The Operational Amplifier 3

Special-Purpose
Operational Amplifier Circuits
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Instrumentation Amplifier
 An instrumentation amplifier (IA) is a differential voltage-

gain device that amplifies the difference between the voltages
existing at its two input terminals.
 The main purpose is to amplify small signals that may be
riding on large common-mode voltages.
 It is an integrated circuit that internally has three operational
amplifiers and several resistors.
 The key characteristics are high input impedance, high
common-mode rejection, low output offset, and low output
impedance.
 Instrumentation amplifiers are commonly used in
environments with high common mode noise such as in data
acquisition systems where remote sensing of input variables
is required
 Op-amps A1 and A2 are noninverting configurations that

provide high input impedance and voltage gain.
 Op-amp A3 is used as a unity-gain differential amplifier with
high-precision resistors that are all equal in value (R3 = R4 =
R5 = R6)
 The gain-setting resistor, RG is connected externally.
 The overall closed-loop gain of the instrumentation amplifier

is:
2𝑅𝑅
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1 +
𝑅𝑅𝐺𝐺
 Where R1 = R2 = R
 The gain of the instrumentation amplifier can be set by the
value of the external resistor RG when R1 and R2 have a
known fixed value.
 The external gain-setting resistor RG can be calculated for a
desired voltage gain by
2𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅𝐺𝐺 =
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 1
Example
Determine the value of the external gain-setting resistor RG for a

certain IC instrumentation amplifier with R1 = R2 = 25 kΩ. The
closed-loop voltage gain is to be 500.
Solution
2𝑅𝑅 50 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐺𝐺 = = ≅ 100Ω
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 1 500 − 1
The instrumentation amplifier is normally used to measure small
differential signal voltages that are superimposed on a common-mode
voltage often much larger than the signal voltage. Applications
include situations where a quantity is sensed by a remote device and
the resulting small electrical signal is sent over a long line subject to
electrical noise that produces common-mode voltages in the line.
AD622 Instrumentation Amplifier
 An external resistor must be used to achieve a voltage gain

greater than unity.
 RG is connected between pins 1 and 8.
50.5 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐺𝐺 =
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 1
AD622 Instrumentation Amplifier
What value of RG will set the gain to 35?
50.5 kΩ 50.5 kΩ
=RG =
Av − 1 35 − 1
= 1.5 kΩ
Instrumentation Amplifiers
The bandwidth of any IA (or op-amp for that matter) is

lower for higher gain. The graph shows the BW for various
gains for the AD622.
1000
100
What is the BW for a gain of 35?
Voltage gain
10
1
Reading the graph, the BW is
approximately 200 kHz. 0
100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
Frequency (Hz)
Noise Effects in IA Applications
 Various types of transducers are used to sense temperature,

strain, pressure, and other parameters in many types of
applications.
 Instrument amplifiers are generally used to process the small
voltages produces by a transducer and in noisy industrial
environment.
 Noise in the form of common mode signals picked up from
external sources can be minimized, but not totally eliminated, by
using coaxial cable in which the different signal wires are
surrounded by a metal mesh sheathing called a shield.
 In an electrically noisy environment any common-mode signal
that are induced on the signal lines are rejected because both
inputs to the amplifier have the same common-mode signal.
 However, when a shielded cable used, there are stray

capacitance distributed along its length between each signal line
and the shield.
 The difference in these stray capacitance, particularly at higher
frequencies result in a phase shift between the two common-
mode signals, as illustrated.
SHIELD GUARD
Guarding is a technique to reduce the effect of noise on the
common-mode operation of an instrument amplifier by
connecting the common-mode voltage to the shield of a
coaxial cable.
The common-mode signal is fed back to the shield by a
voltage-follower stage
The purpose is to eliminated voltage differences between the
signal lines and the shield, virtually eliminating leakage
current and cancelling the effects of the distributed
capacitance so that the common-mode voltages are the same
in both lines.
The voltage-follower is a low-impendence source that drives the

common-mode signal onto the shield to eliminate the voltage difference
between the signal lines and the shield.
When the voltage between each signal line and the shield is zero, the
leakage current are also zero and the capacitive reactance become
infinity large. An infinitely large Xc implies a zero capacitance
Instrumentation Amplifiers
The AD522 is a low-noise IA that has a Data guard output, which is

connected to the shield as shown. The AD522 has a programmed
gain from 1 to 1000 depending on RG. The frequency response rolls
off at −20 dB/decade.
Gain (dB)
60
G = 1000
G = 100
40
G = 10
20
0 G =1
f (Hz)
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M
Frequency response of AD522
Isolation Amplifiers
 An isolation amplifier is designed to provide an electrical barrier

between the input and output.
 It consists of two electrically isolated stages: Input stage and
Output stage separated by an isolation barrier so that a signal must
be processed in order to be coupled across the isolation barrier.
 It is used for the protection of human life or sensitive equipment in
those applications where hazardous power-line leakage or high-
voltage transients are possible.
 Some isolation amplifiers use optical coupling or transformer
coupling to provide isolation between the stages.
 Modern isolation amplifiers use capacitive coupling for isolation.
 In each stages, supply voltages and grounds are separated so that
there are no common electrical paths between them.
 A simplified block diagram for a typical capacitor coupled

isolation amplifier
 Notice that there are two different ground symbols are used
to reinforce the concept of stage separation.
 The input stage consists of an amplifier, an oscillator and a

modulator.
 The modulator uses a high-frequency square-wave oscillator to
modify the original signal.
 A small-value capacitor in the isolation barrier is used to couple the
lower frequency modulated signal or dc voltage from the input to
the output.
 The output stage consists of a demodulator that extracts the
original input signal from the modulated signal so that the original
signal from the input stage is back to its original form.
 When separate dc supply voltages and an input signal are applied,
an amplified output signal is the result.
An isolation amplifier that uses pulse width modulation is

shown
The ISO124 is a capacitively-coupled isolation amplifier that

uses pulse width modulation to transmit data across the barrier.
The ISO124 has fixed unity gain and is

rated to 1500 Vrms of isolation. The
frequency response is specified to 50 kHz,
Barrier
but high-frequency ripple due to the PW
modulation may be observed on the output Input Stage
at higher frequencies. The supply voltages Input

(15) (7)
IS0124 Output Stage Output
should be coupled signal
(8)
signal
(10)
with external (9)
(16)
capacitors to (1)
(2)
1 µF
reduce noise
1 µF 1 µF
+15 V –15 V
1 µF
Output waveform +15 V –15 V
Transformer-Coupled Isolation Amplifier
3656KG is an example of an isolation amplifier that uses transformer

coupling to isolate the two stages. The 3656KG can have gain for
both the input and output stages. The 3656KG is suited for patient
monitoring applications, such as an ECG amplifier.
Gain of the input stage:

𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓1
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣1 = +1 Rs Ri2
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖1
(7)
Vin
Rf2
Rf1
(10)
Gain of the output stage: (6)
(14)
𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓2
(15)
Input Output Vout
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣2 = +1 Ri1 (16)
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖2 (19)
(12)
(20)
The total amplifier gain is (3)
𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣1 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣2

+VDC
Fetal Heartbeat Monitoring
A simplified diagram of an isolation amplifier in a cardiac-

monitoring application is shown. In this situation, heart signals,
which are very small, are combined with much larger common-
mode signals caused by muscle noise, electrochemical noise,
residual electrode voltage, and 60 Hz power-line pickup from
the skin.
Example: Determine the total voltage gain of the 3656KG
isolation amplifier in Figure 14–15.
The Operational Transconductance Amplifier
The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is a

voltage-to-current amplifier in which the output current
equals the gain times the input voltage.
Like the conventional op-amp, the
OTA has two differential input
terminals, a high input impedance,
and a high CMRR.
The OTA has a bias-current input terminal, a high output
impedance, and no fixed open-loop voltage gain.
The voltage-to-current gain of an OTA is the transconductance,
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 =
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
In an OTA, the transconductance is dependent on a constant (K)

times the bias current (IBIAS). The value of the constant K is
dependent on the internal circuit design: gm = K IBIAS
A typical relationship of the
transconductance and the bias
current is illustrated. The
transconductance increases linearly
with the bias current. The
proportionality constant, K, is the
slope of the line. In this case, K is
approximately 16 μS/μA
The output current is controlled by
the input voltage and the bias
current: Iout = gmVin = K IBIAS Vin
Basic OTA Circuits
An OTA used as an inverting amplifier with a fixed voltage

gain is shown. The voltage gain is set by the
transconductance and the load resistance as follows:
The transconductance of the

amplifier shown is determined by
the amount of bias current, which
is set by the dc supply voltages
and the bias resistor RBIAS .
Basic OTA Circuits
The voltage gain can be controlled by the amount of bias
current. This can be done manually by using a variable resistor
in series with RBIAS .The voltage gain can also be controlled
with an externally applied variable voltage.
A Specific OTA
The LM13700 is a dual device package containing two

OTAs and buffer circuits. The maximum dc supply voltages
are ± 18 V. The bias current is determined by the following
formula:
The positive bias voltage,

+VBIAS , may be obtained
from the positive supply
voltage, +V
Example: The OTA in Figure is connected as an inverting

fixed-gain amplifier where +VBIAS = +V. Determine the
approximate voltage gain for K = 16 μS/μA.
OTA Application: Amplitude Modulator
 An OTA connected as an amplitude modulator is shown.

The voltage gain is varied by applying a modulation
voltage to the bias input.
 When a constant-amplitude input signal is applied, the
amplitude of the output signal will vary according to the
modulation voltage on the bias input.
 The gain is dependent on bias current, and bias current is
related to the modulation voltage by the following
relationship:
OTA Application: Schmitt Trigger
An OTA connected as a Schmitt trigger is shown. Basically, a

Schmitt trigger is a comparator with hysteresis where the
input voltage is large enough to drive the device into its
saturated states.
When the input voltage exceeds a

certain threshold value or trigger
point, the device switches to one of its
saturated output states. When the
input falls below another threshold
value, the device switches to its other
saturated output state.
In the case of the OTA Schmitt trigger, the threshold levels

are set by the current through resistor R1 .The maximum
output current in an OTA equals the bias current.
Therefore, in the saturated output states, Iout = IBIAS .
The maximum positive output voltage is Iout R1 and this
voltage is the positive threshold value or upper trigger point.
When the input voltage exceeds this value, the output
switches to its maximum negative voltage, which is - Iout R1.
Since Iout = IBIAS, the trigger points can be controlled by the
bias current.
The Logarithmic Amplifier
 Log and antilog amplifiers are used in applications that

require compression of analog input data, linearization of
transducers that have exponential outputs, and analog
multiplication and division.
 They are often used in high-frequency communication
systems, including fiber optics, for processing wide
dynamic range signals.
 The semiconductor pn junction in the form of either a diode
or the base-emitter junction of a BJT provides a logarithmic
characteristic.
 The diode characteristic curve is shown , where VF is the
forward diode voltage and IF is the forward diode current.
The current voltage relation

is:
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 /𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Solving for VF we get:
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹
𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 = ln
𝑞𝑞 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅
The output is limited to a maximum value of approximately

0.7 V because the diode’s logarithmic characteristic is
restricted to voltages below 0.7 V.
When a diode is placed in the

I I
feedback loop of an op-amp V
in F
in
+V –
circuit, the output voltage is R 1 F
0V
proportional to the log of the input –
Op-amp Vout
voltage. From the circuit we have: +
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = −𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 = 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑅1
Substituting into the formula for VF we get:
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = − ln = −(0.025𝑉𝑉) ln
𝑞𝑞 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅1
The gain decreases with increasing input voltage; therefore the
amplifier is said to compress signals.
For the circuit shown, the equation for Vout is

Vin
Vout ≅ − ( 0.025 V ) ln (IR is a constant for a given diode.)
I R R1
What is Vout? (Assume IR = 50 nA.) Iin

R IF
Vin 1
Vin
+11 V ++ V ––
1.0R1kΩ VFF
0V
––
11 V
Vout ≅ − ( 0.025 V ) ln Op-amp
Op-amp VVout
( 50 nA )(1.0 kΩ )
out
++
= −307 mV
When a BJT is used in the feedback path, the output is

referred to the ground of the base connection rather than
the virtual ground. This eliminates offset and bias current
errors. For the BJT, IEBO (emitter-to-base leakage current)
replaces IR in the equation for Vout:
Vin
Vout = − ( 0.025 V ) ln
I EBO R1
Iin IC
Log amplifiers are available in IC Vin –
form with even better performance R1 VBE
+
than the basic log amps shown here. 0V
–
For example, the MAX4206 operates
Op-amp Vout
over 5 decades and can measure
+
current from 10 nA to 1 mA.
The Antilog Amplifier
An antilog amplifier is formed by connecting a transistor

(or diode) as the input element as shown. We have:
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = −𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 , 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸0 𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = −𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓 𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸0 𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵/𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
The equation for Vout for the basic BJT antilog amp is:
Vin
Vout = − R f I EBO antilog
25 mV IC
Vin + –
IC antilog amps are also available. +
VBE Rf
–
For example, the Datel LA-8048 is a
0V
log amp and the Datel LA-8049 is its –
counterpart antilog amp. These ICs Op-amp Vout

+
are specified for a six decade range.
The Antilog Amplifier
EXAMPLE: For the antilog amplifier in Figure, find the

output voltage. Assume IEBO = 40 nA.
Vin
Vout = − R f I EBO antilog = -3 V.
25 mV
Constant-Current Source
A constant-current source delivers a load current that

remains constant when the load resistance changes.
From the figure we get:
𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖
If RL changes, IL remains constant as long as VIN and Ri are
held constant
IL = Ii
Ri RL
–
0V 0A
+ Ii
VIN +
–
Constant-current source
Current-to-Voltage Converter
A current-to-voltage converter converts a variable input

current to a proportional output voltage. A basic circuit that
accomplishes this is shown. From the figure we get:
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓
Rf
Ii
Ii
–
0V
Vout
+
Current-to-voltage converter
Voltage-to-Current Converter
A basic voltage-to-current converter is shown. This circuit is

used in applications where it is necessary to have an output
(load) current that is controlled by an input voltage. From the
figure we get:
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 =
𝑅𝑅1
Vin +
– IL RL
I=0
I1 R1
Voltage-to-current converter
Peak Detector
This circuit is used to detect the peak of the input voltage and store
that peak voltage on a capacitor.
When a positive voltage is applied to the noninverting input of the
op-amp, the high-level output voltage of the op-amp forward-
biases the diode and charges the capacitor.
The capacitor continues to charge until its voltage reaches a value
equal to the input voltage and thus both op-amp inputs are at the
same voltage.
At this point, the op-amp comparator
switches, and its output goes to the Vin
Ri
+
low level. The diode is now reverse
biased, and the capacitor stops –
R1
charging. If a greater input peak Vout
occurs, the capacitor charges to the C
new peak Peak detector
Selected Key Terms
Instr umentation An amplifier used for amplifying small

amplifier signals riding on large common-mode
voltages.
Isolation An amplifier with electrically isolated

amplifier internal stages.
A voltage-to-current amplifier.
Oper ational
tr ansconductance
amplifier
In an electronic device, the ratio of the
Tr ansconductance output current to the input voltage.
Quiz
1. A typical instrumentation amplifier has

a. high CMRR
b. unity gain
c. low input impedance
d. all of the above
Quiz
2. When an instrumentation amplifier uses guarding, the

shield is driven by a
a. low-impedance differential source
b. low-impedance common-mode source
c. high-impedance differential source
d. high-impedance common-mode source
Quiz
3. You can achieve a higher bandwidth for an instrumentation

amplifier if you
a. use guarding
b. use a larger gain setting resistor
c. capacitively couple the input signal
d. none of the above
Quiz
4. An application where an isolation amplifier is particularly

useful is when
a. the input signal has very large dynamic range
b. control of the frequency response is necessary
c. voltages could present a hazard
d. all of the above
Quiz
5. For an OTA, the gain is determined by

a. a ratio of two resistors
b. bias current
c. a single gain setting resistor
d. the amplitude of the input signal
Quiz
6. Transconductance is the ratio of

a. output current to input voltage
b. input current to output voltage
c. output resistance to input resistance
d. output voltage to input current
Quiz
7. A circuit that is useful for signal compression is a

a. instrumentation amplifier
b. OTA
c. logarithmic amplifier
d. antilog amplifier
Quiz
8. The circuit shown here is a

a. peak detector
b. current-to-voltage converter
c. voltage-to-current converter
Vin
d. isolation amplifier +
– IL RL
I=0
I1 R1
Quiz

a. current-to-voltage converter
b. constant current source
c. logarithmic amplifier
IC
d. antilog amp Vin
+
+ –
VBE Rf
–
0V
–
Op-amp Vout
+
Quiz

a. current-to-voltage converter
b. voltage-to-current converter
c. constant current source
Ri
d. peak detector Vin +
–
R1
Vout
Quiz
Answers:
1. a 6. a
2. b 7. c
3. d 8. c
4. c 9. d
5. b 10. d

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Special-Purpose

Operational Amplifier Circuits

 An instrumentation amplifier (IA) is a differential voltage-

 Op-amps A1 and A2 are noninverting configurations that

 The overall closed-loop gain of the instrumentation amplifier

Determine the value of the external gain-setting resistor RG for a

 An external resistor must be used to achieve a voltage gain

What value of RG will set the gain to 35?

The bandwidth of any IA (or op-amp for that matter) is

 Various types of transducers are used to sense temperature,

 However, when a shielded cable used, there are stray

The voltage-follower is a low-impendence source that drives the

The AD522 is a low-noise IA that has a Data guard output, which is

Frequency response of AD522

 An isolation amplifier is designed to provide an electrical barrier

 A simplified block diagram for a typical capacitor coupled

 The input stage consists of an amplifier, an oscillator and a

An isolation amplifier that uses pulse width modulation is

The ISO124 is a capacitively-coupled isolation amplifier that

The ISO124 has fixed unity gain and is

at higher frequencies. The supply voltages Input

3656KG is an example of an isolation amplifier that uses transformer

Gain of the input stage:

𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣2 = +1 Ri1 (16)

The total amplifier gain is (3)

𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣1 𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣2

A simplified diagram of an isolation amplifier in a cardiac-

The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is a

In an OTA, the transconductance is dependent on a constant (K)

An OTA used as an inverting amplifier with a fixed voltage

The transconductance of the

The LM13700 is a dual device package containing two

The positive bias voltage,

Example: The OTA in Figure is connected as an inverting

 An OTA connected as an amplitude modulator is shown.

An OTA connected as a Schmitt trigger is shown. Basically, a

When the input voltage exceeds a

In the case of the OTA Schmitt trigger, the threshold levels

 Log and antilog amplifiers are used in applications that

The current voltage relation

The output is limited to a maximum value of approximately

When a diode is placed in the

For the circuit shown, the equation for Vout is

What is Vout? (Assume IR = 50 nA.) Iin

When a BJT is used in the feedback path, the output is

An antilog amplifier is formed by connecting a transistor

counterpart antilog amp. These ICs Op-amp Vout

EXAMPLE: For the antilog amplifier in Figure, find the

A constant-current source delivers a load current that

A current-to-voltage converter converts a variable input

A basic voltage-to-current converter is shown. This circuit is

occurs, the capacitor charges to the C

new peak Peak detector

Instr umentation An amplifier used for amplifying small

Isolation An amplifier with electrically isolated

1. A typical instrumentation amplifier has

2. When an instrumentation amplifier uses guarding, the

3. You can achieve a higher bandwidth for an instrumentation

4. An application where an isolation amplifier is particularly