LN01 - Basi-Eulero-ENG

Course Notes of Fluid-Machines
Giacomo Persico
March 27, 2020

Contents
1 Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 1

1.1 First Principle of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Work exchange modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Heat Transfer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Fundamental Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Thermodynamic Models of Working Fluids 12

2.1 Ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Mixture of ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.2 Perfect gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Ideal liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Perfect liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Balance equations for open systems 21

3.1 Control and material volumes. Reynolds Transport Theorem . 22
3.2 Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.1 Transport Theorem with mass conservation . . . . . . 26
3.3 Energy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.1 Mechanical Energy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Momentum balance for turbomachinery - Euler equation 32

4.1 Momentum balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Angular momentum balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Euler expression of the work exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5 Balance Equations in the Rotating Frame of Reference 39

5.1 Momentum balance equation in the rotating frame of reference 40
5.2 Energy balance equation in the rotating frame of reference . . 42
i
CONTENTS CONTENTS
5.3 Alternative formulation of the work exchange expression . . . 48
ii
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts of
Thermodynamics
The operation of Fluid-Machines is based on the combination of several physi-

cal subjects, including Solid Mechanics, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynam-
ics. In this course, we are mainly focused on the modeling of the thermo-
dynamic behavior of the working fluids and on the fluid-dynamic design of
machines, while much less interest is put on the structural design.
A firm - even though synthetic - recall on Thermodynamics is therefore
crucial when approaching the study of Fluid-Machines. Thermodynamics
represents the branch of physics that tries to model the behavior of systems
composed by an extremely large number of particles (for example, a glass
of water contains about 1024 water molecules); it is impossible, therefore,
to approach the description of such systems by combination of the single
behavior of all the particles. As a result, two approaches were historically
proposed to tackle this difficulty: a phenomenological description, in which
the behavior of the system is represented in terms of an extremely reduced
number of parameters combined through general laws, or Principles, whose
determination was supported by an extremely large data-base of experiments;
a statistical description, in which the average of the (mechanical) behavior
of the single particles is considered, simplifying the approach by the use of
statistical tools. Theory and experience have shown that, with reasonable
assumptions, the two approaches provide coherent results.
It is common practice in Engineering problems to follow the phenomeno-
logical approach, for its intrinsic simplicity (in terms of mathematical model-
ing) at the price of accepting a reduced justification capability - the Principles
1
Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 1.1#1
are formulated as statements and cannot be demonstrated. However, it is

nowadays possible to enrich the phenomenological discussion by referring to
some straightforward concepts of the statistical approach, to provide physical
interpretations of the behavior of thermodynamic systems. The Principles
that we will formulate refer to the quantitative (I Principle) and qualitative
(II Principle) evaluation of the different forms of energy that characterize the
systems we are interested in.
1.1 First Principle of Thermodynamics

By quantifying the combination of all the possible forms of energy of a system,
the I Principle actually represents a balance of energy for a physical body.
Historically, the necessity for a generalized expression of the energy balance
arose when descriptions based on purely mechanical concepts were observed
to fail in representing an important class of phenomena. Rational Mechanics
indicates that the amount of mechanical work (L) exchanged by a system
results in a variation of kinetic (EK ) or potential (EP ) energy, namely:
L = ∆EK + ∆EP ; (1.1)

however, this balance was proven to be inaccurate in the case of Joule’s ex-
perience. Joule’s experience was conceived in the following way: an impeller
is immersed into a reservoir filled by water; the shaft of the impeller is con-
nected, through a wire, to a weight that is kept at a certain height; the
unique potential energy is the one connected to the gravitational force. At
the initial stage, the water is still (EK = 0); the gravitation force acting on
the fluid does not change during the process (∆EP = 0); if the weight is left
to fall, for a fixed length, the gravitational force is transmitted, through the
wire, to the shaft of the impeller, which is therefore put in rotation. As a
result, also the water around the impeller achieves motion, so at this instant
the work done by the gravitational force has resulted in a variation of kinetic
energy, confirming the prediction of the mechanical energy balance. However
after the weight is stopped the kinetic energy of the water is observed to pro-
gressively reduce, until still water conditions are recovered; when the process
is finished ∆EK = 0, despite the work exchange, violating the mechanical
balance. This means that, in the second part of the process, some other
phenomena occur that cannot be modeled on the basis of purely mechanical
concepts (at least from the macroscopic point of view).
2
Something else has indeed changed in the system: an increase of water

temperature can be measured, namely the same effect detected when the
reservoir exchanges heat (Q) with an external source (such as combustion
flame, electrical resistance, solar radiation, etc..). Summarizing all the infor-
mation, we infer two important conclusions:
• L 6= ∆EK + ∆EP for general systems
• L and Q are equivalent forms of energy exchange processes, that can

be measured with the same units (1cal = 4.186J)
These considerations can be used to formulate a generalized form of the

balance of energy. Let’s consider, for the moment, simple thermodynamic
systems, in which we assume the fluid velocity always null and in absence of
volume force fields, so we can neglect the variation of kinetic and potential
energy. We first focus on a cyclic transformation, namely a transformation
for that the initial and final conditions, also called thermodynamic states,
are equal. For such a configuration, work and heat exchanges are possible,
but the overall amounts of the energy exchanged must be null (otherwise we
should detect an effect on the system in the form of a variation of state).
These concepts can be formulated in mathematical form by writing:
I
(δQ + δL) = 0,
where the symbol δ is used to identify infinitesimal amounts of energy ex-

change; note that, in writing the expression, it has been implicitly assumed
to use the same sign convention for heat and work; throughout this course
we will always assume positive the energy incoming into the system. If we
divide the cyclic process in two transformations, indicating with symbol 1
the initial/final state and 2 the intermediate state, and calling A and B the
1 → 2 and 2 → 1 paths respectively, it is possible to write:
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2 Z 2
(δQ + δL) + (δQ + δL) = 0 ⇒ (δQ + δL) = (δQ + δL)
1A 2B 1A 1B
(1.2)
We deduce that the sum of heat and work exchange along the two paths
A and B is constant, and hence it is only depending on the initial and final
3
states of the system. Therefore, we can regard the integrals in equation (1.2)
as the variation of a so-called state function, named internal energy U :
Z 2
(δQ + δL) = f(1, 2) = U2 − U1
1
We are now ready to express the balance of energy for a simple thermo-
dynamic system along a general process (not necessarily cyclic), commonly
called First Principle of Thermodynamics. In finite terms, it reads:
Q + L = ∆U (1.3)
In the case of a non-simple thermodynamic system, in which kinetic en-
ergy and potential energy are also present, a generalized form of the energy
balance is achieved, as a superposition between the mechanical energy bal-
ance and the First Principle of Thermodynamics:
Q + L = ∆U + ∆EK + ∆EP (1.4)

This is the formulation of interest in processes occurring in Fluid-Machines
where, in general, kinetic and potential energies of the fluid are relevant. Re-
viewing the generalized energy balance, we can state that the work exchange
can induce both variations of kinetic and potential energies and variation of
internal energy. This is what actually occurs in the Joule’s experiment: at
the end of the process, when there is no more change in kinetic and potential
energy, the exchange of work was converted in an increase of internal energy.
In general, heat and work exchange depend on the transformation, how-
ever it is of great interest to obtain models of these terms, in such a way to
make more explicit the formulation of the energy balance. We will derive
these models for simple thermodynamic systems, and we will assume them
valid also in the case of generalized systems (as proved by experimental evi-
dence in the last two centuries).
1.2 Work exchange modeling

Let’s consider the model problem of a cylinder of cross section A, containing
a gas and closed to any exchange of mass, whose volume can be modified
through a mobile piston, as depicted in Figure 1.1. Let’s assume, further, that
any mechanical friction between solid bodies is negligible. The exchange of
4
Figure 1.1: Model problem for work exchange modeling
work is achieved through the action of a force which induces a displacement;

in the present problem a work is made on the fluid body (which is the gas
confined in the cylinder) when a force imparted by an external player, FEXT ,
moves the piston for a displacement, dw, in the direction parallel to that of
the force:
δL = FEXT · dw
If any friction process within the fluid is neglected, the force imparted by
the external player is totally transferred to the fluid; from the Principle of
Action and Reaction, the fluid reacts to the external force with an internal
force equal and opposite to the former, applied to the piston:
FINT = −FEXT
The internal force can be physically interpreted on the basis of the sta-
tistical behavior of the particles. In particular, we define mean pressure the
ratio between the internal force and the piston surface A:
FINT
P̄ =
A
5
The mean pressure represents the macroscopic effect of the microscopic

momentum transfer between the particles and the walls, as the formers col-
lide with the latter during the random motion. Even if the pressure induces
effects only in presence of boundaries, it is possible to extend the concept
of mean pressure also inside the gas, by introducing fictional, or immate-
rial, boundaries inside the fluid body; if the area of the immaterial boundary
is infinitesimal, the mean pressure acting on this surface achieves a local
character and can be defined for any point inside the volume. Since the pres-
sure is caused by the random motion of the particles, and the random motion
does not have any preferential direction (isotropic motion), the pressure must
remain constant regardless the orientation of the surface; in mathematical
terms, this means that the pressure vector is always normal to the surface.
The unit normal vector to a surface, defined as n, is assumed positive if
pointing towards the external side of the surface, so the pressure acting on
the surface is P n, and the internal force results:
Z
FINT = P ndA;
A
The external force results, therefore:
Z
FEXT = −P ndA, (1.5)
A
Since, in our approach, the subject is always the fluid, we are always
focused in the external force, and the pressure is always defined as −P n. If
the pressure is assumed uniform on the surface of the piston, we can write:
Z
δL = −P ndA · dw = −P An · dw = −P dV, (1.6)
A
where it has been recognized that the dot product between the surface and
the displacement is the variation of volume, resulting negative for a compres-
sion (n and dw are opposite), and vice-versa positive for a dilatation. The
outcome of the expression of the work is therefore coherent with the sign
convention chosen at the beginning, resulting in a positive work exchange in
case of a compression and a negative work exchange in case of a dilatation.
The expression reported in Equation (1.6) represents the exchange of work
in absence of fluid friction. However, in the real thermodynamic processes
friction does exist also within the fluid, so we have to generalize the above
6
expression to make it useful in the context of real fluid-machines1 . Let’s

consider the original model problem: in presence of friction, the force applied
by the external player does not have only to win the reaction given by the
fluid pressure, but it is partially spent to win the general friction force FF .
We can therefore write:
Z
FEXT = −FINT + FF = − P ndA + FF
A
As a result, the work made by the external player differs from that re-
quired in absence of friction, because part of this work is spent to win the
friction effects. Assuming uniform pressure on the surface of the piston,
and calling wasted work δLw the work dissipated in the friction, we derive a
general expression for the work:
Z
δL = −P ndA · dw + FF · dw = −P dV + δLw (1.7)
A
Introducing the above expression into the Balance of Energy for simple
thermodynamic systems, we get:
Z Z Z
∆U = −P dV + δLw + Q = −P dV + Lw + Q (1.8)
1.3 Heat Transfer Modeling

Processes involving heat transfer phenomena, including its conversion into
mechanical work, are governed by the Second Principle of Thermodynamics.
The Second Principle of Thermodynamics can be formulated in many ways,
but the most important statement in the context of Fluid-Machines is that:
a transformation whose ONLY final result is to convert into work the

overall amount of heat extracted from an heat sink is impossible
in which an heat sink is a system which is able to exchange heat without

changing its temperature. From the macroscopic point of view, the tem-
perature represents the trace of the mean kinetic energy of the particles in
1
It is worth repeating that the friction processes here introduced only refer to phenom-
ena occurring within the fluid, which is the subject of the present analysis; it should not
be confused with the mechanical friction between piston and cylinder solid surfaces
7
their random motion. If we consider a cyclic process, the Second Principle

states that only a portion of the heat adsorbed from the heat sinks can be
converted into work, and the remaining part must be released to other heat
sinks; therefore, a limit exists in the capability of a thermodynamic system
to convert heat into mechanical work. Clausius’ Theorem provides this limit,
establishing a relationship between the heat exchange and the temperature
of the heat sinks throughout a cyclic process:
I
δQ
≤ 0. (1.9)
T
The dis-equality needs some comments. In particular, processes for that
the Clausius’ integral is null guarantee the maximum heat-to-work conver-
sion; these processes, purely theoretical and never realized in the actual sys-
tems, are composed by an infinite succession of infinitesimal steps, in which
the thermodynamic system can be always assumed in equilibrium conditions.
Processes constructed in this way are called reversible.
Let’s focus, for the moment, on a cyclic reversible process. By splitting
the cyclic process into two transformations A and B, connected by states 1
and 2, Equation (1.9) can be used to introduce another state function, called
entropy and indicated by S:
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2 Z 2
δQ δQ δQ δQ
+ =0⇒ = = f(1, 2) = S2 − S1 .
1A T 2B T 1A T 1B T
Using S it is therefore possible to express the heat transfer for reversible
processes:
Z
Q = T dS
Real transformations, however, occur in presence of disequilibrium and

are not reversible, or, better, irreversible. Cyclic irreversible processes are
characterized by negative Clausius’ integral; this suggests to introduce an-
other form of entropy, called SIRR and always positive, which measures the
degree of irreversibility of the process.
I I Z
δQ δQ
<0⇒ = − δSIRR (1.10)
T T
8
For a non cyclic irreversible transformation between states 1 and 2 we can

write (using subscript R to indicate the corresponding reversible process):
Z 2 Z 2 Z Z 2 Z 2 Z
δQ δQ δQ δQ
= − δSIRR ⇒ = ∆S = + δSIRR
1 T 1 T R 1 T R 1 T
As a result, the for an irreversible transformation the entropy change
is given by an heat transfer term, whose sign depends on the sign of the
heat transfer, and by an always positive contribution due to irreversibility;
therefore the heat transfer for a general transformation results:
Z Z
Q = T dS − T δSIRR . (1.11)
1.4 Fundamental Relation

Introducing the expressions for the work and heat exchange in the Energy
Balance Equation for simple thermodynamic systems, we get:
Z Z Z
∆U = −P dV + Lw + T dS − T δSIRR .
The Balance of Energy has a purely quantitative character, so it is valid

for any kind of transformation, regardless it is with or without friction, re-
gardless it is reversible or not. If there are neither friction nor irreversibility,
condition denoted by subscript R, we have:
Z Z
∆UR = −P dV + T dS
Since the internal energy is a state function, it does not depend on the nature
of the transformation, namely ∆U = ∆UR ; from that we deduce the crucial
conclusion that irreversibility is the thermodynamic formulation of friction:
Z
Lw = T δSIRR (1.12)
We further conclude that, for simple thermodynamic systems, a general

relationship exists between internal energy, entropy and volume (through
temperature and pressure), which is independent from the nature of the
transformation:
9
dU = T dS − P dV ⇒ U = U (S, V ) (1.13)
The function U = U (S, V ) is called fundamental relation, and it is used to
model the thermodynamic behavior of pure substances. In this terms, pres-
sure and temperature become the partial derivatives of the internal energy
with respect to the entropy and volume respectively (with proper signs):

∂U ∂U ∂U ∂U
dU = dS + dV ⇒ T = ;P = − (1.14)
∂S V ∂V S ∂S V ∂V S
The above expressions indicate that temperature and pressure have a dif-
ferent character with respect to internal energy, entropy and volume. The
most important difference is that, being derivatives of the fundamental rela-
tions with respect to its independent variables, they do not depend on the
amount of material which composes the system; for this reason pressure and
temperature are called intensive quantities. This is coherent with the sta-
tistical interpretation, since pressure and temperature are induced by the
random motion, whose properties are intrinsically local and do not depend
on the amount of material considered. Conversely internal energy, entropy
and volume are global quantities, that scale with the mass of material in the
system; they are defined extensive quantities. It is of interest, however, to
introduce other quantities, derived from the extensive ones, which are de-
fined locally and thus become independent on the mass. These quantities,
called specific, are obtained by dividing the extensive quantities by the mass
of the body, and will be thereafter indicated by small letters (in contrast
with capitol letters used for the extensive ones). The fundamental relation
and its differential in specific terms read:
u = u(s, v) ; du = T ds − P dv
Beside the extensive quantities appearing so far, it is possible to intro-
duce other quantities, called thermodynamic potentials, that share the same
properties (they are state functions) and are of great help in modeling ther-
modynamic processes. The most important thermodynamic potential in the
context of Fluid-Machines is the enthalpy and it is defined as:
H = U + PV ; h = u + Pv
10
The differential of the enthalpy, written in specific terms, results:
dh = du + d(P v) = T dS + vdP ⇒ h = h(s, P )

The character of the enthalpy differential indicates the motivation of ther-
modynamic potentials: to change the functional dependence of the funda-
mental relation, with respect to the original case, according to the require-
ments of the investigator (in connection, for example, on his/her measure-
ment capability).
Two notes have to be finally reported to clarify the thermodynamic con-
text in which we will move. First, the relations here considered are actu-
ally simplifications of the ones introduced to model the behavior of simple
thermodynamic systems, because we focus on systems composed by a single
component; neither changes in the molar composition of the material nor
chemical potentials are considered. Secondarily, even though the fundamen-
tal relation has been rigorously derived for simple thermodynamic systems,
we will assume it valid locally (namely, at the specific level) also for general
systems in presence of flow velocity and volume forces, hence in presence of
kinetic and potential energy. This assumption, sometimes referred to as Pos-
tulate of Local Equilibrium, has been found sufficiently accurate in modeling
thermodynamic process occurring in engineering problems.
11
Chapter 2
Thermodynamic Models of
Working Fluids
The First Principle of Thermodynamics, formulated using the expressions

for the heat and work exchange, suggests that a relation exists, for any
material, connecting the internal energy, the entropy, and the volume (both
in extensive and specific terms). This so-called Fundamental Relation can
be expressed, in specific terms, in the following way:
u = u(s, v) (2.1)
and its differential reads:
du = T ds − P dv. (2.2)
In the energy balances of interest for fluid systems, another thermody-
namic quantity is useful, called enthalpy, and defined as:
h = u(s, v) + vP, (2.3)

whose differential reads:
dh = du + vdP + P dv = T ds − P dv + vdP + P dv = T ds + vdP, (2.4)
from which we can infer that:
h = h(s, P ). (2.5)
12
Thermodynamic Models of Working Fluids 2.1#1
To apply the energy balances the knowledge of relations 2.1 or 2.5 is, in
principle, required. Unfortunately, these relations are difficult to construct
experimentally, hence in technical applications another approach is prefer-
able, based on the identification of the relations between pressure, tempera-
ture, and specific volume. Since temperature and pressure are partial deriva-
tives of the internal energy, to define entirely the thermodynamic model of a
material in pressure and temperature terms it is required to construct two
independent relations, namely:

∂u
T = = T (s, v)
∂s v
(2.6)
∂u
P =− = P (s, v).
∂v s
Le relations 2.6 are called Equations of State (EoS in the following).

In the framework of Fluid-Machines and Energy Systems, fluids in both
liquid and vapor phase are of interest: among the liquids, water, oil, liq-
uid fuels are relevant in energy processes; among the vapors, steam, organic
fluids, refrigerating fluids, gaseous fuels and products of combustion are rele-
vant. For such fluids, very complex EoS are presently available, which allow
to model entirely the thermodynamic behaviour of the fluid for the operating
conditions of interest (often including also the phase transition). However,
these models cannot be handled with analytical approaches; for this rea-
son, in this Course we will focus on the use of simplified EoS, which allow
to treat fluids whose thermodynamic behavior is well approximated by the
ideal liquid (for hydraulic systems) or the ideal gas (for thermal machines)
models.
2.1 Ideal gases

The ideal gas model is the most common and most relevant analytical tool
to treat the thermodynamic behavior of fluids in vapor or gaseous phase
(even though its validity is limited to conditions very far from those of phase
transition). In this Course air, gaseous fuels (methane) and products of
combustion will be treated with the ideal gas model, as these fluids oper-
ate at temperature considerably higher than the maximum temperature of
13
condensation in most of the technical applications of interest for Energy Sys-

tems. The physical model of the ideal gas refers to a fluid composed by point
molecules, among them only elastic collisions can occur, and in absence of
inter-molecular field forces. If these conditions are verified, Statistical Ther-
modynamics indicates that the Equations of state can be written as:
U = U (T )
(2.7)
P V = n<T.
The second Equation of State is often called volumetric as it assigns,

in practice, the dependence of the specific volume on pressure and temper-
ature. In the second EoS the universal constant of gases appears, < =
8314J/(kmolK), as well as the quantity n, which indicates the number of
moles of the considered substance; this latter measures the quantity of fun-
damental elements (molecules or atoms for mono-atomic substances) that
constitute the fluid body under consideration.
The relations reported above are expressed for finite fluid bodies. In
many practical cases, the mass-specific formulation is more convenient; the
first equation of state is converted straightforwardly, the second one requires
to introduce the connection between the mass of a body and the moles of
the substance contained within the body. In particular, the concept of molar
mass M M is introduced, defined as the ratio between the mass of a body and
the number of moles of the substance contained within this body (namely, it
is the mass of each single molecule); hence, the mass of a body is M = M M n.
With this specification, the second Equation of State for ideal gases can be
reformulated as:
V n<
P = T =⇒ P v = RT (2.8)
M nM M
in which R is the gas constant, no more universal but depending on the molar
mass of the substance of interest. Finally, the system of EoS reads:
u = u(T )
(2.9)
P v = RT.
The first EoS remains, however, fully implicit and needs to be worked-
out to be useful in the energy balances; a further modeling effort is hence
14
required to construct a computationally relevant model. To this aim, the

specific heats of a material are introduced, which measure the thermal re-
sponse of a material which undergoes a heat exchange. Let’s assume that
a reversible heat transfer is imposed to a body, while keeping constant the
generic thermodynamic quantity x. The specific heat of the body throughout
this general transformation is defined as:

dq
cx = (2.10)
dT x
Since the transformation is reversible, the irreversible entropy generation
is null and dq = T ds. The entropy is a function of two thermodynamic pa-
rameters, hence the differential ratio between entropy and temperature must
be indicated as partial derivative (in which the nature of the transformation
x is specified):

∂s
cx = T . (2.11)
∂T x
The most common specific heats, particularly relevant for ideal gases,
refer to constant volume and constant pressure transformation:

∂s
cv = T
∂T
v (2.12)
∂s
cP = T .
∂T p
These two specific heats can be exploited to express in more explicit

way the internal energy and the enthalpy of ideal gases. With reference to
cv , we first note that the derivative of the internal energy with respect to
temperature at constant volume results:

∂u ∂s ∂v ∂s
=T −P =T = cv . (2.13)
∂T v ∂T v ∂T v ∂T v
The first EoS of ideal gases states that the internal energy depends only
on the temperature, hence:
∂u du
= = cv =⇒ du = cv dT. (2.14)
∂T dT
15
By integrating the above relation, and introducing a proper reference

state for temperature and internal energy, the first EoS can be re-formulated
as:
Z T
u = uref + cv (T )dT, (2.15)
Tref
in which it is explicitly recalled that, for ideal gases, the specific heat is
dependent only on temperature.
Considering now the enthalpy, with reference to cP , it is found:

∂h ∂s ∂P ∂s
=T +v =T = cP . (2.16)
∂T P ∂T P ∂T P ∂T P
Apparently, for the enthalpy we do not have a specific EoS stating the
nature of its dependence on temperature. However, by exploiting the second
EoS P v = RT , it can be immediately seen that h = u(T )+P v = u(T )+RT =
h(T ), namely that for ideal gases also the enthalpy is only dependent on
temperature. Then we infer:
Z T
dh
= cP =⇒ h = hf + cP (T )dT. (2.17)
dT Tref
in which the reference enthalpy hf has been introduced.

By combining the derivatives of the internal energy and of the enthalpy,
the following relation between specific heats of ideal gases can be obtained
dh d(u + RT )
= = cv + R =⇒ cP = cv + R. (2.18)
dT dT
which is known as Mayer relation.
Finally, it is possible to obtain a general expression of the entropy of ideal
gases. By inverting the differential of enthalpy, we get ds = dh/T − v/T dP ;
by introducing the EoS, the following expression is found:
Z T
dT dP dT P
ds = cP −R =⇒ s = sref + cP (T ) − Rln . (2.19)
T P Tref T Pref
16
2.1.1 Mixture of ideal gases

Most often, in technical applications the gases of interest are constituted
by mixtures of components and not by a single component. Air, gaseous
fuels and gases produced by the combustion are examples of mixtures featur-
ing Energy Systems and Fluid-Machines. A mixture of ideal gases appears
homogeneous and can be modeled as an ideal gas, characterized by mean
thermo-physical properties.
When treating a mixture, the contribution of the single components to
the overall amount of mass and energy has to be quantified. To identify the
amount of material of the different chemical species featuring the mixture,
the concept of molar fraction is introduced, defined as the ratio between the
number of moles of the i-th substance and the overall number of moles:
ni
xi = , (2.20)
nmix
P
from that we infer i xi = 1. The molar fractions can be used as weight
to determine some mean molar quantities, the most relevant of them being
the molar mass of the mixture M Mmix . The molar mass of the mixture is
computed as the weighted mean of the molar mass of the chemical species,
the weights being the molar fractions:
X
M Mmix = xi M M i . (2.21)
i
The molar mass allows to define and compute the mass-specific quantities
of the mixture, starting from the mass fractions yi . These latter are computed
from the molar fractions, divided by the ratio between the molar mass of the
single species and that of the mixture:
M Mi
y i = xi . (2.22)
M Mmix
The mass fractions are highly relevant for the present analysis, as they
allow to express the mass-specific internal energy and enthalpy of a mixture
of ideal gases:
X
umix = yi ui
i
X (2.23)
hmix = yi hi .
i
17
2.1.2 Perfect gases

The fluid model called perfect gas refers to ideal gases which exhibit constant
specific heats. By virtue of this assumption, the expression introduced above
for internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for ideal gases are simplified as
follows:
u = uref + cv (T − Tref )
h = hf + cP (T − Tref )
(2.24)
T P
s = sref + cP ln − Rln .
Tref Pref
2.2 Ideal liquids

The liquids, which are meant as the fluids that are in liquid phase in the
thermodynamic conditions of interest, are characterized by an extremely low
compressibility. The compressibility is defined as the rate of change of specific
volume resulting from a change in pressure; in many technical applications
the compressibility of the liquids can be entirely neglected. The specific
volume of incompressible fluids can, however, change as a consequence of a
change in temperature. The fluid is hence said dilutable.
The liquid is defined ideal if it is incompressible and non-dilutable. Hence,
the specific volume of an ideal liquid is always constant; this represents, in
practice, the volumetric EoS of the material. The first EoS of an ideal liquid
is similar to that of ideal gases, and states that the internal energy of the
fluid is only dependent on temperature. Therefore, the system of EoS for an
ideal liquid reads:
u = u(T )
(2.25)
v = cost.
It is to be noted that also fluids that operate in vapour phase can behave
as ideal liquids, if the flow phenomena under consideration do not induce
relevant change in the specific volume (or its inverse, the density) of the
fluid. For example, the air processed by fans, blowers and wind turbines
does not exhibit any relevant change in density, and hence it can be treated
as a liquid and its flow is defined as incompressible.
18
Similarly to what proposed for ideal gases, a specific heat can be intro-
duced to quantify the variation of internal energy. The definition of the spe-
cific heat of the fluid is straightforward and unique, as the fluid can undergo
only isocore transformations (moreover, for the same reason, du = T ds). For
ideal liquids only one specific heat coefficient is meaningful:
dq ∂s du
cL = =T = , (2.26)
dT ∂T dT
from which we derive the expression of the internal energy:
Z T
u = uref + cL (T )dT. (2.27)
Tref
The enthalpy of an ideal liquid can be computed by its differential, also

considering that dv = 0:
Z T
dh = du + vdP = cL (T )dT + vdP =⇒ h = hf + cL (T )dT + v(P − Pref ).
Tref
(2.28)
Finally, the entropy of an ideal liquid can be expressed directly from the
internal energy, as the contribution coming from the variation of specific
volume is null by definition:
Z T
du P dT dT
ds = + dv = CL =⇒ s = sref + cL (T ) . (2.29)
T T T Tref T
It is worth noting that, differently from what found for ideal gases, for
ideal liquids the enthalpy depends explicitly on both temperature and pres-
sure while the entropy depends only on temperature.
2.2.1 Perfect liquids

The fluid model defined as perfect liquid refers to an ideal liquid which ex-
hibits constant specific heat. As a result, the expressions of internal energy,
enthalpy and entropy are simplified as follows:
19
u = uref + cL (T − Tref )
h = hf + cL (T − Tref ) + v(P − Pref )
(2.30)
T
s = sref + cL ln .
Tref
20
Chapter 3
Balance equations for open

systems
Among all the possible classifications, Fluid-Machines can be divided into

volumetric machines and turbomachines, depending on the role played by
the fluid motion on the machine operation.
Volumetric machines operate the exchange of mechanical energy mostly
through changes of volume, within which a certain amount of fluid mass
is captured. In this way he mass conservation is intrinsically satisfied (in
absence of nuclear reactions) and the formulation of the First Principle of
Thermodynamics for simple systems (the sum of work and heat equates the
change of internal energy) is sufficient for a first-approximation approach to
the problem.
In turbomachines, instead, the work exchange occurs while the flow passes
through the machine channels: turbomachines are open systems, usually op-
erating with high flow velocity. An open system characterized by continuous
changes of momentum (through forces) and energy (through work and heat)
represents the context in which turbomachines operate; unfortunately, the
expressions of the balance equations for open systems are not straightforward
and have to be derived in general form.
In doing this, we are not interested in developing local, differential expres-
sions of the balance equations, but rather in deriving integral formulations
that can be simplified in algebraic relationships of straightforward applica-
tion.
21
Balance equations for open systems 3.1#1
3.1 Control and material volumes. Reynolds

Transport Theorem
The balance equations are derived from general mechanic and thermal prin-
ciples applied to fluid bodies, involving the time rate of change of extensive
quantities like mass, momentum and energy. In Thermo-Mechanics of contin-
uous media the evaluation of a certain extensive quantity for a body requires
to perform integrals extended to the volume which is occupied by the body;
however, unless the fluid is at rest, the connection between the body and
its volume is not straightforward, as the fluid elements change continuously
their position while moving along their (local) trajectories. This results in
a continuous change of the volume occupied by the fluid elements that de-
fine the body. As a consequence, when evaluating the time rate of change
of an extensive quantity, the time evolution of the volume itself has to be
considered explicitly.
A crucial difficulty arises here, connected to the technical formulation that
we want to derive of the basic principles of fluid flow; the flow devices, such
as fluid machines or heat exchangers, are placed in fixed regions in space,
while basic equations that determine the evolution of the flow are valid for
fluid bodies. We will call control volume Ωf the fixed volume that delimits
the region that we want to monitor, while material volume Ω(t) the time-
dependent volume of the fluid body. Considering an instant τ and a control
volume Ωf , it is possible to identify the fluid body that instantaneously fills
the control volume: it is the fluid body whose material volume equates the
control volume at time τ , namely
Ω(τ ) = Ωf
The integral of a general (scalar, vectorial or tensorial) quantity b ex-
tended to the control or to the material volume at time τ is the same, and
no conceptual difficulty arises.
Z Z
bdV = bdV
Ω(τ ) Ωf
However, the situation is very different when we have to evaluate the time
rate of change of an extensive quantity, because while the control volume is
fixed, the material volume changes with time. For this reason, we can surely
state that:
22
Z Z
d d
6
bdV = bdV
dt Ω(t) dt Ωf
in which the general instant t is used instead of τ on the left hand side to
stress the fact that the time derivative involves not only the instantaneous
configuration but the time evolution of the material volume. The term of
left hand side of the above inequality is the quantity appearing in the basic
equation of fluid flow, so its proper evaluation is crucial for their application.
To evaluate that term, it is first observed that the derivative operator cannot
be switched with the integral operator, because of the unsteadiness of the
volume; however, it is possible to apply the time derivative inside the integral
considering also the time rate of change of the volume itself:
Z Z Z
d db d(dV )
bdV = dV + b .
dt Ω(t) Ω(τ ) dt Ω(τ ) dt
The evaluation of the second term on the right hand side requires an ad-
vanced cinematic analysis, not reported here, that works out the relationship
between the flow movement and the time rate of change of the material
volume. The outcome of this analysis leads to an important result, called
Reynolds Transport Theorem, that establishes the relationship between the
time rate of change of integrals extended to material and control volumes:
Z Z Z
d d
bdV = bdV + bV · ndS (3.1)
dt Ω(t) dt Ωf ∂Ωf
Equivalence (3.1) opens the way to derive technical formulations of the

basic principles of flow physics. The surface integral appearing on the right
hand side represents the flux of the quantity b across the boundary of the
fixed volume, and intuitively represents the fact that the material body is
free to cross the boundaries of the control volume during its movement. The
velocity V must be interpreted as the velocity of the flow at the boundary
with respect to the velocity of the boundary itself, while the unit vector n
represents, as usual, the normal exiting from the boundary surface.
The boundary surface of a control volume requires some specifications.
We can distinguish two classes of surfaces: the solid surfaces, indicated by
the term SM , representing the physical walls (possibly moving, in case of
fluid-machines, but without any connection to the movement of the fluid
body), and the immaterial surfaces, that we have to introduce to ideally
23
confine the control volume in correspondence to the regions opened to the

fluid motion; these immaterial surfaces can be further classified in inlet flow
surface, from which the flow enters in the control volume, and in outlet flow
surface, from which the flow leaves the control volume. This classification
can be formalized in the following way:
• SM : V · n = 0
• Sin : V · n = −Vn,in
• Sout : V · n = +Vn,out
in which the component of the velocity normal to the surface Vn is introduced,

considered by definition always positive. Considering this classification, the
boundary integral appearing in (3.1) can be simplified as no flux can occur
across the solid surfaces; making explicit the flux balance between the inlet
and outlet surfaces, it is found:
Z Z Z Z
d d
bdV = bdV + bVn,out dS − bVn,in dS. (3.2)
dt Ω(t) dt Ωf Sout Sin
3.2 Mass Balance Equation

The Mass Balance Equation applied to a fluid body simply states that, in
absence of nuclear reactions, the mass of a fluid body must remain constant
throughout its movement. The mass of a fluid body M can be expressed as
the integral, extended to the material volume Ω(t) of the body, of the fluid
density ρ. The mass balance equation reads:
Z
dM d
= ρdV = 0. (3.3)
dt dt Ω(t)
The control volume on which we want to focus is reported in figure 3.1.
We first consider a system with a unique inlet and a unique outlet in which
an inlet and an outlet immaterial surface are introduced. The solid walls of
the control volume can be fixed or moving (blades, pistons) in such a way
that mechanical power exchange is possible. The solid boundaries are also, in
general, not adiabatic. The application of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
provides:
24
Figure 3.1: General control volume for application of mass and energy bal-
ance equations
Z Z Z
dM d
=0⇒ ρdV + ρVn,out dS − ρVn,in dS = 0.
dt dt Ωf Sout Sin
Z Z Z
d
⇒ ρdV = ρVn,in dS − ρVn,out dS. (3.4)
dt Ωf Sin Sout
Formulation (3.4) suggests a remarkable interpretation of the mass conser-

vation: the amount of mass that enters in a control volume, through the
inlet surface, can be either accumulated in the volume or released at the exit
through the outlet immaterial surface.
We will always make two important assumptions throughout our analysis:
• steady flow configuration (⇒ d/dt = 0), so that accumulation terms

are always null in our problems;
• uniform flow properties on the immaterial surfaces, so that the bound-

ary integrals on the immaterial surfaces become straightforward.
25
Considering the above assumption, the mass conservation is reduced to the

following expression:
dM
= 0 ⇒ ρin Vn,in Sin = ρout ρVn,out Sout (3.5)
dt
which simply states that the quantity ρVn S, called mass flow rate, is con-
served along the system. The fact that the mass balance is reduced to the
evaluation of a quantity on the inlet and outlet surfaces only, without any
evaluation inside the volume, allows to classify this model in the field of the
lumped parameter approaches.
Expression (3.5) can be generalized in case of a multiplicity of inlets and
outlets, on each of that the flow can be considered uniform. Identifying with
index i the i − th inlet section, and with index j the j − th outlet section,
the balance of mass for a steady problem results:
X X
ρin−i Vn,in−i Sin−i = ρout−j ρVn,out−j Sout−j (3.6)
i j
3.2.1 Transport Theorem with mass conservation

The mass conservation allows to demonstrate a relevant property, helpful in
many instances when studying the fluid motion. The time rate of change of
the mass of a fluid body can be written:
Z Z Z
dM d dρ d(dV )
= ρdV = dV + ρ
dt dt Ω(t) Ω(τ ) dt Ω(τ ) dt
therefore the mass balance becomes:
Z
dρ d(dV )
dV + ρ = 0.
Ω(τ ) dt dt
Since the equation above must be valid for any possible volume, and the
integrand function is assumed continuous, this means that the integrand
function must be null always and everywhere:
dM dρ d(dV )
= 0 ⇒ dV + ρ = 0.
dt dt dt
Considering now a general integrand function composed by the product
between ρ and a general b scalar, vectorial or tensorial quantity, the above
26
property can be used to drastically simplify the evaluation of the time rate
of change of extensive quantities:
Z Z Z
d dρb d(dV )
ρbdV = dV + ρbρ =
dt Ω(t) Ω(τ ) dt Ω(τ ) dt
Z Z Z
db dρ d(dV ) db
= ρ dV + b dV + ρ = ρ dV.
Ω(τ ) dt Ω(τ ) dt dt Ω(τ ) dt
The right hand side integral has an interesting property, namely the fact
that the time derivative is only applied to a factor of the integrand; the
evaluation of that term, therefore, does not require to consider the evolution
of the volume, but only the instantaneous value of that at time τ . Since we
know that Ω(τ ) = Ωf , the term on the right hand side can be evaluated
either on the material or on the control volume, resulting in the following
form of the Reynolds Transport Theorem:
Z Z
d db
ρbdV = ρ dV. (3.7)
dt Ω(t) Ωf dt
Expression (3.7) will be used, in particular, for the derivation of the balance
equations for non-inertial observers.
3.3 Energy Balance Equation

The balance of energy for a body of fluid can be expressed by resorting the
generalized energy balance equation, superposition of the mechanical energy
balance and the First Principle of Thermodynamics. The generalized form is
here required since the kinetic and potential energies cannot be neglected in
a problem dominated by the fluid motion. The energy of a fluid body can be
considered as the sum of the three kind of specific energies (internal, kinetic
and potential) integrated over the mass of the fluid body:
V2
Z
E= ρ u+ + ep dV.
Ω(t) 2
The unique potential energy that we will consider is the one connected to the
gravitational force, mg, whose specific potential can be written as gz, with
z the distance from the ground.
27
The Energy Balance for a fluid body can be formulated by imposing that
the time rate of change of the energy of a fluid body must equate the sum of
the mechanical, L̇O , and thermal, Q̇, power exchanges by the fluid with the
external environment. The Energy Balance Equation can be written as:
V2
Z
d
ρ u+ + gz dV = L̇O + Q̇. (3.8)
dt Ω(t) 2
The mechanical power exchanged by the fluid can be further qualified by
considering the forces involved in the fluid motion. We can indeed classify
the forces in two groups:
• Volume forces, such as the gravitational force or other field forces such
as electro-magnetic or nuclear ones. The gravitational force is the
unique volume force that we will consider, and it is conservative: this
means that the work of the gravitational force can be expressed through
a proper variation of its related potential energy. Having already in-
cluded the gravitational potential into the energy of the fluid, no volume
forces have to be considered in the evaluation of the mechanical power
exchange.
• Surface forces, exchanged through the solid or immaterial boundaries

that confine the body, expressed through stresses σ = −P n + τ ; the
stresses in a fluid are composed by the pressure, originally introduced
for static fluid configurations, plus a viscous component, activated by
the fluid motion, responsible for the momentum diffusion throughout
a fluid in motion. The viscous component of the stress is relevant only
in presence of strong velocity gradients (such as in boundary layers,
wakes or vortex cores), while it becomes negligible where uniform flows
are considered.
The mechanical power exchange can be expressed, considering the unique

contribution of the stresses:
Z Z
L̇O = σ · VdS = σ · VdS (3.9)
∂Ω(τ ) ∂Ωf
where the change from material to control volume has already been intro-
duced (∂Ω(t) = ∂Ωf , for t = τ ). By recalling the classification of the bound-
ary of the control volume, the mechanical power results:
28
Z Z Z
L̇O = −P n · VdS + τ · VdS + σ · VdS, (3.10)
Sin +Sout Sin +Sout SM
composed by three contributions:

R
• Sin +Sout −P n · VdS is the power of the pressure on the immaterial
boundaries; this is commonly called ’pulse’ power, and it is typical
of open systems (this term does not appear in simple thermodynamic
systems, such as the piston/cylinder model problem);
R
• Sin +Sout τ · VdS is always negligible, since the viscous stresses are neg-
ligible in regions where the flow can be considered uniform (such as the
immaterial boundaries);
R
• SM σ ·VdS is null on the fixed solid boundaries, where the flow velocity
is zero; conversely, on the moving solid boundaries, such as blades or
pistons, the flow velocity becomes equal to the wall velocity U (for the
adherence condition) and this term becomes the power of the stresses
exchanged between the fluid and the solid. This is the component of
work exchange of interest
R for turbomachinery, and we will identify this
with the symbol L̇ = SM σ · UdS.
The Energy Balance Equation, after having applied the Reynolds Trans-
port Theorem and introduced the above classification of work, reads:
V2 V2
Z Z
d
ρ u+ + gz dV + ρ u+ + gz V · ndS
dt Ωf 2 Sin +Sout 2
Z Z
= −P n · VdS + σ · UdS + Q̇.
Sin +Sout SM
The energy flux and the pulse power share the same form, so the two terms
can be collected in a unique surface integral on the immaterial boundaries.
Further assuming steady-state, it is found:
V2
Z
P
ρ u+ + + gz Vn dS = L̇ + Q̇. (3.11)
Sin +Sout ρ 2
29
The combination of the internal energy and the pulse work makes appear,
in the energy flux term, the enthalpy (u+ Pρ = h); equation (3.11) clarifies why
enthalpy plays such a relevant role in the thermodynamics of open systems.
However, it is important to keep in mind that the enthalpy does NOT, in
itself, represent the energy of a fluid, but results only from the combination
of the energy flux with the pulse power. Introducing the lumped parameter
approach (for a unique inlet and unique outlet sections), it is found:
2
Vin2

Vout
ρout hout + + gzout Vn,out Sout −ρin hin + + gzin Vn,in Sin = L̇+Q̇.
2 2
(3.12)
The mass balance equation in lumped parameter fashion (3.5) assures
that the quantity ṁ = ρVn S is conserved from inlet to outlet, so the energy
balance equation reduces to:
2
Vout − Vin2
hout − hin + + g(zout − zin ) = l + q, (3.13)
2
L̇ Q̇
where l = ṁ and q = ṁ are the specific work and heat exchange respectively.
In case of a multiplicity of inlet (index i) and outlet (index j) sections,
the simple form (3.13) is not valid and the original lumped parameter model
(3.12) must be generalized. Calling ṁin−i = ρin−i Vn,in−i Sin−i the mass flow
rate passing through the i−th inlet section, and ṁout−j = ρout−j Vn,out−j Sout−j
the one passing through the i − th outlet section, the following form is
achieved:
2 2
Vout−j
X
X Vin−i
ṁout−j hout−j + + gzout−j − ṁin−i hin−i + + gzin−i =
j
2 i
2
= L̇ + Q̇. (3.14)
3.3.1 Mechanical Energy Balance Equation

The energy balance equation includes all the forms of energy of interest in
our problems; for the same reason, however, it does not provide any infor-
mation about the quality of the process that we want to model. From this
30
perspective, other formulations can be of interest, in which only the mechan-

ical or only the thermal forms of energy are involved, in such a way to make
appear explicitly the role of the dissipation (expressed, in our context, by
the wasted work). Considering the lumped energy balance for a single inlet
and outlet (3.13) we can first re-write the enthalpy difference by resorting its
differential and the Clausisu Theorem:
Z out Z out Z out
hout − hin = T ds + vdP = q + lw + vdP,
in in in
from which the energy balance equation can be expresses as:
Z out
V 2 − Vin2
q + lw + vdP + out + g(zout − zin ) = l + q,
in 2
and finally, eliminating the heat term that appears on both the sides:
2 Z out
Vout − Vin2
l − lw = + g(zout − zin ) + vdP. (3.15)
2 in
Equation (3.15), also called Mechanical formulation of the energy bal-

ance equation, has a remarkable interpretation in case of Fluid-Machines:
the work exchanged through moving solid elements (like blades or pistons),
reduced by the dissipation connected to the irreversibility, equates the change
in mechanical energy experienced by the fluid during its movement across the
control volume.
R out In the mechanical energy of the fluid a new important term
appears, in vdP , which represents the mechanical component of the en-
thalpy change; if the difference in kinetic and potential energy from inlet
to outlet can be neglected, this term is the unique contribution remaining
on the mechanical energy change of the fluid; for this reason, this term is
sometimes called technical work.
The technical work is, in general, of not simple evaluation, since the
pressure-density relationship must be known. Only in case of perfect liquids,
for which the density is assumed constant, the evaluation of the technical
work is straightforward. In case of gases, instead, the equations of state
are not sufficient to evaluate it, and the character of the thermodynamic
transformation must also be assigned. However, what is important to stress
here is that the integral appearing in the technical work does not have a
spatial meaning, but it has a thermodynamic meaning, namely it must be
computed along the path of the thermodynamic transformation.
31
Chapter 4
Momentum balance for

turbomachinery - Euler
equation
The formulations of the energy balance been derived in the previous Chapter;
however, a rigorous expression for the force imparted by the blade to the flow
(or vice-versa) and the subsequent work exchange in case of rotors has yet to
be obtained. This is the object of the present Chapter, in which expressions
for the momentum and angular momentum balances across turbomachinery
rotors are derived.
In Rational Mechanics, the (linear) momentum and angular momentum
for a body are formulated as follows:
dΠ
=F (4.1)
dt
dΓ
=r×F (4.2)
dt
in which Π and Γ are the linear and angular momentum respectively,
that for a continuum body are written as:
Z
Π= ρVdV
Ω(t)
32
Momentum balance for turbomachinery - Euler equation
Z
Γ = r × ρVdV
Ω(t)
In equation 4.2 as well as in the formulation of Γ, the vector r must be

interpreted as a generalized distance vector between a pole O and the local
point of evaluation; for a turbomachinery, an obvious and meaningful choice
for the position of the pole is on the rotation axis.
The two momentum balance equations will be applied considering the
same control volume used for the balance equation in the rotating frame of
reference, which is reproduced here in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Control volume for the flow around a turbomachinery rotor
It is worth recalling here that the Control Volume defined here is delimited
by several kind of surfaces:
• Sin and Sout as inlet/outlet immaterial surfaces; due to the typical

shape of turbomachinery channels, these surfaces are always surfaces of
revolution, namely their unit normal vectors do not have components
33
Momentum balance for turbomachinery - Euler equation 4.1#1
in tangential directions and are axisymmetric (i.e., they are circum-

ferentially uniform); on these surfaces all the flow properties can be
considered axisymmetric, namely uniform in tangential direction;
• Shub , Sshroud are both considered solid and rotating surfaces (so, the
following derivation is rigorously valid only for shrouded rotors, but
remains acceptable in very good approximation if one of these surfaces
is fixed);
• Sblade is constituted by the solid surfaces of all the blades and, hence,
are rotating for rotors; these surfaces represent closed ’holes’ in the
control volume available for the fluid.
In the following we will generally indicate with the symbol SM the com-
bination of all the moving solid surfaces, i.e. SM = Shub + Sshroud + Sblade .
4.1 Momentum balance

The formulation of the momentum equation is obtained straightforwardly by
recalling that the forces acting on the fluid body instantaneously contained
in the control volume can be written as a sum of surface and volume contri-
butions. We will consider the weight of the fluid as the unique volume force
of interest in our problems (the balance is written for a inertial observer):
Z Z
F= ρgdV + σdS
Ωf ∂Ωf
where the surface forces are expressed as local stresses integrated over the
boundary of the control volume.
The surface forces can be divided in two main terms, namely the pressure
and viscus forces acting on the immaterial surfaces and the stresses acting on
the solid surfaces. The former can be further simplified considering that the
viscous stresses on the immaterial surfaces are in general negligible, so only
the contribution of pressure remains. The integration of the stresses on the
solid surfaces is the most relevant quantity as it represents synthetically the
forces exchanges between the fluid and the machine, we rename it FAERO and
34
it will usually represent the unknown of our balances (its direct computation
requires the detailed calculation of the flow, i.e. the integration of the Navier-
Stokes equations). The force can be rewritten as:
Z Z
F= ρgdV + −P ndS + FAERO (4.3)
Ωf Sin +Sout
To derive the integral form of the momentum balance, the last step is the
application of the Reynolds Transport Theorem to the linear momentum:
Z Z Z
d d
ρVdV = ρVdV + ρV(V · n)dS, (4.4)
dt Ω(t) dt Ωf Sin +Sout
Gathering all the expressions obtained above, the balance of momentum

reads:
Z Z Z
d
ρVdV + (ρV(V · n) + P n)dS = ρgdV + FAERO (4.5)
dt Ωf Sin +Sout Ωf
Introducing the typical hypotheses of steady flow and lumped parameter

approach, we can neglect the accumulation term and replace the surface
integrals with proper averaged data on the inlet/outlet surfaces, to obtain
the following simplified formulation:
Z
ṁ(Vout − Vin ) + Pout nout Sout + Pin nin Sin = ρgdV + FAERO (4.6)
Ωf
Equation 4.6, even though simplified as much as possible, remains of

very complex use, as it requires to evaluate the weight of the fluid and to
know both the flow and pressure data on the inlet/outlet surfaces. For this
reason, for application to turbomachinery it is preferred to use the equation
obtained by applying the angular momentum balance, that allows a much
higher simplification as we will see in the following section.
4.2 Angular momentum balance

The angular momentum balance is expressed by working out the moment of
the forces introduced above and by applying the Reynolds Transport Theo-
rem to the angular momentum integral.
35
With reference to the classification used for equation 4.3, the moment of
the forces M reads:
Z Z
M= ρr × gdV + −P r × ndS + CAERO (4.7)
Ωf Sin +Sout
R
where CAERO = SM r × σdS is the torque exchanged between the flow and
the machine though the stresses on the blades and the endwall surfaces.
As both the unit normal vector and the pressure on the inlet and outlet
immaterial surfaces are axisymmetric, and the pole is taken on the axis of the
machine, the moment of the pressure on the immaterial surfaces is rigorously
null (the same is found for the viscous stresses on the immaterial surfaces,
in the very few cases in which they cannot be neglected).
Applying the Reynolds Transport Theorem to the angular momentum, it
is found:
Z Z Z
d d
ρr × VdV = ρr × VdV + ρr × V(V · n)dS. (4.8)
dt Ω(t) dt Ωf Sin +Sout
Finally, the angular momentum balance reads:
Z Z Z
d
ρr×VdV + ρr×V(V·n)dS = ρr×gdV +CAERO . (4.9)
dt Ωf Sin +Sout Ωf
Equation 4.9 is, apparently, still very complex to use. However, it is prone
to a dramatic simplification, by considering that the aerodynamic torque
of interest for our analysis is just the component that leads to the power
exchange, as discussed in the following Section.
4.3 Euler expression of the work exchange

The power exchanged between the rotor of a turbomachine and the flow can
be expressed as the dot product between the torque and the angular speed
of the machine:
L̇ = ω · CAERO = ωix · CAERO = ωCx,AERO (4.10)
36
from that we infer that only the axial component of the aerodynamic torque is
of interest for the exchange of work and power. Therefore, only the projection
of Equation 4.9 along the x direction is required. Assuming steady flow and
multiplying the angular momentum balance by the unit vector along x, we
get:
Z Z
ρ(r × V) · ix (V · n)dS = ρ(r × g) · ix dV + Cx,AERO . (4.11)
Sin +Sout Ωf
First considering the moment of the weight of the fluid, we note that:
• if the axis of the machine is parallel to g (vertical axis machine), the

contribution of the weight is rigorously null in any direction as the
volume of interest is a solid of rotation, g is uniform everywhere and
the density of the fluid can be assumed axisymmetric within the control
volume;
• if the axis of the machine is normal to g (horizontal axis machine), the

contribution of the weight is not null entirely, but it is null in axial
direction thanks to the axisymmetry of the control volume and of the
density field (in fact, the weight induced just a flexion torque);
so we conclude that the weight does not contribute to the power torque. As
a consequence, we infer that the power torque is only given by a change in
the angular momentum of the flow. This latter can be further simplified by
computing the triple product (r × V) · ix which reads:
(r × V) · ix = rVt ,
in which r is the radial distance between the local point and the axis of the
machine. Computing the flux of angular momentum by implementing the
formulation reported above, we get:
Z Z
ρ(r × V) · ix (V · n)dS = ρrVt (V · n)dS.
Sin +Sout Sin +Sout
Finally, the balance of angular momentum in axial direction reads:

Z
ρrVt (V · n)dS = Cx,AERO . (4.12)
Sin +Sout
37
By applying the lumped parameter approach, we finally achieve the alge-

braic formulation of the power torque:
Cx,AERO = ṁ(rout Vt,out − rin Vt,in ). (4.13)

in which the radius and the tangential velocity components must be inter-
preted as proper averaged values on the inlet/outlet immaterial surfaces.
Equation 4.13 provides an aerodynamic formulation of the power ex-
changed between the fluid and the machine, which reads:
L̇ = ṁω(rout Vt,out − rin Vt,in ) = ṁ(Uout Vt,out − Uin Vt,in ) (4.14)

in which U stands for the peripheral speed (U = ωr) introduced in the
previous Chapter. Equation 4.14 offers the remarkable opportunity to express
directly the specific work exchange, by simply dividing by the flow rate:
l = Uout Vt,out − Uin Vt,in (4.15)

which is called Euler expression of the work exchange. Three relevant com-
ments can be immediately made on equation 4.15:
• it has been derived without any simplifying hypothesis on the nature

of the thermodynamic transformation, so it is generally valid for a real
process in real turbomachinery (as far as the real velocities are used);
• it involves explicitly the peripheral speed of the rotor blades and, ex-
pecially, its difference between inlet and outlet, thus demonstrating the
interest in exploiting radial outward or radial inward architectures;
• it involves explicitly the tangential components of the flow velocity, thus

explaining why turbomachinery blade rows are designed to strongly
deflect the flow from inlet to outlet.
38
Chapter 5
Balance Equations in the

Rotating Frame of Reference
When the attention is focused on turbomachinery rotors, it could be con-

venient to derive an expression for the balance of the total energy for an
observer that is rotating with the machine. The derived expression has some
relevant features both from the conceptual and formal points of view, that
make it useful in many practical applications.
An observer rotating with the rotor detects a so-called ’relative’ velocity,
that is vectorially linked to the absolute one through the speed of the ref-
erence system; for a turbomachine, the reference frame velocity is the local
peripheral speed, induced by the circular motion of the rotor. Calling r the
radial distance and ω the angular velocity vector, the absolute velocity can
be written as:
V = W + ω × r. (5.1)
The corresponding relative acceleration in the rotating frame results:
dV dW dωω
= + ω × (ωω × r) + 2ωω×W+ ×r (5.2)
dt dt dt
In our applications, we are interested into frames rotating at constant
rotational speed. We can therefore drop the last term of the acceleration.
The other terms are the relative, centripetal and Coriolis accelerations re-
spectively. The centripetal acceleration takes its name from the direction; for
39
Balance Equations in the Rotating Frame of Reference 5.1#1
a cylindrical coordinate system ix , ir , iθ , in which ir points in radial outward

direction:
ω × r) = −ω 2 rir
acentrip = ω × (ω
The centripetal and Coriolis accelerations can be regarded as inertial
forces as, for a physical element of mass m, the Newton’s Second Law of
Dynamics states:
dV dW
F=m =m ω × (ω
+ mω ω × r) + 2mω
ω×W
dt dt
dW
m = F − mω ω × (ωω × r) − 2mω
ω×W (5.3)
dt
The inertial forces of the rotating frame are detected as actual (though
apparent) forces by the rotating observer; so we define the centrifugal force
as:
fcentrif = −mω ω × r) = mω 2 rir

ω × (ω
and the Coriolis force as:
fcor = −2mω
ω×W
5.1 Momentum balance equation in the ro-

tating frame of reference
In the context of our analysis, that is devoted to fluid systems in motion
across turbomachines, these concepts have to be reformulated in integral
form. The momentum of the fluid body, that for an inertial observer is the
one connected to the absolute velocity, can be expressed in terms of the
relative momentum (connected to the relative velocity) through relation 5.2.
At first, it can be shown that, for a general vectorial quantity b, the mass
conservation assures that:
40
Z Z
d db
ρbdV = ρ dV, (5.4)
dt Ω(t) Ωf dt
where Ω(t) refers to the volume occupied by a fluid body, continuously chang-
ing with time due to the movement of the fluid itself, while Ωf is the fixed
control volume that we select to apply the balance equations. By applying
now relation (5.4) to the linear momentum term, and by using relation (5.2),
we get:
Z Z Z Z
d dW
ρVdV = ρ dV + ω × (ω
ρω ω × r)dV + ω × WdV ;
ρ2ω
dt Ω(t) Ωf dt Ωf Ωf
using now relation (5.2) in the inverse way for the relative linear momentum,
the absolute momentum becomes:
Z Z Z Z
d d 2
ρVdV = ρWdV − ρω rir dV + ω × WdV
ρ2ω (5.5)
dt Ω(t) dt Ω(t) Ωf Ωf
The momentum equation, expressed in terms of relative acceleration, be-

comes:
Z Z Z
d 2
ρWdV = F + ρω rir dV + ρ2W × ω dV (5.6)
dt Ω(t) Ωf Ωf
The second and third terms on the right hand side of the equation rep-
resent the contributions of the apparent forces to the relative momentum.
We introduce now the forces specific to mass (dimensionally accelerations),
defined as:
fcentrif = ω 2 rir
and
fcor = 2W × ω
41
5.2 Energy balance equation in the rotating

frame of reference
The change of reference induces velocity and acceleration differences, these
latter regarded as apparent forces in the momentum equation. The work
done by the apparent forces is therefore expected to appear in the balance
of energy written by a rotating observer. From the energetic perspective,
the centrifugal force has a relevant property, as it depends only on the radial
distance from the shaft and by the angular speed. This indicates that, moving
an element of mass between two points at different radial position, the work
done by the centrifugal force does not depend on the specific track followed
by the element, but only on the radial distance between the two points. In
other terms, the centrifugal force is conservative, and for that an energy
potential ec can be introduced in the following way:
fcentrif = −∇ec (5.7)

that becomes, in cylindrical coordinates:
∂ec ∂ec 1 ∂ec
ω 2 rir = − ix − ir − iθ
∂x ∂r r ∂θ
Since the centrifugal force is purely radial, we can say that its potential
depends only on the radial coordinate:
∂ec ∂ec ∂ec dec
ix = 0; iθ = 0 → = = −ω 2 r
∂x ∂θ ∂r dr
from which the expression of the potential of the centrifugal force is obtained:
ω 2 r2
Z
ec = −ω 2 rdr = − (5.8)
2
having assumed zero its value on the shaft. These considerations lead to add
a new energy potential to the energy of the system detected by a rotating
observer, alongside the internal energy u, the relative kinetic energy and
the potential of the gravitational force. The energy for a rotating observer
becomes:
W2 ω 2 r2
Z
E= ρ u+ + gz − dV
Ω(t) 2 2
42
These concepts are now applied for the derivation of the balance of total
energy written by a rotating observer. Let us consider the control volume,
sketched in Figure 5.1, defined around a turbomachinery rotor, and delimited
by inlet and outlet immaterial surfaces (Sin and Sout ) and by material surfaces
(hub and shroud endwalls, and blades) that are all assumed to be rotating
at the same angular speed.
Figure 5.1: Control volume for the flow around a turbomachinery rotor
The balance of energy states that, in absence of energy sources inside the
volume, the rate of change of the energy equates the sum of the power of
the volume forces, the power of the surface forces on the moving surfaces
(material or not), and the thermal power exchanged. For a rotating frame
observer, this concept becomes:
ω 2 r2
Z Z Z
d W
ρ u+ + gz − dV = σ ·WdS+ 2ρW×ωω ·WdV +Q̇
dt Ω(t) 2 2 ∂Ωf Ωf
(5.9)
By applying the Reynolds Transport Theorem to the left hand side of the
equation 5.9, we get:
43
W2 ω 2 r2
Z
d
ρ u+ + gz − dV =
dt Ω(t) 2 2
W2 ω 2 r2 W2 ω 2 r2
Z Z
d
= ρ u+ + gz − dV + ρ(u+ +gz− )(W·n)dS,
dt Ωf 2 2 ∂Ωf 2 2
where it has been considered that the flux term has to be formulated using
the relative velocity. Assuming steady flow conditions and considering that
any material surface does not contribute to the boundary integral (because
the velocity of the flow at the boundary is zero or tangent to the local surface
direction, and hence W · n ≡ 0 on material surfaces), we get:
W2 ω 2 r2 W2 ω 2 r2
Z Z
d
ρ u+ + gz − dV = ρ u+ + gz − (W·n)dS
dt Ω(t) 2 2 Sin +Sout 2 2
By introducing proper averaged values on the inlet and outlet sections, the
above boundary integrals are greatly simplified in lumped parameter fashion:
W2 ω 2 r2
Z
ρ u+ + gz − (W · n)dS =
Sout 2 2
W2 ω 2 r2 W2 ω 2 r2
Z
= u+ + gz − ρ(W·n)dS = ṁ u + + gz −
2 2 out Sout 2 2 out
W2 ω 2 r2
Z
ρ u+ + gz − (W · n)dS =
Sin 2 2
W2 ω 2 r2 W2 ω 2 r2
Z
= u+ + gz − ρ(W·n)dS = −ṁ u + + gz −
2 2 in Sin 2 2 in
In the two expressions above an important general property has been

used, namely that:
Z Z
ρ(W · n)dS = ρ(V · n)dS = +/ − ṁ (5.10)
Sout /Sin Sout /Sin
44
This is due to the fact that the inlet and outlet immaterial boundaries are
always, in turbomachinery, surfaces of revolution. As a consequence, the
unit normal vector n does not have any component in tangential direction,
and hence the product W · n is a combination of axial and radial velocity
components. Since the peripheral speed has, instead, only components in
tangential directions, the axial and radial components of the velocity does
not change passing from the absolute to the relative velocity, and hence
W · n = V · n.
The mechanical power detected by an observer in the rotating frame
needs some discussion: we first note the distinction between the power of
the stresses on the immaterial surfaces and the one on the moving material
boundaries. The work on the immaterial surfaces is essentially given by the
pressure, as the contribution of the viscous stresses on the immaterial surfaces
is always negligible in our problems. The power of the stresses on the moving
material boundaries is, for an inertial observer, the actual mechanical power
exchanged by the fluid and the machine; however for a rotating observer the
rotating boundaries are detected as fixed, and thus the mechanical power
exchanged though these surfaces goes to zero1 .
Z Z Z
σ · WdS = σ · WdS = −P n · WdS
∂Ωf Sin +Sout Sin U Sout
Z Z Z
P P P
= − ρn·WdS = − ρ(W·n)dS− ρ(W·n)dS
Sin U Sout ρ ρ out Sout ρ in Sin
So finally we can write:

Z
P P
σ · WdS = ṁ − (5.11)
∂Ω ρ in ρ out
The last term to discuss is the power of the Coriolis force. It is straight-
forward to verify that this contribution is always zero, because of vectorial
considerations. The vector product between the relative velocity and the
angular speed is indeed a vector normal to the previous ones. Therefore the
1
It is to be noted that the surfaces that appear fixed in an inertial frame of reference
are in motion for a rotating observer. So, in the rotating frame of reference the work
exchange is nullified ONLY across rotors. In other words, the balance of energy in the
rotating frame of reference is useful when applied to rotors, while it becomes meaningless
when applied over stators.
45
dot product between the Coriolis force and the relative velocity is necessarily
zero. The balance of energy in the rotating frame can be finally written as:
W2 ω 2 r2 W2 ω 2 r2

P P
ṁ u + + + gz − − ṁ u + + + gz − = Q̇
ρ 2 2 out ρ 2 2 in
(5.12)
Q
In specific terms, by introducing the specific exchange of heat (q = ṁ ) and
the enthalpy (h = u + Pρ ), we achieve a more compact formulation of the
energy balance in the rotating frame:
W2 ω 2 r2 W2 ω 2 r2

h+ + gz − − h+ + gz − =q (5.13)
2 2 out 2 2 in
The quantity on the right hand side of the equation, whose changes across
rotors can only be induced by heat exchange, is called rothalpy and is
indicated by I :
W2 ω 2 r2 W 2 U2
I =h+ + gz − =h+ − + gz (5.14)
2 2 2 2
In many turbomachinery problems the heat exchange across the bladings
is negligible, so we can deduce that for adiabatic machines the rothalpy is
conserved across rotors. Moreover, also the change in gravitational potential
energy is often negligible, with respect to the other variations.
The conservation of rothalpy gives us an interpretation tool to analyze the
character of the process occurring across (adiabatic) turbomachinery rotors.
In particular, we note that:
• in case of axial operating machines, a drop of relative velocity leads

to an enthalpy rise, and hence a pressure rise (see below for a specific
discussion on the pressure): the rotor of an axial operating machine is
actually a rotating diffuser;
• in case of axial motor machines, a rise of relative velocity leads to an

enthalpy drop, and hence a pressure drop: the rotor of an axial motor
machines is actually a rotating nozzle;
• in case of mixed-flow or radial operating machines, a drop of relative

velocity combines with the change of peripheral speed so to lead to
46
an enthalpy rise, and hence a pressure rise: not to vanish the effect of
relative velocity drop, the machine will have preferably a centrifugal
layout - and hence again the rotor will be a rotating diffuser;
• in case of mixed-flow or radial motor machines, a rise of relative velocity

combines with the change of peripheral speed so to lead to an enthalpy
drop, and hence a pressure drop: not to vanish the effect of relative
velocity rise, the machine will be preferably of centripetal layout - and
hence again the rotor will e a rotating nozzle.
To better highlight the relationship between pressure change, relative

velocity and peripheral speed, it is convenient to obtain an expression for the
mechanical energy balance for a rotating observed. As done for the inertial
energy balance, we apply the Clausius Theorem to express the heat transfer
term and we resort to the differential of enthalpy, thus obtaining:
out
2
W 2 − Win 2
U 2 − Uin
Z
− lw = out − out + g(zout − zin ) + vdP. (5.15)
2 2 in
Neglecting the variation of gravitational potential energy, we obtain that:
• in case of axial machines:

R out 2 −W 2
Wout
in
vdP = − 2
in
− lw
so a relative-flow deceleration increases the pressure, but the diffusion
process is contrasted by the friction; conversely a relative-flow acceler-
ation reduces the pressure, and the overall pressure drop is enhanced
by the friction;
• in case of mixed-flow or radial machines:

R out U 2 −U 2 W 2 −W 2
in
vdP = out2 in − out2 in − lw ,
so a relative-flow deceleration combined with a centrifugal path in-
creases the pressure, but the diffusion process is contrasted by the fric-
tion; conversely a relative-flow acceleration combined with a centripetal
path reduces the pressure and the overall pressure drop is enhanced by
the friction.
47
5.3 Alternative formulation of the work ex-

change expression
The balance of energy in the inertial and rotating frames of reference leads to
an alternative, and qualitatively relevant, formulation of the work exchange.
By subtracting the relative-frame balance (eq. 5.13) from the absolute one
(eq. 3.13), the variation of enthalpy and gravitational potential and the heat
transfer term cancel each other, so one obtains:
2
Vout − Vin2 W 2 − Win 2
U 2 − Uin2
l= − out + out . (5.16)
2 2 2
This is a very remarkable result, as it gives a direct key of interpretation
on how the rotor blade rows can induce the work exchange. As usual we
distinguish two classes of machines:
U 2 −U 2
• in case of axial machines, the term out2 in is null and, hence, the work
exchange is demanded to the blade deflection only; so, we should design
the rotors of operating machines (axial pumps, fans, compressors) so
to reduce the relative kinetic energy and increase the absolute kinetic
energy; conversely, we should design the rotors of motor machines (tur-
bines) so to increase the relative kinetic energy and reduce the absolute
kinetic energy;
U 2 −U 2
• in case of mixed-flow or radial machines, the term out2 in contributes
to the work exchange with its sign; in an operative machine the centrifu-
gal flow path increases the work exchange, so all the operative radial or
mixed-flow turbomachinery are of centrifugal layout; conversely, in a
motor machine (whose work exchange is negative) the centripetal flow
path increases the work exchange (in absolute value), so most radial or
mixed-flow turbines are centripetal (some relevant exceptions exist, for
very specific applications).
48

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Course Notes of Fluid-Machines

March 27, 2020

1 Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 1

2 Thermodynamic Models of Working Fluids 12

3 Balance equations for open systems 21

4 Momentum balance for turbomachinery - Euler equation 32

5 Balance Equations in the Rotating Frame of Reference 39

5.3 Alternative formulation of the work exchange expression . . . 48

The operation of Fluid-Machines is based on the combination of several physi-

are formulated as statements and cannot be demonstrated. However, it is

1.1 First Principle of Thermodynamics

L = ∆EK + ∆EP ; (1.1)

Something else has indeed changed in the system: an increase of water

• L 6= ∆EK + ∆EP for general systems

• L and Q are equivalent forms of energy exchange processes, that can

These considerations can be used to formulate a generalized form of the

where the symbol δ is used to identify infinitesimal amounts of energy ex-

Q + L = ∆U + ∆EK + ∆EP (1.4)

1.2 Work exchange modeling

Figure 1.1: Model problem for work exchange modeling

work is achieved through the action of a force which induces a displacement;

The mean pressure represents the macroscopic effect of the microscopic

expression to make it useful in the context of real fluid-machines1 . Let’s

1.3 Heat Transfer Modeling

a transformation whose ONLY final result is to convert into work the

in which an heat sink is a system which is able to exchange heat without

their random motion. If we consider a cyclic process, the Second Principle

Real transformations, however, occur in presence of disequilibrium and

For a non cyclic irreversible transformation between states 1 and 2 we can

1.4 Fundamental Relation

The Balance of Energy has a purely quantitative character, so it is valid

We further conclude that, for simple thermodynamic systems, a general

The differential of the enthalpy, written in specific terms, results:

dh = du + d(P v) = T dS + vdP ⇒ h = h(s, P )

The First Principle of Thermodynamics, formulated using the expressions

h = u(s, v) + vP, (2.3)

dh = du + vdP + P dv = T ds − P dv + vdP + P dv = T ds + vdP, (2.4)

from which we can infer that:

Le relations 2.6 are called Equations of State (EoS in the following).

2.1 Ideal gases

condensation in most of the technical applications of interest for Energy Sys-

The second Equation of State is often called volumetric as it assigns,

required to construct a computationally relevant model. To this aim, the

These two specific heats can be exploited to express in more explicit

By integrating the above relation, and introducing a proper reference

in which the reference enthalpy hf has been introduced.

2.1.1 Mixture of ideal gases

2.1.2 Perfect gases

2.2 Ideal liquids

The enthalpy of an ideal liquid can be computed by its differential, also

2.2.1 Perfect liquids

Balance equations for open

Among all the possible classifications, Fluid-Machines can be divided into

3.1 Control and material volumes. Reynolds

Equivalence (3.1) opens the way to derive technical formulations of the

confine the control volume in correspondence to the regions opened to the

in which the component of the velocity normal to the surface Vn is introduced,

3.2 Mass Balance Equation

Formulation (3.4) suggests a remarkable interpretation of the mass conser-

• steady flow configuration (⇒ d/dt = 0), so that accumulation terms

• uniform flow properties on the immaterial surfaces, so that the bound-

Considering the above assumption, the mass conservation is reduced to the

3.2.1 Transport Theorem with mass conservation