ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1

Week 5
A/Prof. Ashish Agalgaonkar
Phone: 4221 3400 Room: 35-G28

Review of Week 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Topics for Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Power System Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Power System Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Power System Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Load Calculation Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Load Calculation Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Converting P+jQ to an Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Load Impedance Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Power Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Power Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Two Wattmeter Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Two Wattmeter Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Distribution System Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ZS Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
ZS Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Voltage Control Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Voltage Control Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Voltage Control Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
PFC Control Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Power System Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Fault Current Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fault Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fault Level Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fault Level Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Power System Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
The Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
CB Rating Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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CB Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fuses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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 Review of Week 4
• Topic 3: Power Systems Components and Calculations

◦ Actual Transformers

◦ Single Phase Systems

◦ Three Phase Systems

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 2 / 40

Topics for Today

• Power System Calculations

• Power Measurements

• Topic 4: Distribution System Operation and Control

◦ Distribution System Layout

◦ Voltage Control

◦ Power System Protection

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 3 / 40

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 Power System Calculations
• Conversion from schematic to single phase equivalent circuit.

• Complete schematic:

supply supply line Factory

a

lighting heating motors

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 4 / 40

Power System Calculations

• Single line diagram:

supply supply line Factory

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 Power System Calculations
• Single phase equivalent circuit:

supply supply line Factory

+
-

light heater motor

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 6 / 40

Load Calculation Example

A laboratory supplied with 400 V, three phase supply has loads of: (a) 5 kW lighting, (b) 1 kW computers, (c) 20 kW @ 0.9
pf (lag) air-conditioning motor and (d) other minor loads totalling 3 kW @ 0.8 pf lagging. Estimate the total current to be
handled by the laboratory switchboard, assuming (i) that the single phase loads are distributed uniformly, (ii) the lighting
and computer loads have unity power factor.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 7 / 40

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 Load Calculation Example

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Converting P+jQ to an Impedance

• Suppose an impedance R + jX is given in the form that it draws P + jQ at voltage V . R and X
can be found using the following series of complex number equations (operations).

V = V 6 0◦ ,

S = P + jQ,
S = VI∗ → I,
R + jX = Z = V/I
ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 9 / 40

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 Load Impedance Example
A 230 V load draws 1600 W at 0.8 pf lagging. What is its impedance?

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 10 / 40

Power Measurements
• Single phase circuits

◦ Reading W is average of V I .

◦ If V = V 6 0◦ and

◦ I = I 6 − θ, then

◦ W = V I cos θ
Reading W is average of vi. supply load

V
I

• Q can be calculated (if V and I are known) from P 2 + Q2 = (V I)2

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 11 / 40

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 Power Measurements
• Three phase circuits

◦ If neutral is present and system is balanced, can use single phase technique and multiply by
three.

◦ If neutral not present and the load is balanced, use the two wattmeter method.
Vc
Ic
a
b
c I
Vcb Va
Ia
V V Ib
Vab
I I
W1 W2 Vb

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 12 / 40

Two Wattmeter Method

√
• W1 = 3VLN I cos(θ + 30◦ ), and
√
• W2 = 3VLN I cos(θ − 30◦ )
√
• Therefore: Ptot = W1 + W2 and Qtot = 3(W2 − W1 )
• In the expression for Q, the positive sign (i.e. W2 − W1 or W1 − W2 ) can be determined thus

◦ Identify the common phase (here the b-phase).

◦ Find the wattmeter whose voltage coil is connected from this to the next one in the phase
sequence (here it is W2 connected from b-phase to c-phase).

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 13 / 40

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 Two Wattmeter Example
Two wattmeters have full voltage and current ratings 230 V, 5 A and are used in a three phase circuit with a 2-wattmeter
connection as shown in above figure. Given that the wattmeter readings are W1 =600 W and W2 = 300 W, determine the
circuit P , Q and pf.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 14 / 40

Distribution System Layout

• Zone Substation (ZS):

◦ steps voltage down from 33 kV to 11 kV

◦ contains about 2 transformers of 25 MVA rating each

zone substation
33 kV 11 kV
11 kV feeders
voltage down from 33 kV to

ns about 2 transformers of

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 15 / 40

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 ZS Example
Each of the transformers in the previous figure (25 MVA, 33/11 kV) gives a 10% voltage drop at full load. Estimate the
transformer secondary-referred reactance.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 16 / 40

ZS Feeders
• Each 11 kV feeder has parameters of about R = X = 0.3 Ω/km.

• A typical length is 10 km with an 11 kV/400 V distribution transformer of about 500 kVA rating
connected every 0.5 km.

11 kV
bus
11 kV feeder
distribution transformer
other to 50-100 houses
feeders

400 V distributors

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 17 / 40

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 Voltage Control
• Voltage limits are normally about nominal ±5%

◦ if too high, insulation may break down.

◦ if too low, large currents will be necessary to supply the load.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 18 / 40

Voltage Control Example

If the voltage at the end of an 8 km long, 11 kV feeder is about 95% nominal, what is it at the sending end? Is it within a
range of ±5%? Consider a load of 500 kVA at 0.9 pf lagging every 0.5 km and R = X = 0.3 Ω/km.

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 Voltage Control Example

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Voltage Control Mechanisms

• tap-changing at transformers

• power factor correction along feeder

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 PFC Control Example
How would a star connected three phase bank of 50 µF capacitors at the end of the feeder affect the sending end voltage?

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Power System Faults

• Fault Causes:

◦ Atmospheric: e.g. lightning (temporary fault)

◦ Accidents: e.g. car impact with pole (permanent fault)

◦ Equipment failure such as transformer breakdown (permanent fault)

• Permanent fault is one that cannot be cleared remotely.

• Personnel are required to attend the site of the fault.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 23 / 40

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 Lightning
• 15-200 kA for brief duration

• Causes very high voltage between conductors and breaks down air causing arc

• Arc will remain even when lighting current is negligible

• Arc can be extinguished by de-energising line for a few seconds

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 24 / 40

Fault Current Calculations

• There is a need to calculate short-circuit (or fault) currents in order to:

◦ properly size protection equipment such as circuit breakers

and fuses,

◦ determine how a fault at one location will affect the voltage at another.

• Assumptions:

◦ Fault is a simultaneous short-circuit on all phases (balanced)

◦ Voltage at primary of zone substation is unaffected by fault

◦ Load current can be neglected in comparison with fault current

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 25 / 40

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 Fault Currents
• Fault currents are usually given in terms of fault level, F L
√
F L = 3VLN IS/C = 3VLL IS/C

• The units for the F L value are VA.

• IS/C is the short circuit current.

• VLN is the line-to-neutral voltage.

• VLL is the line-to-line voltage.

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 26 / 40

Fault Level Example

Calculate the short-circuit current at the end of a typical feeder (R = X = 0.3 Ω/km) 10 km long and connected to the ZS
examples used previously. What is the corresponding fault level? How will the voltage to the other feeders be affected?

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 27 / 40

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 Fault Level Example

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Power System Protection

• Aims of protection:

◦ Sense fault quickly

◦ Remove fault

◦ Maintain continuity of supply

◦ Notify operator

• Components:

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 29 / 40

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 Instrument Transformers
• There are two basic types of instrument transformers: voltage transformers (VTs) and current
transformers (CTs).

I Primary Conductor
• The VT reduces the voltage to a
standard level suitable for use with I’

protection equipment.
Current Transformer (CT)

• The CT reduces the current to a level

+ +
suitable for use with protection
V V’
equipment.
− −
Voltage Transformer (VT)

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 30 / 40

The Voltage Transformer

• Previously called potential transformer.

• The VT is usually modelled as an ideal

transformer such that V ′ = (1/n)V .

• Leakage reactances are kept to a

minimum so that the secondary voltage
accurately reflects the value of the line
voltage and that phase angle is not
altered.

Picture courtesy of ABB Asea Brown Boveri Ltd

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 31 / 40

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 The Current Transformer

• The primary winding of a CT usually

consists of a single turn obtained by
running the primary conductor through
the CT core.

• The CT will have a standard ratio and

the current in the secondary will be a
fraction of that in the primary.

Picture courtesy of ABB Asea Brown Boveri Ltd

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 32 / 40

Circuit Breakers
• A circuit breaker is a device for opening a fault current.

• i.e. a current much larger than the rated current of the circuit.

• The difficulty of interruption is caused by:

◦ the magnitude of the fault current to be interrupted

◦ the system voltage which is driving the fault current

• CB ratings are often given as:

√
SCB = 3VLN Iinterrupt = 3VLL Iinterrupt (VA)

• Hence a CB will be suitable at a site with a fault level F L if SCB ≥ F L

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 33 / 40

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 CB Rating Example
What should be the rating of a CB at the sending end of the feeder in the previous example?

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 34 / 40

CB Operation
• Current cannot be extinguished instantaneously because of circuit inductance.

• When CB contacts open the current continues to flow in the form of an arc.

• As contacts part further, the arc becomes less easy to support.

• At one of the current zeros (every 10 ms) the arc resistance will increase rapidly, and it will be
interrupted.

• There is no di/dt problem with system inductance since i is extinguished at a ‘natural current zero’.
lengthening arc
current continues to flow in the

As contacts part further, the arc

parting contacts

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 35 / 40

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 Circuit Breakers
• Two common types of circuit breaker used at high powers are the oil CB and the air-blast CB.
operating
busbar
mechanism
incoming outgoing interruptor
conductor conductor heads

oil
movable air
contact reservoir

Bulk oil CB Air blast CB

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 36 / 40

Fuses
• Fuses are made of a low melting point metallic link,

◦ e.g. zinc, copper, tin, cadmium.

• When the current is excessive, the link melts, interrupting current.

• Some fuses (high rupturing capacity or current-limiting) can interrupt current in less than 10 ms.
w melting point metallic arc quencher

thin wire
nt. Some fuses (high rupturing
t-limiting) can interrupt current schematic symbol

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 37 / 40

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 Fuses
Picture courtesy of Areva T&D

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Fuses
Picture courtesy of ABB Asea Brown Boveri Ltd

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 Fuses
Picture courtesy of Areva T&D

ECTE324/8324 Power Engineering 1 Week 5 – 40 / 40

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