figs 3, 4 & 5). In Figure 2,
most of the syn-rift deposits are observed to be
in the basin centre, where they are displaced by
numerous transtensional faults on both margins.
Offsets of the Palaeogene– Lower Miocene forma-
tions across these faults suggest that they were reac-
tivated several times. Active rifting was followed
by strong thermal subsidence during the Miocene,
gradually weakening, but then accelerating again
after Miocene (c. 5.5 Ma), at least in the southern
SH-Y Basin (Clift & Sun 2006).
Low-angle shoreline trajectories observed in the
post-Miocene sedimentary packages demonstrate
that little accommodation space was created at that
time. As a result, most of the sediments eroded
from Hainan island during the Pliocene quickly
prograded towards the basin centre with very little
vertical aggradation (Fig. 6). During its evolution-
ary history, the SH-Y Basin has experienced at
least two inversion phases. The first uplift period
is quite localized and is interpreted to have been
triggered by the onset of the motion on the RRFZ
at c. 34 –35 Ma. In contrast, the later Mid-Miocene
event (c. 15.5 Ma) probably correlates with the
generation of the Deep Regional Unconformity in
the South China Sea (Hazebroek & Tan 1993;
Hutchison 1996; Matthews et al. 1997), the end of
the motion on the RRFZ, and with the cessation of
seafloor spreading.
Evidence for uplift and basin inversion is provi-
ded by strong deformation and erosion signa-
tures observed on seismic profiles, especially in
the northern part of the SH-Y Basin (Figs 3 & 7).
The basin inversion involved not only deformation
of basin fill, but also thrust faulting with
significant vertical offsets (c. 250 ms of two-way
travel time; Fig. 7). Compressional stresses operat-
ing during inversion may have played an important
role in remobilizing the overpressured, fine-grained
sediments to form shale/mud diapir-like struc-
tures in the centre of the SH-Y Basin (Hao et al.
2002; Figs 2 & 8b). However, some of these struc-
tures penetrate the youngest sedimentary forma-
tions that postdate Middle Miocene inversion.
This relationship suggests that the structures were
initially formed by compressional deformation
but may subsequently have been enhanced by sedi-
mentary loading during rapid deposition of the over-
lying Pliocene –Recent sediments (Clift & Sun
2006). Although these structures could convention-
ally be interpreted as shale diapirs (Hao et al. 2002;
Xie et al. 2003; Clift & Sun 2006) their shapes and
the structure of surrounding and overlying seismic
reflections do not resemble geometries associated
with well documented diapirs elsewhere.
A possible alternative interpretation in better
agreement with seismic stratigraphic relations may
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

224 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

Fig. 2. Seismic and interpreted cross-section of Line GPGT 93-223 through the SH-Y Basin, showing a pull-apart
basin structure. Rifting has strongly disrupted the basement and displaced syn-rift formations with different offsets. A
possible shale/mud diapir is intruded into younger layers as a result of the sediment remobilisation initially triggered by
tectonic inversion. Alternatively this structure could represent a strike-slip fault zone. Line location is shown on
Figure 1.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA 225

Fig. 3. Seismic and interpreted cross-section of Line GPGT 93–200 running in a north–south direction through the
SH-Y Basin and showing a complicated basement morphology and the increased deformation/erosion towards the
north. Line location is shown on Figure 1.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

226 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

Fig. 4. Seismic and interpreted cross-section of Line GPGT 93–204 in the SH-Y Basin. The presence of a carbonate
platform reflects more localized sediment distribution during the early stages of basin opening. The progradation
configuration observed here suggests sediments spilled over to the SE during the Plio-Pleistocene. Line location is
shown on Figure 1.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA 227

Fig. 5. Seismic and interpreted cross-section of Line GPGT 93–225 on the SW flank of the SH-Y Basin. The
progradation towards the ENE suggests more sediments spilled over from the northern SH-Y Basin were delivered into
the Qi Basin after c. 2 Ma. Line location is shown on Figure 1.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

228 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

Fig. 6. Cross-section of seismic profile C-65-75 through the Qi Basin. Basement is characterized by strong faulting,
which formed a succession of graben-horst structures. Thin layers show that less sediment was delivered to this
basin before c. 2 Ma, while steep shelf edge trajectory suggests rapid sediment influx after this time. A large-scale
canyon, which incised down through older formations shows an imbalance between the sediment supply and
slope stability. Line location is shown on Figure 1.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA 229

Fig. 7. Cross-section interpreted from seismic profile GPGT 93– 201 in the northern SH-Y Basin. Strong erosion,
deformation and thrust faulting are evidence for several basin inversions. Line location is shown on Figure 1.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

230 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

Fig. 8. Several internal seismic reflection architectures observed within the basin: (a) asymmetrical channel migration;
(b) shallow faulting developed above a shale diapir/fault zone; (c) complex-oblique sigmoidal reflections in the
progradational package; (d) high amplitude/low frequency of the seismic reflections observed at the bottom of the
canyon was likely caused by the presence of a carbonate-cemented sandstone. The underlying reflections are pulled up
due to the increase in seismic velocity of infill within the canyon; (e) lateral variation in seismic facies; (f) vertical
variation in bedded seismic facies.

include combined dip- and strike-slip faulting to
create triangular zones of poor seismic imaging
overlain by only subtly disturbed, sub-horizontal
reflections (Figs 2 & 8b). However, the present data
density does not allow a confident interpretation of
these structures and their origin is not discussed
further here.
In contrast to the SH-Y Basin, the Qi Basin
overlies the rifted margin of southern China and
straddles the continent–ocean transition (Hao
et al. 1998). Its shape was strongly influenced by
the palaeogeomorphology of the rifted continental
margin basement. Seismic characteristics and the
interpreted cross-section in Figure 6 show the
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
large-scale internal architecture of the Qi Basin.
Accurate age control is hard to achieve across this
section because of a lack of drilling in the deep
water. The basement of the Qi Basin is strongly
disrupted by a series of normal faults to form a
classic graben-horst structure (Fig. 6). Rifting
appears to have ceased by 21 Ma, a little earlier
than in the SH-Y Basin, but a little younger than
seen in the main depocentre east of Hainan island,
the Pearl River Mouth Basin. Sediment influx into
the Qi basin before the Pliocene was limited and
likely derived from southern China and Hainan
because older sediment from the Red River was
accommodated in the SH-Y Basin. The total
volume of sediments deposited in the Qi Basin
is much smaller compared to those in the SH-Y
Basin. After c. 2 Ma, sedimentation in the Qi
Basin became notably faster. The increase in sedi-
ment supply during this period is indicated by
steep shoreline trajectories and progradation pat-
terns observed on seismic profiles (Figs 6 & 8c).
The vertical stacking and horizontal progradation
patterns observed in the seismic profiles demon-
strate that sediment supply was faster than accom-
modation space creation at that time.
Another striking feature observed in this basin
is the presence of a large-scale canyon, which devel-
oped in a NE –SW direction, and which widens and
deepens towards the SE (Fig. 6b). The maximum
observed size of the canyon is estimated to reach
c. 30 km wide and c. 1 km deep. The canyon
formed after c. 2 Ma and incised older sediments
dating back to c. 2.6–3.6 Ma. Slope gradients
increase locally associated with the canyon. As a
result, more coarse-grained sediments filled the
head of canyon, as evidenced by faster seismic inter-
val velocities compared to the surrounding area.
This is illustrated by strong amplitude, low fre-
quency of seismic reflections at the base of the
canyon and by the ‘pull-up’ effect of the underlying
reflections (Fig. 8d). The formation mechanism of
this canyon is unclear but may result from relative
base level fall as the area around Hainan was
uplifted causing down-cutting and cannibalization
of the slope stratigraphy.
Time – depth conversion
Because well data are only available down to limi-
ted depths, which are much shallower than basement
in the basin centre, we used stacking velocities
derived from seismic processing in order to make
a time-depth conversion and thus estimate the
depths of stratigraphic and basement surfaces.
Once the major stratigraphic surfaces were picked,
the sections were converted from time to depth
using stacking velocities derived from seismic
data processing. We calculated the interval velocity
231
for each layer by applying Dix’s equation
(Dix 1955):
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V22  T2  V12  T1
Vi ¼
T2  T1
where:
Vi is interval velocity for each layer
V1, V2 are stacking velocity values for the upper
and lower layer boundaries
T1, T2 are two-way travel time values down to the
upper and lower layer boundaries.
The layer thickness and the bottom depth are
computed by following equations:
Vi (T2  T1 )
Li ¼ and Di ¼ Di1 þ Li
2
where:
L1 is layer thickness
D1, Di-1: are the depths of the upper and lower
layer surfaces.
The depth of each boundary surface was used to
construct isopach maps and to estimate the sediment
budget using all the sections shown in Figure 1.
Figure 9 shows contoured isopach maps generated
for major stratigraphic units within the SH-Y and
Qi basins. Seismic interpretation shows that the
basin centre has a maximum depth of c. 22 km.
The variation in morphology and depth of the
basin through time demonstrates that the depocentre
was relatively stationary until the Middle Miocene,
after which it gradually migrated towards the SE,
following strong basin inversion in the north. In
contrast, the Qi Basin overlies both continental
shelf and slope, and its deposition pattern is differ-
ent from the SH-Y Basin. Because this basin
forms part of a rifted passive margin and most of
the sediments were delivered from Hainan island,
sediments tended to accumulate quickly on the con-
tinental shelf and slope, but more slowly in the deep
basin floor. As a result, total sediment thicknesses
in the northwestern half of the basin (c. 8.5 km)
are much higher than those on the opposite flank
(c. 4 km) (Figs 6 & 9a). Within the Qi Basin, the
depocentre has not just migrated towards the SW
where it intersects with the SH-Y Basin, but also
to the SE (Fig. 9a).
Sediment budget
Decompaction of the depth-converted sedimentary
layers allows us to restore them to their original
volumes by correcting for the hydrostatic load
of the overlying layers (Sclater & Christie 1980).
This procedure was executed in 2D using the soft-
ware FlexDecompTM v.1.0 (Kusznir et al. 1995).
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

232 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

Fig. 9. Isopach maps of the SH-Y and Qi Basins generated for different time periods show that the depocentre has
migrated through time: (a) Total sedimentary thickness of the basin; (b) Eocene– Oligocene; (c) Early Miocene;
(d) Pliocene– Pleistocene. The varying sediment thickness shows that more sediment has been deposited in the
northwestern half of the Qi Basin, under the present shelf and slope than the southern half of the basin.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
In this study, we selected eight seismic lines from
the SH-Y Basin and seven lines from the Qi Basin
for backstripping. These lines are distributed
across the whole basin, covering wide stretches
in order to ensure their representative character
(Fig. 1). The input data consist of depth values for
each stratigraphic surface, lithology and age con-
straints. Because no age control was defined for
the oldest sedimentary layers, we assumed the
basin started opening at c. 50 Ma. Each individual
layer was then decompacted in reverse order of
deposition by unloading the overlying packages.
The total unloaded area of each stratigraphic
unit was normalized to the total area of the whole
decompacted sections within the basin in order to
define a normalized coefficient of erosion for each
individual stratum. The true volume of sediment
deposited during any given time period across
the whole basin was estimated by multiplying the
basin volume by the normalization coefficient.
Rates of sediment supply were then derived by
dividing by the duration of sedimentation. The sedi-
mentation rate was computed not only for both
SH-Y and Qi basins respectively, but was also cal-
culated for the combined SH-Y and Qi basin.
Details of the sediment budget estimation are pre-
sented in Figure 10 and Table 1, where our results
can be directly compared with those from the
earlier work by Clift & Sun (2006) and Métivier
et al. (1999).
Temporal evolution in mass flux
From c. 50–29.5 Ma, sedimentation rates in the
SH-Y Basin were modest, but increased for the
period 29.5 –21 Ma (Fig. 10a). Sedimentation rates
fell again between 21 and 15.5 Ma before rising
to a higher level at 15.5 –10.5 Ma. Maximum
values of sediment supply are calculated for the
Plio-Pleistocene, following a period of lower sedi-
mentation at 10.5–5.5 Ma. This general pattern is
comparable with that estimated by Clift & Sun
(2006), although they predicted peak sedimentation
in the Middle, not the Early Miocene, as we do here.
In contrast, sedimentation rates in the Qi Basin are
quite different (Fig. 10b). Average sedimentation
rates were generally low, except for a modest
increase around 15 Ma. The sediment flux into the
Qi Basin spiked rapidly only after c. 3 Ma. In this
general form our reconstruction is close to that of
Clift & Sun (2006), although we predict much
higher peak values in the Pleistocene. Because
the SH-Y Basin is much larger than the Qi Basin,
the combined sedimentation rate reconstruction
is similar to that of the SH-Y Basin (Fig. 10c),
although with an accentuated pulse of sediment
delivery since 3 Ma. Our reconstruction differs
greatly from the predicted gradual rise in rates
233
predicted by Métivier et al. (1999) since the
Eocene, but mostly differs from the budget of Clift
& Sun (2006) in emphasizing the increase in rates
in the Early Miocene, with a reduced flux in the
Middle Miocene.
Monsoon weathering reconstructions
In order to assess if climate is controlling temporal
variations in sediment flux to the ocean we require
a detailed history of environmental conditions
with which to compare our sediment budget. In
this study we assume that sedimentation rates are
a proxy for erosion rates in the Red River Basin
onshore and that continental weathering intensity
can be used as a proxy for summer monsoon rains.
We use weathering records derived from the Pearl
River Mouth Basin, largely from ODP Site 1148,
where the sediments are derived from erosion of
largely flat-lying southern China (Li et al. 2003).
The general lack of tectonism or major drainage
capture means that variations in sedimentary com-
position largely reflect climatically modulated
chemical weathering intensity. In this study, we
used published weathering data (Wei et al. 2006;
Wan et al. 2007; Clift et al. 2008c) together with
new chemical proxies calculated from the XRF
scanning data to trace different aspects of the
clastic flux.
Figure 11 shows a variety of mineralogical and
geochemical records, which do not show parallel
development. This raises a question concerning
the reliability of the scanning data, as well as the
other records, which are not in agreement. Kido
et al. (2006) pointed out that XRF signal intensity
is reduced by the presence of water within sediment
and that a thin water film between the sediment
surface and the covering film may affect the
reliability of the output data. The presence of
water between the sediment and the film may be
important but it would be equally so for all parts
of the core and would not account for coherent long-
term trends in the data, although it might explain
some of the short duration spikes in values,
especially as seen in Al. Progressive dewatering in
deeper buried sediments could generate a long-term
trend, although we do not see anything that might be
suggestive of that in our data. The absorption effect
of water is in the following order Al . Si . K .
Ti. Consequently, decreasing water content down-
section should increase the intensity of Al counts
relative to Si, K, and Ti. This may cause a decrease
in Al/Si ratios up-section. However, core descrip-
tion and carbonate contents (Clift 2006) show us
that the clastic content was relatively stable and
only increased after 6–7 Ma, synchronous with
the change in Al/Si values. In contrast, porosity
changes more progressively, and only shows a
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

234 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

Fig. 10. Sediment budget estimate derived from this study (dark grey) and compared to the earlier work of Clift & Sun
(2006) shown in cross-hatched patterns and Métivier et al. (1999) shown with horizontal lines for: (a) the SH-Y Basin;
(b) the Qi Basin; (c) total combined SH-Y and Qi Basin.

trend to higher water contents at depths shallower
than c. 90 m, equivalent to ages of c. 1.3 Ma (Ship-
board Scientific Party 2000). We conclude that there
is no correlation between porosity and Al/Si values.
This indicates that clay content rather than porosity
is the primary control on Al/Si values.
We further compare the geochemical weathering
records with clay mineral assemblages at nearby
ODP Site 1146 (Wan et al. 2007) because certain
clay minerals, such as kaolinite and smectite are for-
med by chemical weathering processes, whereas
others, such as illite and chlorite, are the products
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
Table 1. Sediment budget estimation for the Song Hong-Yinggehai and Qiongdongnam basins

Stratum Stratum area/Seismic line (km2) Total Real Mean Maximum Minimum
age area volume sedimentation sedimentation sedimentation
(Ma) 3555 C-58-79 GPGT GPGT GPGT GPGT GPGT GPGT (km2) (km3) rate rate rate

TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA

93-207 93-211 93-215 93-219 93-223 93-225 (km3/Ma) (km3/Ma) (km3/Ma)

Song Hong– Yinggehai Basin

0.0– 2.0 52.8 110.9 59.7 85.0 109.2 124.4 143.2 183.8 868.9 32.1 16.0 19.2 12.8
2.0– 5.5 128.8 237.9 294.7 309.3 274.9 237.8 262.7 168.9 1915.2 70.7 20.2 24.2 16.2
5.5– 10.5 36.0 50.6 72.4 104.4 151.4 278.5 166.5 223.2 1082.9 40.0 8.0 9.6 6.4
10.5– 15.5 91.2 87.8 144.5 228.0 344.2 337.7 262.4 231.5 1727.4 63.8 12.8 15.3 10.2
15.5– 21.0 89.0 38.9 65.1 180.5 232.2 212.0 145.2 83.9 1046.9 38.6 7.0 8.4 5.6
21.0– 29.5 168.9 54.0 398.2 1003.8 878.3 538.3 483.4 261.8 3786.8 139.8 16.4 19.7 13.2
29.5– 50.0 75.7 157.7 673.3 1280.9 802.2 518.6 684.7 278.0 4471.1 165.0 8.1 9.7 6.4

Stratum area/Seismic line (km2)

C-57-79 C-35-69 44039 C-49-79 C-65-79 C-73-79 C-98-79

Qiongdongnan Basin
0.0– 2.0 39.6 33.1 76.9 159.3 191.2 267.3 311.7 1079.0 86.5 43.3 51.9 34.6
2.0– 3.6 53.4 37.6 43.7 61.8 77.4 106.4 102.5 482.8 38.7 24.2 29.0 19.4
3.6– 5.5 30.5 21.5 5.4 8.6 12.5 17.3 21.9 117.7 9.4 5.0 6.0 4.0
5.5– 10.5 8.0 5.7 14.2 22.7 32.9 45.5 57.7 186.7 15.0 3.0 3.6 2.4
10.5– 13.8 41.2 25.4 9.4 15.0 21.7 30.0 38.0 180.7 14.5 4.4 5.3 3.5
13.8– 15.5 25.2 13.2 5.9 14.0 15.0 30.5 38.0 141.8 11.4 6.7 8.0 5.4
15.5– 21.0 22.2 13.1 19.0 45.0 49.8 98.8 100.0 347.9 27.9 5.1 6.1 4.1
21.0– 24.4 26.9 18.7 17.1 18.5 20.0 25.0 36.1 162.3 13.0 3.8 4.6 3.1
24.4– 27.5 8.0 7.4 15.6 16.9 18.2 22.8 32.9 121.8 9.8 3.2 3.8 2.5
27.5– 50 76.0 71.2 113.2 122.7 132.1 165.5 238.7 919.4 73.7 3.3 3.9 2.6

235
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015

236 L. V. HOANG ET AL.

Fig. 11. Geochemical data derived from ODP Site 1148 and showing the temporal variations in the intensity of
chemical weathering through the Neogene, interpreted as a monsoon proxy in this study: (a) colour data (CRAT) (Clift
et al. 2008c); (b) illite/smectite ratios for ODP Site 1146 (Wan et al. 2007); (c) chemical index of alteration (CIA) (Wei
et al. 2006); (d) Al/Si ratio; (e) Ti/Ca ratio; (f) sediment budgets estimated for the whole SH-Y and Qi Basins.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
of physical weathering (Thiry 2000). As a result
ratios such as illite/smectite can be used to indicate
relative strengthening of physical v. chemical pro-
cesses (Fig. 11b). The data from ODP Site 1146
suggest strengthening of physical weathering after
12 Ma and especially after c. 8 Ma.
High-resolution scanning-based weather proxies
can also be compared with whole rock XRF ana-
lyses of Wei et al. (2006), which allow the CIA
to be calculated (Fig. 11c). This proxy shows a
general trend to decreasing values through time,
which Wei et al. (2006) interpreted to reflect
decreasing weathering intensities under the influ-
ence of a steadily weakening summer monsoon.
This simple interpretation is hard to reconcile with
some other monsoon proxies, such as those invok-
ing strong monsoon at 8 Ma (Chen et al. 2003;
Zheng et al. 2004). However, a steep decrease
in CIA at 8 Ma coincides with a rise in illite/
smectite (Wan et al. 2007), indicating a period of
important environmental change.
In addition, we plot Al/Si as a measure of the
relative proportion of clays compared to quartz
sand in the sediment (Fig. 11d). Clays are rich
in Al and this proxy has the advantage of not
being affected by the large amount of biogenic
carbonate in the cores. Most of the core at ODP
Site 1148 is very fine grained and no sandy or silty
intervals were identified (Shipboard Scientific
Party 2000), yet the Al/Si proxy shows strong
temporal variations, most notably a steady decrease
(i.e. less clay) since c. 8 Ma, after a period of high
clay content in the Middle and Late Miocene
(Fig. 11d). More sandy flux might indicate stronger
physical weathering onshore after that time, con-
sistent with the falling CIA values.
We are able to gain further insight into the evol-
ving clay mineralogy itself by reference to the CRAT
proxy of Clift et al. (2008c). Clay mineralogy has
been used in the past to reconstruct the changing
intensity of the monsoon both in South Asia
(Derry & France-Lanord 1996a) and in the South
China Sea (Clift et al. 2002; Wehausen & Brumsack
2002; Trentesaux et al. 2006). CRAT is calculated
based on colour spectral data and end member
mixing calculations, and is designed to provide
a measure of the mineralogical ratio chlorite/
(chlorite þ hematite þ goethite). The method is
remote, but has been calibrated using laboratory
standards under the assumption that visible range
colour spectra are principally controlled by chlorite,
hematite, and goethite, and clearly reflect long-term
variations in core chemistry and mineralogy that
cannot be linked to diagenesis. The alteration min-
erals hematite and goethite are largely produced
by chemical weathering, whereas chlorite is indica-
tive of physical erosion (Chamley 1989). As a result
CRAT measures the relative intensities of chemical
237
weathering and indicates a period of strong
chemical weathering in southern China during the
Middle –Late Miocene, followed by less intense
weathering (and presumably a weaker summer
monsoon) in the Late Miocene– Pliocene (Fig. 11a).
The period of reducing chemical weathering
shown by climbing CRAT values after 12 Ma corre-
lates with increased illite/smectite at ODP Site 1146
(Wan et al. 2007) (Fig. 11b) as might be predicted.
In contrast, strong chemical weathering during the
Middle Miocene is shown by low illite/smectite
ratios and low CRAT values. However, the high
CRAT values around 16 Ma show no response in
clay mineralogy. Unfortunately, the record at ODP
Site 1146 does not extend far enough back in time
to see whether illite/smectite was higher before
23 Ma, as might be predicted.
Comparison of both CRAT values at ODP Site
1148 and illite/smectite ratios at ODP Site 1146
are hard to reconcile in a simple way with detailed
CIA values. However, all three proxies suggest
generally weaker summer monsoons and less
weathering after the Middle Miocene. CIA does
not decrease in a uniform fashion, but shows at
least two positive excursions centred at c. 16– 17
and 3– 5 Ma, interpreted as periods of stronger
chemical weathering and stronger summer mon-
soon. The period at 3–5 Ma is noteworthy in
having anomalously low illite/smectite ratios,
consistent with stronger chemical weathering
(Fig. 11b), but this is at odds with the low CRAT
value. CIA increases after 5 Ma at the same time
that CRAT begins to increase, although since 3 Ma
CIA has shown modest decrease at a time that
CRAT values decreased, and when illite/smectite
ratios were very variable. Differences between
these proxies are hard to interpret. Some of the
issues may relate to the fact that CRAT examines
only the clay mineral fraction of the sediment,
whereas CIA looks at the bulk sediment. Further-
more, CRAT values are controlled in part by goethite
and hematite and do not factor in smectite, which
requires higher degrees of chemical weathering to
become abundant.
Finally, we consider the Ti/Ca ratio, which is a
good proxy for evaluating the relative influence
of clastic v. carbonate sediment influx (Fig. 11e).
From c. 23 to 6 Ma, the Ti/Ca ratio remained
mostly at low levels, but with two short periods of
higher values observed at c. 15– 17 and 10.5 –
11.5 Ma. What is most striking is the steady increase
in Ti/Ca values since 4 Ma, suggestive of a rapidly
increasing clastic flux to the drill site. This is
consistent with shipboard core description and
CaCO3 measurements (Shipboard Scientific Party
2000). This trend parallels reconstructed trends
in monsoon-related foraminifera at ODP Site 1146
on the northern margin of South China Sea (Wang
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
238 L. V. HOANG ET AL.
et al. 2003), as well as winter monsoon dust records
from the North Pacific (Rea 1994) and from the
Chinese Loess Plateau (An et al. 2001). However,
enhanced post 4 Ma clastic flux to the ocean is not
only a pan-Asian phenomenon that has been
linked to intensifying summer monsoon (Métivier
et al. 1999; Clift 2006), but is recognized worldwide
and has been linked to fast continental erosion under
the influence of variable glacial –interglacial cycles
(Zhang et al. 2001).
Discussion
SE Asia is a classic natural laboratory for exa-
mining possible interactions between solid Earth
tectonics and climatic evolution. Many researchers
have used information from sediment records
in the South China Sea, as well as from bedrock
onshore, in order to quantitatively model this
relationship by reconstructing the timing of East
Asian monsoon intensification. However, clear
linkages between monsoon intensity, topographic
growth and its effects on continental erosion have
been hard to find because of uncertainties in all
three processes. Results from our study suggest
that combinations of geochemical and minera-
logical data derived from ODP Site 1148, with
sediment budgets from the Pearl and Red Rivers
show some correlation, especially in the Pleistocene
and Early Miocene, suggesting that climate vari-
ability is a controlling factor on continental weath-
ering in SE Asia. The role of topographic uplift
is harder to constrain because of the uncertainties
in Tibetan and SE Asian topographic growth
(Clark et al. 2005; Harris 2006; Schoenbohm et al.
2006a) and the possible influences of drainage
reorganization in governing the flux of sediment to
the Gulf of Tonkin.
Reconstructing the stratigraphic evolution of
the SH-Y and Qi Basins is important to studies
of monsoon-tectonic coupling relationships for
several reasons. These two basins together form
one of the largest sedimentary masses in SE Asia
and record the erosion flux from a major drainage
that cuts the flank of the Tibetan Plateau over
a long period of time. Uplift of SE Tibet and
Yunnan might therefore be expected to have driven
faster mass fluxes as the gorges of the upper Red
River were cut. Although this is a region of strong
summer monsoon rains the heaviest rains are
closer to the coast, not in the areas of strongest
surface deformation. A stronger monsoon might
be expected to cause stronger run-off, higher
erosion and faster sedimentation rates. This area
contrasts with the erosional links proposed for the
frontal ranges of the Himalaya where the steep
topographic gradient results in a close coupling of
climate, exhumation and structure (Hodges et al.
2004; Thiede et al. 2004; Clift et al. 2008c).
In contrast, the topographic gradient of the edge of
the Tibetan Plateau is much more gradual along
its southeastern flank.
Tectonic and stratigraphic evolution
Although the nature of the oldest sedimentary for-
mations within the SH-Y and Qi Basins is still
uncertain, there is little doubt that deposition had
started during the Eocene –Oligocene (Zhong
et al. 2004; Clift & Sun 2006). The basin began to
subside strongly after c. 34 –35 Ma when motion
on the RRFZ first started (Gilley et al. 2003). This
motion and its associated transtensional faulting
together controlled formation of the SH-Y Basin
as a pull-apart. Motion on the RRFZ probably
caused the pre-rift formations to be uplifted,
deformed and eroded, at least locally (Figs 3 & 7).
This effect is best observed in the northern part of
the SH-Y basin. Relatively stationary depocentres
during the Oligocene–Early Miocene suggest that
most of sediments delivered from the Red River
were trapped in the northern and central SH-Y
Basin, while little sediment was reaching the Qi
Basin. Active faulting and basin subsidence contin-
ued until c. 21 Ma and was followed by slower
thermal subsidence after an inversion event
focused in the northern SH-Y Basin, younging to
c. 15 Ma in the south.
The cessation of seafloor spreading and the end
of left-lateral motion on the RRFZ together resulted
in an inversion event in the early Middle Miocene.
These processes correlate well with the change in
the basin from transtensional to transpressional
character. As a result the whole basin was strongly
inverted, deformed and eroded before 15 Ma. A
significant portion of the pre-uplift formations in
the northwestern SH-Y Basin was removed follow-
ing strong uplift and erosion (Figs 3 & 7). For this
reason, very little of the sediment delivered by the
Red River was deposited in that part of the system
at that time. Instead, sediments were bypassed to
the centre and southeastern end of the basin where
the basin floor was still deep and where accom-
modation space allowed preservation. However,
the Qi Basin did not experience Mid-Miocene inver-
sion, presumably because of its distance from the
RRFZ. After inversion, the SH-Y Basin gradually
subsided again. Low-angle shelf edge trajectories
observed in some places demonstrate that less
accommodation space was created after 15 Ma, con-
sistent with reconstructions of basement tectonic
subsidence (Clift & Sun 2006). None the less, the
integrated basin-wide sedimentary budget shows
faster sedimentation at 11–15.5 Ma compared to
the Early Miocene.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
Influence of Hainan
Clinoforms observed in Figures 4 and 5 show that
the northwestern SH-Y Basin was nearly filled
after c. 5 Ma, so that most of the younger sediments
must have overspilled not only to the SE, but partly
into the Qi Basin, as they did during the Last Glacial
Maximum (c. 20 ka). Sediments derived from the
Red River and eroded from Hainan island
were deposited together in the northwestern half of
the Qi Basin as a large prograding clastic wedge.
The high-angle shelf edge trajectory and the direc-
tion of progradation observed in southern Hainan
(Fig. 6) suggest that significant volumes of sedi-
ments eroded from the island were delivered to the
Qi Basin. The increase in sediment supply from
that area may be a response to the tectonically
driven uplift of the Hainan island, linked to magma-
tism during the Pleistocene (Tu et al. 1991; Flower
et al. 1998). In addition, faster erosion in Hainan and
within the Red River Basin driven by an intensified
summer monsoon may be responsible for some of
the increased erosion. Finally we consider that pro-
gressive surface uplift in SW China (Yunnan) and
northern Vietnam within the headwaters of the
Red River during the Pliocene (Schoenbohm et al.
2006a) may have driven faster erosion by causing
enhanced incision of the Red River.
Chemical weathering and climate change
Intensification of the East Asian monsoon may be
one of the most important factors in controlling
continental weathering processes. On the continents
precipitation, temperature and vegetation are the
primary controls on both chemical weathering and
physical erosion (White & Blum 1995; Edmond &
Huh 1997; West et al. 2005). Over geological time-
scales, a measure of this is preserved in the chemi-
stry and mineralogy of sediments transported by
rivers. Water-mobile elements are easily removed
from weathering products and whereas more stable
elements tend to be relatively enriched. Based on
these principles, we now combine information
derived from the sedimentary budget and from geo-
chemical analysis to assess how changing monsoon
strength may have influenced erosion within the Red
River drainage since the Oligocene.
Figure 10c shows that sedimentation flux from
the Red River Basin initially increased after
c. 29 Ma and subsequently fell again after 21 Ma.
Unfortunately, there is no weathering record pre-
dating 24 Ma. Clay mineralogical records from
ODP Site 1148 show monsoon strengthening after
c. 22 Ma (Clift et al. 2008c). If this is true then the
higher erosion rates at 21–28 Ma largely predate a
strong monsoon, while the first period of strong
summer monsoon (22– 17 Ma) correlates with a
239
period of reduced sediment flux to the SH-Y Basin
(Fig. 10a). The increase in sediment flux into the
basin at 21–29 Ma was thus more likely to have
been triggered by the onset of topographic uplift
and exhumation related to the Red River Shear
Zone, which started at c. 34– 35 Ma (Leloup et al.
2001; Gilley et al. 2003). A decrease in sedimen-
tation rate after c. 21 Ma may indicate erosion of
the early topography.
Minimum CRAT values and low illite/smectite
ratios from c. 15 –10 Ma, together with steady
CIA values (Fig. 11a, b, c) indicates that chemical
weathering was strong in a climate of intensified
summer monsoon rain (Wan et al. 2007). This
time correlates with a period of moderately
increased sedimentation rates (Fig. 11f ). A positive
link between erosion rates and monsoon intensity is
suggested at that time, not least because the RRFZ
became inactive after 15 Ma, so that the increased
rates of erosion are the opposite of those predicted
if tectonic forces were the dominant erosion control.
Decreased CIA values after 8 Ma indicates
that chemical weathering weakened after this time.
Similarly, rising CRAT values, high illite/smectite
and decreased sedimentation rates all point to
weaker chemical weathering in a drying monsoon
climate after 8 Ma, correlating with a fall in clastic
flux. This drop in sedimentation rates during the
Late Miocene parallels similar synchronous trends
recognized on the Bengal Fan (Burbank et al.
1993). However, unlike that study we suggest a
positive correlation between erosion and monsoon
strength because 8 Ma now appears to mark a time
of summer monsoon weakening not intensification
as previously believed (Derry & France-Lanord
1996b).
Tibetan gorge incision
Although the RRFZ was reactivated after 5 Ma,
albeit in a reverse, dextral sense (Schoenbohm
et al. 2006b), the degree of active shear in the Red
River drainage never regained the rates seen in
the Middle –Early Miocene. However, progressive
uplift of eastern Tibet, driving gorge incision
along the edge of the plateau may have been an
influence on sediment flux to the SH-Y and Qi
basins. Thermochronological work in Yunnan and
Sichuan in SW China indicates accelerated surface
uplift there starting around 11 Ma (Clark et al.
2005). However, this was a time of slower sedimen-
tation in the SH-Y and Qi basins, indicating either
that the drier monsoon was the greater influence
on erosion or that the gorge incision in SW China
was not feeding sediment to the Red River. Recon-
structions of the rivers around the eastern Hima-
layan syntaxis suggest that capture of the Yunnan
rivers away from the Red River was completed
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
240 L. V. HOANG ET AL.
before that time (Clark et al. 2004; Clift et al.
2006a), so that any sediment pulse would have
been diverted into the East China Sea, consistent
with our sediment budgets.
Surface uplift in northern Vietnam postdates
that in Yunnan, being mostly Pliocene in age and
reflecting gradual growth of topography to the SE
(Schoenbohm et al. 2006a). This phase of tectonism
and associated gorge incision correlates well
with the pulse of sediment seen in the SH-Y and
Qi basins. The Ti/Ca curve from ODP Site 1148
shows an increase at this time despite the fact
that the Pearl River Basin is less affected by topo-
graphic uplift. Intensification of the summer
monsoon since c. 4 Ma in the South China Sea
region may be the dominant control on increasing
erosion within this time period (Wan et al. 2006),
whereas rock uplift now controls the patterns of
erosion within the Red River Basin itself (Clift
et al. 2006b).
Our climate reconstruction is consistent with
regional compilations of increased sediment flux
in the Middle Miocene (Clift 2006), although our
records favour an earlier start to higher sediment
flux, during the Early Miocene. The higher rates of
sediment flux at 29–21 Ma are unique to the Red
River system and support a local tectonic rather
than regional climatic trigger. Our apparent initial
monsoon intensification after c. 22 Ma is much
earlier than the commonly cited 8 Ma monsoon
intensification (Kroon et al. 1991; Prell et al.
1992; Zheng et al. 2004), but is consistent with the
revised summer monsoon model of Clift et al.
(2008c). Our estimate is older than the c. 15 Ma
intensification suggested by Wan et al. (2007), but
is consistent with palynology and facies informa-
tion from China (Sun & Wang 2005). Decreasing
humidity from c. 8 –4 Ma and especially a rapid
drop between 5 and 4 Ma, charted by falling CIA
values (Wei et al. 2006), falling kaolinite con-
tents (Wan et al. 2007) and rising CRAT values
(Clift et al. 2008c) (Fig. 10) testify to a weakening
monsoon. This resulted in less physical erosion
in the mountainous Red River basin and reduced
chemical weathering in the flatter Pearl River
Basin. Chemical weathering is further reduced
by falling global temperatures since the Middle
Miocene (Zachos et al. 2001). This change is
shown by low sedimentation rate (Fig. 11f) and by
decrease in the Al/Si ratios (Fig. 11d).
The period of c. 3–4 Ma is marked by falling
CRAT values, higher illite/smectite ratios and
lower CIA, which are not all in accord regarding
the long-term change in summer monsoon strength.
Summer monsoon strength varies rapidly over
millennial timescales at this time and a longer dur-
ation pattern is hard to discern (Clift & Plumb
2008). This period is also accompanied by decreases
in the Al/Si and CIA ratios whereas the Ti/Ca
increased, suggesting enhanced coarser influx, as
well as stronger chemical weathering. Rapid
increase in the Ti/Ca ratio after c. 4 Ma, especially
after c. 2.7 Ma indicates an increase in clastic
sediment influx relative to carbonate sediments,
which was probably caused by enhanced conti-
nental physical weathering driven by the transition
between glacial-interglacial climate states (Zhang
et al. 2001).
Conclusions
Tectonically driven surface uplift of eastern Tibet
has commonly been linked to enhancement of the
East Asia monsoon. Both these processes have
the potential to increase the rates of continental
erosion, which should be reflected in the volumes
and composition of sediments in river deltas. This
study shows that a combination of sedimentary
budgets derived from regional seismic stratigraphic
and geochemical data can be employed to compare
weathering regimes and erosion rates over tectonic
time periods .20 Ma. A combination of proxies
allows us partially to reconstruct the history of
monsoon climate change since 24 Ma.
Our work confirms that the SH-Y and Qi basins
formed after c. 50 Ma and especially subsided
rapidly after c. 34 Ma, coincident with the onset of
motion on the RRFZ. The SH-Y Basin experienced
two inversion phases that occurred at c. 34 and
c. 15.5 Ma, while the Qi Basin seemed not to be
affected by these events. 34 –17 Ma motion on the
RRFZ correlates with a period of faster sedimen-
tation in the SH-Y Basin. This is despite the initial
intensification of the monsoon dating from only
c. 22 Ma. We conclude that tectonic forces are
dominant in controlling erosion at that time. Geo-
chemical data suggest that chemical weathering
has generally decreased since c. 25 Ma, while phys-
ical erosion became stronger. A shift to more phys-
ically eroded chlorite and increasing sedimentation
rates after c. 15.5 Ma points to stronger rains and
stronger physical erosion between 15.5 and 10 Ma.
In this period climate appears to dominate as the
primary erosional control, as motion on the RRFZ
had ceased. The period from 10 to 4 Ma saw a
reduction in chemical weathering and sediment
flux, correlating with a time of weakening sum-
mer monsoon. However, the transition to glacial-
interglacial climates, surface uplift in northern
Vietnam and Hainan island and stronger summer
monsoons, at least during the interglacial periods,
since 4 Ma correlates with a switch back to stronger
erosion of the source rocks, especially physical
erosion, which in turn raised the clastic influx into
the basins.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
We thank the Natural Environment Research Council
(NERC) in the United Kingdom and the College of Phys-
ical Sciences at the University of Aberdeen for funding
and support for this project. We particularly thank BP
Exploration for release of new seismic data to our
project. We thank PetroVietnam, the Chinese National
Offshore Oil Company (CNOOC), and Integrated Ocean
Drilling Program (IODP) for additional supporting data.
Seismic Micro-Technology Inc. provided use of the King-
domTM seismic interpretation software. We also wish to
thank David Heslop, Alan Roberts, Nick Kusznir, Röhl
Ursula, Vera Lukies, Prof. Mai Thanh Tan and Tran Thi
Kieu Hoa for technical advice.
References
An, Z., Kutzbach, J. E., Prell, W. L. & Porter, S. C.
2001. Evolution of Asian monsoons and phased uplift
of the Himalaya-Tibetan Plateau since late Miocene
times. Nature, 411, 62–66.
Briais, A., Patriat, P. & Tapponnier, P. 1993. Updated
interpretation of magnetic anomalies and seafloor
spreading stages in the South China Sea: implications
for the Tertiary tectonics of Southeast Asia. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 98, 6299– 6328.
Brookfield, M. E. 1998. The evolution of the great
river systems of southern Asia during the Cenozoic
India-Asia collision; rivers draining southwards.
Geomorphology, 22, 285–312.
Burbank, D. W., Derry, L. A. & France-Lanord, C.
1993. Reduced Himalayan sediment production 8
Myr ago despite an intensified monsoon. Nature, 364,
48– 50.
Burbank, D. W., Blythe, A. E. et al. 2003. Decoupling
of erosion and precipitation in the Himalayas. Nature,
426, 652– 655.
Chamley, H. 1989. Clay Sedimentology. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin.
Chen, M., Wang, R., Yang, L., Han, J. & Lu, J. 2003.
Development of East Asian summer monsoon environ-
ments in the late Miocene; radiolarian evidence from
Site 1143 of ODP Leg 184. Marine Geology, 201,
169–177.
Clark, M. K., Schoenbohm, L. M. et al. 2004. Surface
uplift, tectonics, and erosion of eastern Tibet from
large-scale drainage patterns. Tectonics, 23, TC1006,
doi: 10.1029/2002TC001402.
Clark, M. K., House, M. A., Royden, L. H., Whipple,
K. X., Burchfiel, B. C., Zhang, X. & Tang, W.
2005. Late Cenozoic uplift of southeastern Tibet.
Geology, 33, 525– 528, doi: 10.1130/G21265.1.
Clift, P. D. 2006. Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic
Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the
ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 241,
571–580.
Clift, P. & Lin, J. 2001. Preferential mantle lithospheric
extension under the South China margin. Marine and
Petroleum Geology, 18, 929– 945.
Clift, P. D. & Plumb, R. A. 2008. The Asian Monsoon:
Causes, History and Effects. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Clift, P. D. & Sun, Z. 2006. The sedimentary and tectonic
evolution of the Yinggehai-Song Hong Basin and the
241
southern Hainan margin, South China Sea; impli-
cations for Tibetan uplift and monsoon intensification.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(B6, 28), doi:
10.1029/2005JB004048.
Clift, P., Lee, J. I., Clark, M. K. & Blusztajn, J. 2002.
Erosional response of south China to arc rifting and
monsoonal strengthening; a record from the South
China Sea. Marine Geology, 184, 207– 226.
Clift, P. D., Blusztajn, J. & Nguyen, D. A. 2006a.
Large-scale drainage capture and surface uplift
in eastern Tibet-SW China before 24 Ma inferred
from sediments of the Hanoi Basin, Vietnam.
Geophysical Research Letters, 33, doi: 10.1029/
2006GL027772.
Clift, P. D., Carter, A., Campbell, I. H., Pringle, M.,
Hodges, K. V., Lap, N. V. & Allen, C. M. 2006b.
Thermochronology of mineral grains in the
Song Hong and Mekong Rivers, Vietnam.
Geophysics, Geochemistry, Geosystems, 7, doi:
10.1029/2006GC001336.
Clift, P., Lee, G. H., Nguyen, A. D., Barckhausen, U.,
Hoang, V. L. & Sun, Z. 2008a. Seismic evidence for
a Dangerous Grounds mini-plate: no extrusion origin
for the South China Sea. Tectonics, 27, doi: 10.1029/
2007TC002216.
Clift, P. D., Hoang, V. L., Hinton, R., Ellam, R.,
Hannigan, R., Tan, M. T. & Nguyen, D. A. 2008b.
Evolving East Asian river systems reconstructed
by trace element and Pb and Nd isotope variations
in modern and ancient Red River-Song Hong
sediments. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 9,
doi: 10.1029/2007GC001867.
Clift, P. D., Hodges, K., Heslop, D., Hannigan, R.,
Hoang, L. V. & Calves, G. 2008c. Greater Himalayan
exhumation triggered by Early Miocene monsoon
intensification. Nature Geoscience, 1, 875 –880,
doi: 10.1038/ngeo351.
Derry, L. & France-Lanord, C. 1996a. Neogene
Himalayan weathering history and river 87Sr/86Sr:
impact on the marine Sr record. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, 142, 59– 74.
Derry, L. A. & France-Lanord, C. 1996b.
Neogene Himalayan weathering history and river
87
Sr/86Sr; impact on the marine Sr record. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 142, 59–74.
Dix, C. H. 1955. Seismic velocities from surface measure-
ments. Geophysics, 20, 68–86.
Dooley, T. & McClay, K. 1997. Analog modeling of
pull-apart basins. AAPG Bulletin, 81, 1804– 1826.
Edmond, J. M. & Huh, Y. 1997. Chemical weathering
yields from basement and orogenic terrains in hot
and cold climates. In: Ruddiman, W. F. (ed.) Tectonic
Climate and Climate Change. Plenum Press,
New York, 330– 353.
Fang, H., Li, S., Gong, Z. & Yang, J. 2000. Thermal
regime, interreservoir compositional heterogeneities,
and reservoir-filling history of the Dongfang gas
field, Yinggehai Basin, South China Sea; evidence
for episodic fluid injections in overpressured basins?
AAPG Bulletin, 84, 607 –626.
Filippelli, G. M. 1997. Intensification of the Asian
monsoon and a chemical weathering event in the
late Miocene-early Pliocene: implications for late
Neogene climate change. Geology, 25, 27–30.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
242 L. V. HOANG ET AL.
Flower, M., Tamaki, K. & Hoang, N. 1998. Mantle
extrusion: a model for dispersed volcanism and
DUPAL-like asthenosphere in East Asia and the
western Pacific. In: Flower, M. F. J., Chung, S.-L.,
Lo, C.-H. & Lee, T. Y. (eds) Mantle Dynamics
and Plate Interactions in East Asia. American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC. Geophysical
Monograph, 27, 67–88.
Gabet, E. J., Edelman, R. & Langner, H. 2006. Hydro-
logical controls on chemical weathering rates at
the soil-bedrock interface. Geology, 34, 1065– 1068,
doi: 10.1130/G23085A.1.
Gilley, L. D., Harrison, T. M., Leloup, P. H., Ryerson,
F. J., Lovera, O. M. & Wang, J. H. 2003. Direct dating
of left-lateral deformation along the Red River shear
zone, China and Vietnam. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 108, doi: 10.1029/2001JB001726.
Gong, Z. & Li, S. 2004. Dynamic research of oil and gas
accumulation in northern marginal basins of South
China Sea. Science Press, Beijing.
Hall, R. 1996. Reconstructing Cenozoic SE Asia. In:
Hall, R. & Blundell, D. J. (eds) Tectonic Evolution
of Southeast Asia. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 106, 203– 224.
Hallet, B. & Molnar, P. 2001. Distorted drainage
basins as markers of crustal strain east of the
Himalaya. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106,
13, 697– 13, 709.
Hao, F., Li, S., Sun, Y. & Zhang, Q. 1998. Geology, com-
positional heterogeneities, and geochemical origin of
the Yacheng gas field, Qiongdongnan Basin, South
China Sea. AAPG Bulletin, 82, 1372–1384.
Hao, F., Li, S., Gong, Z. & Yang, J. 2002. Mechanism
of diapirism and episodic fluid injections in the
Yinggehai Basin. Science in China Series D: Earth
Sciences, 45, 151–159.
Harris, N. B. W. 2006. The elevation of the Tibetan
Plateau and its impact on the monsoon. Palaeogeogra-
phy Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 241, 4– 15.
Harrison, T. M., Leloup, P. H., Ryerson, F. J., Tappon-
nier, P., Lacassin, R. & Wenji, C. 1996. Diachronous
initiation of transtension along the Ailao Shan-Red
River shear zone, Yunnan and Vietnam. In: Yin, A.
& Harrison, T. M. (eds) The Tectonic Evolution of
Asia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
110– 137.
Hazebroek, H. P. & Tan, D. N. K. 1993. Tertiary tectonic
evolution of the NW Sabah continental margin. Geo-
logical Society of Malaysia Bulletin, 33, 195–210.
He, L., Xiong, L. & Wang, J. 2002. Heat flow and thermal
modeling of the Yinggehai Basin, South China Sea.
Tectonophysics, 351, 245–253.
Hodges, K. V., Wobus, C., Ruhl, K., Schildgen, T. &
Whipple, K. 2004. Quaternary deformation, river
steepening, and heavy precipitation at the front of the
Higher Himalayan ranges. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters, 220, 379–389.
Holloway, N. H. 1982. The stratigraphy and tectonic
relationship of Reed Bank, North Palawan and
Mindoro to the Asian mainland and its significance
in the evolution of the South China Sea. AAPG
Bulletin, 66, 1357– 1383.
Hsu, S.-K., Yeh, Y. C., Doo, W. B. & Tsai, C. H.
2005. New bathymetry and magnetic lineations
identifications in the northernmost South China Sea
and their tectonic implications. Marine Geophysical
Researches, 25, 29–44, doi: 10.1007/s11001-005-
0731-7.
Hutchison, C. S. 1996. The ‘Rajang acctionary prism’
and ‘Lupar Line’ problem of Borneo. In: Hall, R. &
Blundell, D. J. (eds) Tectonic Evolution of Southeast
Asia. Geological Society, London, Special Publi-
cations, 106, 247– 261.
Jia, G., Peng, P., Zhao, Q. & Jian, Z. 2003. Changes in
terrestrial ecosystem since 30 Ma in East Asia: stable
isotope evidence from black carbon in the South
China Sea. Geology, 31, 1093–1096.
Kido, Y., Koshikawa, T. & Tada, R. 2006. Rapid and
quantitative major element analysis method of wet
sediment samples using a XRF microscanner. Marine
Geology, 229, 209–225.
Kroon, D., Steens, T. & Troelstra, S. R. 1991. Onset of
Monsoonal related upwelling in the western Arabian
Sea as revealed by planktonic foraminifers. In:
Prell, W. & Niitsuma, N. (eds) Proceedings of the
Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. College
Station, TX: Ocean Drilling Program, 117, 257–263.
Kusznir, N. J., Roberts, A. M. & Morley, C. K. 1995.
Forward and reverse modelling of rift basin formation.
In: Lambiase, J. J. (ed.) Hydrocarbon Habitat in
Rift Basins. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 80, 33–56.
Leloup, P. H., Arnaud, N. et al. 2001. New constraints
on the structure, thermochronology, and timing of the
Ailao Shan-Red River shear zone, SE Asia. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 106, 6657–6671.
Li, X., Wei, G. et al. 2003. Geochemical and Nd isotopic
variations in sediments of the South China Sea; a
response to Cenozoic tectonism in SE Asia. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 211, 207–220.
Lu, W., Ke, C., Wu, J., Liu, J. & Lin, C. 1987. Character-
istics of magnetic lineations and tectonic evolution
of the South China Sea basin. Acta Oceanologica
Sinica, 6, 577–588.
Mai, T. T., Le, H. A. et al. 2005. Study on structural
setting of Pliocene-Quaternary sediments offshore
vietnam, Advances in Natural Sciences, Vietnam, 0-28.
Manabe, S. & Terpstra, T. B. 1974. The effects of
mountains on the general circulation of the atmosphere
as identified by numerical experiments. Journal of
Atmospheric Science, 31, 3– 42.
Matthews, S. J., Fraser, A. J., Lowe, S. & Todd,
S. P. F. J. P. 1997. Structure, stratigraphy and
petroleum geology of the SE Nam Con Son Basin,
offshore Vietnam. In: Fraser, A. J., Matthews,
S. J. & Murphy, R. W. (eds) Petroleum Geology of
Southeast Asia. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 126, 89– 106.
Métivier, F., Gaudemer, Y., Tapponnier, P. & Klein,
M. 1999. Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the
Cenozoic. Geophysical Journal International, 137,
280–318.
Miall, A. D. 1991. Stratigraphic sequences and their
chronostratigraphic correlation. Journal of Sedimen-
tary Petrology, 61, 497– 505.
Molnar, P., England, P. & Martinod, J. 1993. Mantle
dynamics, uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, and the Indian
Monsoon. Reviews of Geophysics, 31, 357– 396.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
TECTONIC AND MONSOON EVOLUTION IN SE ASIA
Morley, C. K. 2002. A tectonic model for the Tertiary
evolution of strike-slip faults and rift basins in SE
Asia. Tectonophysics, 347, 189– 215.
Nesbitt, H. W. & Young, G. M. 1982. Early Proterozoic
climates and plate motions inferred from major
element chemistry of lutites. Nature (London), 299,
715–717.
Nesbitt, H. W., Markovics, G. & Price, R. C. 1980.
Chemical processes affecting alkalis and alkaline
earths during continental weathering. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 44, 1659–1666.
Prell, W. L. & Kutzbach, J. E. 1992. Sensitivity of the
Indian Monsoon to forcing parameters and impli-
cations for its evolution. Nature, 360, 647– 652.
Prell, W. L., Murray, D. W., Clemens, S. C. &
Anderson, D. M. 1992. Evolution and variability of
the Indian Ocean Summer Monsoon: evidence from
the western Arabian Sea drilling program. In:
Duncan, R. A., Rea, D. K., Kidd, R. B., von Rad,
U. & Weissel, J. K. (eds) Synthesis of Results from
Scientific Drilling in the Indian Ocean. American
Geophysical Union, Washington. Geophysical
Monograph, 70, 447– 469.
Rangin, C., Klein, M., Roques, D., Le Pichon, X. &
Trong, L. V. 1995. The Red River fault system in
the Tonkin Gulf, Vietnam. Tectonophysics, 243,
209–222.
Rea, D. K. 1994. The paleoclimatic record provided
by eolian deposition in the deep sea; the geologic
history of wind. Reviews in Geophysics, 32, 159– 195.
Reiners, P. W., Ehlers, T. A., Mitchell, S. G. &
Montgomery, D. R. 2003. Coupled spatial variations
in precipitation and long-term erosion rates across
the Washington Cascades. Nature (London), 426,
645–647.
Replumaz, A. & Tapponnier, P. 2003. Reconstruction
of the deformed collision zone between India and
Asia by backward motion of lithospheric blocks.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, doi: 10.1029/
2001JB000661.
Röhl, U. & Abrams, L. J. 2000. High-resolution, down-
hole and non-destructive core measurements from
Sites 999 and 1001 in the Caribbean Sea: application
to the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum. Proceedings
of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 165,
191–203.
Schoenbohm, L. M., Burchfiel, B. C. & Chen, L.
2006a. Propagation of surface uplift, lower crustal
flow, and Cenozoic tectonics of the southeast margin
of the Tibetan Plateau. Geology, 34, 813– 816,
doi: 10.1130/G22679.1.
Schoenbohm, L. M., Burchfiel, B. C., Chen, L. & Yin,
J. 2006b. Miocene to present activity along the Red
River Fault, China, in the context of continental
extrusion, upper-crustal rotation, and lower-crustal
flow. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 118,
672–688.
Sclater, J. G. & Christie, P. A. F. 1980. Continental
stretching: an explanation of the post Mid-Cretaceous
subsidence of the central North Sea basin. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 85, 3711–3739.
SHIPBOARD SCIENTIFIC PARTY 2000. Site 1148.
In: Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
Part A: Initial Reports.
243
Su, D., White, N. & McKenzie, D. 1989. Extension
and subsidence of the Pearl River mouth basin,
northern South China Sea. Basin Research, 2,
205– 222.
Sun, X. & Wang, P. 2005. How old is the Asian monsoon
system? Palaeobotanical records from China. Palaeo-
geography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 222,
181– 222.
Sun, Z., Zhou, D., Zhong, Z., Zeng, Z. & Wu, S. 2003.
Experimental evidence for the dynamics of the for-
mation of the Yinggehai Basin, NW South China
Sea. Tectonophysics, 372, 41– 58.
Tapponnier, P., Peltzer, G., Le Dain, G. A. Y., Armijo,
R. & Cobbold, P. R. 1982. Propagating extrusion
tectonics in Asia: new insights from simple exper-
iments with plasticine. Geology, 10, 611–616.
Taylor, B. & Hayes, D. E. 1980. The tectonic evolution
of the South China Basin. In: Hayes, D. (ed.) The
Tectonic and Geologic Evolution of Southeast
Asian Seas and Islands. American Geophysical
Union, Washington DC, Geophysical Monograph, 23,
89–104.
Thiede, R. C., Bookhagen, B., Arrowsmith, J. R.,
Sobel, E. R. & Strecker, M. R. 2004. Climatic
control on rapid exhumation along the Southern
Himalayan Front. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 222, 791–806.
Thiry, M. 2000. Palaeoclimatic interpretation of clay
minerals in marine deposits; an outlook from the con-
tinental origin. Earth-Science Reviews, 49, 201–221.
Tjallingii, R., Röhl, U., Kölling, M. & Bickert, T.
2007. Influence of the water content on X-ray fluor-
escence core scanning measurements in soft marine
sediments. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 8,
doi: 10.1029/2006GC001393.
Tran, V. T., Tran, D. T., Waltham, T., Le, D. A. & Lai,
H. A. 2003. The Ha Long Bay world heritage;
outstanding geological values. Journal of Geology,
22, 1 –18.
Trentesaux, A., Liu, Z., Colin, C. J. G. et al. 2006.
Pleistocene paleoclimatic cyclicity of southern China;
clay mineral evidence recorded in the South China
Sea (ODP Site 1146). Proceedings of the Ocean Dril-
ling Program, Scientific Results (CD-ROM), 184, 10.
Tu, K., Flower, M. F. J., Carlson, R. W., Zhang, M. &
Xie, G. 1991. Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic compositions of
Hainan basalts (south China): implications for a sub-
continental lithosphere Dupal source. Geology, 19,
567– 569.
Vail, P. R., Mitchum, R. M., Todd, R. G., Widmier, J. M.,
Thompson, S. I., Sangree, J. B., Bubb, J. N., Hatle-
lid, W. G. et al. 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and
global changes of sea-level. In: Payton, C. E. (ed.)
Seismic Stratigraphy – Applications to Hydrocarbon
Exploration. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, Memoir, 26, 49– 212.
Wan, S., Li, A., Clift, P. D. & Jiang, H. 2006. Develop-
ment of the East Asian summer monsoon; evidence
from the sediment record in the South China Sea
since 8.5 Ma. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, 241, 139– 159.
Wan, S., Li, A., Clift, P. D. & Stuut, J.-B. W. 2007.
Development of the East Asian monsoon: mineralogi-
cal and sedimentologic records in the northern South
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by Vladimir Grigorievit Malkovets on May 10, 2015
244 L. V. HOANG ET AL.
China Sea since 20 Ma. Palaeogeography, Palaeo-
climatology, Palaeoecology, 254, 561–582.
Wang, P. 2004. Cenozoic deformation and the history of
sealand interactions in Asia. In: Clift, P., Wang, P.,
Kuhnt, W. & Hayes, D. (eds) Continent-Ocean Inter-
actions in the East Asian Marginal Seas. American
Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 149, 1 –22.
Wang, P. L., Lo, C. H., Lee, T. Y., Chung, S. L. & Yem,
N. T. 1998. Thermochronological evidence for the
movement of the Ailao Shan-Red River shear zone: a
perspective from Vietnam. Geology, 26, 887 –890.
Wang, P., Prell, W. L. et al. 2000. Site 1148. Proceed-
ings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Part A: Initial
Reports, 184, 121.
Wang, P., Zhao, Q. et al. 2003. Thirty million year
deep-sea records in the South China Sea. Chinese
Science Bulletin, 48, 2524–2535.
Wehausen, R. & Brumsack, H.-J. 2002. Astronomical
forcing of the East Asian monsoon mirrored by the
composition of Pliocene South China Sea sediments.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 201, 621–636.
Wei, G., Li, X.-H., Liu, Y., Shao, L. & Liang, X. 2006.
Geochemical record of chemical weathering and
monsoon climate change since the early Miocene
in the South China Sea. Paleoceanography, 21,
doi: 10.1029/2006PA001300.
West, A. J., Galy, A. & Bickle, M. J. 2005. Tectonic
and climatic controls on silicate weathering. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 235, 211–228,
doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2005.03.020.
White, A. F. & Blum, A. E. 1995. Effects of climate on
chemical weathering in watersheds. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 59, 1729– 1747.
White, A. F., Blum, A. E., Bullen, T. D., Vivit, D. V.,
Schulz, M. & Fitzpaterich, J. 1999. The effect of
temperature on experimental and natural chemical
weathering rates of granitoid rocks. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 63, 3277–3291.
Wobus, C. W., Hodges, K. V. & Whipple, K. X. 2003.
Has focused denudation sustained active thrusting at
the Himalayan topographic front? Geology, 31,
861–864.
Xie, X., Li, S., He, H. & Liu, X. 2003. Seismic evidence
for fluid migration pathways from an overpressured
system in the South China Sea. Geofluids, 3, 245– 253.
Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E. &
Billups, K. 2001. Trends, rythms and abberations
in global climate 65 Ma to Present. Science, 292,
686–693.
Zhang, P., Molnar, P. & Downs, W. R. 2001. Increased
sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2 –4 Myr ago due to
the influence of climate change on erosion rates.
Nature, 410, 891– 897.
Zheng, H., Powell, C. M., Rea, D. K., Wang, J. &
Wang, P. 2004. Late Miocene and mid-Pliocene
enhancement of the east Asian monsoon as viewed
from the land and sea. Global and Planetary Change,
41, 147– 155.
Zhong, Z., Wang, L., Xia, B., Dong, W., Sun, Z. & Shi,
Y. 2004. The dynamics of Yinggehai basin formation
and its tectonic significance. Acta Geologica Sinica,
78, 302– 309.
Zhou, D., Chen, H., Wu, S. & Yu, H. 2002. Opening of
the South China Sea by dextral splitting of the East
Asia continental margin. Acta Geologica Sinica, 76,
180–190.