Defination of DRIVE:

A drive is the electronic device that harnesses and controls the electrical energy sent to the motor. The
drive feeds electricity into the motor in varying amounts and at varying frequencies, thereby indirectly
controlling the motor’s speed and torque.

There are two types of drives: a standard inverter drive for controlling speed and torque only; and
a servo drive for controlling speed and torque, as well as positioning machine components used in
applications that require complex motion.

Together, a motor and drive form a “drive system.”

Traction motor specifications:

The operating conditions such as duty cycle, startup, temperature and operating
environment are vital considerations in the motor efficiency and reliability. It is absolutely
essential to match the motors to their specified operating conditions for minimizing stresses
on the motors and to get predetermined performance and life.

One of the areas, in which significant technical requirements are considered lightly or even
neglected, is selection of motors for operating various types of cranes and hoists.

Definitions Of Technical Terms

Some technical terms used frequently in intermittent duty drives and hoisting are defined as follows:

1. Duty
Operation of the motor at the declared load(s) including starting, electric braking, no load and rest
and de-energised periods to which the motor is subjected, including their durations and sequence in
time.

2. Cyclic duration factor

The ratio of the period of energisation/loading, including starting and electric braking, to the duration
of the one complete duty cycle expressed as percentage.

Generally the values for the CDF used are 25%, 40%, 60% and 100%.
3. Starting
The process of energizing a motor to bring it up to rated speed from rest.

4. Jogging or inching
This is an incomplete start during which the motor does not attain more than 25% of the rated speed.

5. Electric braking
A system in which a braking action is applied to an electric motor by causing it to act as a generator.

6. DC Injection braking
A form of braking of an induction motor in which a separate dc supply is used to magnetize the
motor.

7. Plug braking
A form of electric braking of an induction motor obtained by reversing the phase sequence of its any
two lines.

In accordance with Indian Standard IS:12824-1989; Types of Duty and Classes of Rating
Assigned to Rotating Electrical Machines. The motors are to be designed for the standard
duty cycles as given in Table.1 below.

Table.1 – Types of duty for electric motors

Duty Type Motor performance requirements
S1 Continuous running duty – The motor works at a constant load round the clock or
runs for adequate time to reach thermal equilibrium.
S2 Short-time duty – The motor works at a constant load for a definite time, but not
long enough to reach thermal equilibrium. The rest periods are long enough for the
motor to cool down to the ambient temperature.
S3 Intermittent periodic duty – The motor works with a sequence of identical duty
cycles comprising of period of running at a constant load and rest and de-energized
period. Thermal equilibrium is never reached due to these periods being too short.
Starting current has little effect on temperature rise.
S4 Intermittent periodic duty with starting – The motor works with a sequence of
identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of significant periodof starting, a period
of running at a constant load and rest and de-energized period. Thermal equilibrium
is never reached due to these periods being too short, but starting current affects
temperature rise.
S5 Intermittent periodic duty with electric braking – The motor works with a sequence
of identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a period of starting, a period of
 running at a constant load, a period of rapid electric braking and rest and de-
energized period. Thermal equilibrium is never attained due to periods of operating,
rest and de-energized state being too short
S6 Continuous operation periodic duty – The motor works with a sequence of identical
duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a period of running at a constant load and a
period of running at no load without rest and de-energized period. Thermal
equilibrium is never reached due to operation period at no load is too short.
S7 Continuous operation periodic duty with electric braking – The motor works with a
sequence of identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a period of starting, a
period of running at a constant load and a period of electric braking. Thermal
equilibrium is never reached, as rest and de-energized period is not there.
S8 Continuous operation with periodic related variations in load and speed – The
motor works with a sequence of identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a
period of running at a constant load corresponding to a definite speed of rotation,
followed by one or more periods of running at other constant loads at different
speed.Thermal equilibrium is never reached, as rest and de-energized period is not
there.
S9 Duty with non-periodic load and speed variations – The motor works generally at a
load and speed, which are varying non-periodically within permissible operating
range including frequent application of overloads that may exceed the ratingof
motor. Thermal equilibrium is never reached, as rest and de-energized period is not
there.
Classes of rating assigned to the electric motors are as given in Table.2 below. It may be
noted that while assigning classes of rating, the motors should invariably comply with the
requirements of Indian Standard referred above.

Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass

enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which
an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide
electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass
mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope
without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its
lead wires.
An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (3,140 to 5,480 °F), well below
tungsten's melting point of 3,695 K (6,191 °F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament
type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated filament emits light that
approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but
most energy is given off as heat in the near-infrared wavelengths.
Three-way light bulbs have two filaments and three conducting contacts in their bases. The
filaments share a common ground, and can be lit separately or together. Common wattages
include 30–70–100, 50–100–150, and 100–200–300, with the first two numbers referring to the
individual filaments, and the third giving the combined wattage.
Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a white powdery
substance on the inside called kaolin. Kaolin, or kaolinite, is a white, chalky clay in a very fine
powder form, that is blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. It diffuses
the light emitted from the filament, producing a more gentle and evenly distributed light.
Manufacturers may add pigments to the kaolin to adjust the characteristics of the final light
emitted from the bulb. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of
their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various
colors used for "party bulbs", Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are
created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue)
or chromium (green).[92] Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more
natural-appearing light.

1. Outline of Glass bulb

2. Low pressure inert gas
(argon, nitrogen, krypton, xenon)
3. Tungsten filament
4. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
5. Contact wire (goes into stem)
6. Support wires (one end embedded in
stem; conduct no current)
7. Stem (glass mount)
8. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
9. Cap (sleeve)
10. Insulation (vitrite)
11. Electrical contact

Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or
more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base,
shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an
electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and
some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires.
Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament.
Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts.
The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 200 and 260 °C (392
and 500 °F). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have
envelopes made of hard glass or fused quartz.[62]
Further information: Lightbulb socket

Gas fill
The bulb is filled with an inert gas, to reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent
its oxidation at a pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm).[93]
The role of the gas is to prevent evaporation of the filament, without introducing significant heat
losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is
desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the
filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without
reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). It however
introduces heat losses (and therefore efficiency loss) from the filament, by heat
conduction and heat convection.
Early lamps, and some small modern lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from
oxygen. This however increases evaporation of the filament, albeit it eliminates the heat losses.
The most common fills are:[94]

 Vacuum, used in small lamps. Provides best thermal insulation of the filament but does not
protect against its evaporation. Used also in larger lamps where the outer bulb surface
temperature has to be limited.
 Argon (93%) and nitrogen (7%), where argon is used for its inertness, low thermal
conductivity and low cost, and the nitrogen is added to increase the breakdown voltage and
prevent arcing between parts of the filament[93]
 Nitrogen, used in some higher-power lamps, e.g. projection lamps, and where higher
breakdown voltage is needed due to proximity of filament parts or lead-in wires
 Krypton, which is more advantageous than argon due to its higher atomic weight and lower
thermal conductivity (which also allows use of smaller bulbs), but its use is hindered by much
higher cost, confining it mostly to smaller-size bulbs.
 Krypton mixed with xenon, where xenon improves the gas properties further due to its higher
atomic weight. Its use is however limited by its very high cost. The improvements by using
xenon are modest in comparison to its cost.
 Hydrogen, in special flashing lamps where rapid filament cooling is required; its high thermal
conductivity is exploited here.
The gas fill must be free of traces of water. In the presence of the hot filament, water reacts with
tungsten forming tungsten trioxide and atomic hydrogen. The oxide deposits on the bulb inner
surface and reacts with hydrogen, decomposing to metallic tungsten and water. Water then
cycles back to the filament. This greatly accelerates the bulb blackening, in comparison with
evaporation-only.
The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, heat transfer occurs
only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb
envelope.
The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g. a
vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses.
The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin-filament, low-power
bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated. In special cases, when rapid
cooling of a filament is needed (e.g. in flashing lights), hydrogen gas fill is used.
Early lightbulbs with carbon filaments also used carbon monoxide, nitrogen, or mercury vapor.
Carbon filaments however operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the
fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits.

Working Principle of Halogen Lamp

The working principle of halogen lamp is based on regenerative
cycle of halogen.
In incandescent lamp due to high temperature tungsten filament
gets evaporated during its operation. Due to convectional flow of
gas inside the bulb, the evaporated tungsten is transported away
from the filament. The wall of the bulb is relatively cool. Hence
the evaporated tungsten then is adhered to the inner bulb wall.
This is not the case when halogen like iodine is used in the bulb
container. The temperature of the filament of the halogen lamp is
maintained at about 3300oK. Hence here also tungsten will be
evaporated from lamp filament. Due to convectional flow of gas
inside the bulb, the evaporated tungsten atoms are transported
away from the filament to relatively lower temperature zone
where they combine with the iodine vapor and form the tungsten
iodide. The temperature required for combination of tungsten and
iodine is 2000oK.
Then the same convectional flow of gas inside the bulb carries the
tungsten iodide to the wall of relatively lower temperature. But
the bulb is so designed that the temperature of the glass wall
remains between 500oK and 1500oK and at that temperature
tungsten iodide does not adhere to the bulb wall. It goes back to
toward filament due to same convectional flow of gas inside the
bulb. Again, at the close vicinity of the filament where
temperature is more than 2800oK, the tungsten iodide gets
broken into the tungsten and iodine vapor. Because this is the
required temperature for breaking tungsten iodide into tungsten
and iodine atoms. Then these tungsten atoms further proceed
and get re-deposited on the filament to compensate previously
vaporized tungsten. After that they again get evaporated due to
high filament temperature and become free to acquire iodine to
form iodide. This cycle repeats again and again. Hence the
filament does not get evaporated permanently so temperature of
the filament can be maintain at very high level compared to
normal incandescent lamp which makes it more efficient i.e. more
lumen/wall rating. As there is no permanent evaporation of
filament, the lifespan of the Tungsten Halogen Lamps gets
much longer with clarity of illumination. The chemical equation is

Construction of Halogen Lamp

Comparing to the halogen lamp, the incandescent lamp is able to
provide only 80% of its lumens at the end of the life as the clarity
of glass wall becomes fade due to tungsten deposition on it
whereas the tungsten halogen lamp is able to provide above
95% of its lumens at the end of life. Previously borosilicate or
aluminosilicate glass was used to make bulb of the halogen lamp.
Because they have higher temperature with stand capability and
their thermal expansion co-efficient is very low. But now a day’s
Quartz is widely used to make halogen bulb glass. Quartz is
transparent silica and pure silicon dioxide. It is very stronger and
it withstands higher temperature as compared to the borosilicate
or alumina silicate glass. Quartz bulb can be soft material above
1900oK. Again around the filament 2800oK must be maintained to
get continuous halogen cycle. So the distance between the
filament and quartz bulb wall must be maintained in such a way
that the quartz bulb wall gets temperature below 1900oK. The
bulb wall should be stronger and smaller in volume such that the
lamp can be operated at the inner pressure of several
atmospheres. Again higher pressure inside the bulb reduces the
rate of evaporation of the tungsten filament. A certain amount of
nitrogen and argon are mixed in addition to the halogen gas
inside the bulb to maintain this higher gas pressure inside. Thus
the lamp can be operated at the higher temperature and with
higher luminous efficacy for long time. Most of the lamps in
present days are with bromine instead of iodine. Bromine is
colorless whereas the iodine is purplish tint.
Application of Tungsten halogen lamps
Tungsten halogen lamps can have a number of shapes but
they are most often tubular with the filament oriented axially.
Again they are available in both double ended and single ended
types. Two types are shown below.
Two types are shown below.

Tungsten halogen lamps give correlated color temperature,

excellent lumen maintenance and reasonable life. Tungsten
halogen lamps are appropriate to be used in outdoor lighting
application. Particularly they can be used in the sports lighting,
theater, studios and television lighting etc. Their filaments are
generally mechanically stable and positioned with higher
precision. Tungsten halogen lamps are being used widely as
spotlight, film projectors and scientific instruments. Types of
Tungsten halogen lamps. In the market low voltage tungsten
filament lamps are also available. They are available at 12, 20,
42, 50 and 75 Watts operated between 3000oK and 3300oK. Their
life ranges from 2000 hours to 3500 hours.
As the optical projection equipments the halogen lamps are
generally used, in present days, they are being used widely in the
display lighting also.
The main part of the tungsten halogen lamp is small tungsten
halogen capsule. It is cemented into one piece, all glass reflectors
are as the facets for controlling the beam optically. MR-16 lamp
has multifaceted reflector with 2 inch diameter. It has slightly
higher luminous efficacy than standard voltageincandescent
lamps. Their size is smaller also and permit compact fixture.

What is Fluorescent Lamp?

A fluorescent lamp or a fluorescent tube is a low weight mercury vapour lamp that uses
fluorescence to deliver visible light. An electric current in the gas energizes mercury vapor which
delivers ultraviolet radiation through discharge process which causes a phosphor coating of the lamp
inner wall to radiate visible light. A fluorescent lamp changes over electrical vitality into useful light a
great deal more proficiently than incandescent lamps. The normal luminous viability of fluorescent
lighting frameworks is 50-100 lumens for every watt, a few times the adequacy of incandescent
lamps with equivalent light yield.

How Fluorescent lamp works?

 When the switch is ON, full voltage will come across the
tube light through ballast and fluorescent lamp starter. No
discharge happens initially i.e. no lumen output from the lamp.
 At that full voltage first the glow discharge is established in
the starter. This is because the electrodes gap in the neon
bulb of starter is much lesser than that of inside the
fluorescent lamp.
 Then gas inside the starter gets ionized due to this full voltage
and heats the bimetallic strip that is caused to be bent to
connect to the fixed contact. Current starts flowing through
the starter. Although the ionization potential of the neon is
little bit more than that of the argon but still due to small
electrode gap high voltage gradient is appeared in the neon
bulb and hence glow discharge is started first in starter.
 As voltage gets reduced due to the current causes a voltage
drop across the inductor, the strip cools and breaks away
from the fixed contact. At that moment a large L di/dt voltage
surge comes across the inductor at the time of breaking.
 This high valued surge comes across the tube light electrodes
and strike penning mixture (mixture argon gas and mercury
vapor).
 Gas discharge process continues and current gets path to flow
through the tube light gas only due to low resistance as
compared to resistance of starter.
 The discharge of mercury atoms produces ultraviolet
radiation which in turn excites the phosphor powder coating
to radiate visible light.
 Starter gets inactive during operation of tube light.

Basic Physics of Gas Discharge inside the

Fluorescent Lamp?
When a sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrodes, a
strong electric field is set up. A small amount of current through
the electrodes filaments heats up the filament coil. As the filament
is oxide coated, sufficient amount of electrons is produced and they
rush from negative electrode or cathode to positive electrode or
anode due to this strong electric field. During the movement of free
electrons discharge process starts to be established. The basic
discharge process always follows three steps:
1. Free electrons are derived from the electrodes and they get
accelerated by the electric field applied.
2. Kinetic energy of the free electrons is converted into the
excitation energy of the gas atoms.
3. The excitation energy of the gas atoms gets converted into the
radiation.
In the discharge process, a single ultra violates spectral line of
253.7 nm is produced at a low pressure of mercury vapor. To
generate 253.7 nm ultra violate ray the bulb temperature is kept
between 105 to 115oF.
The length to diameter ratio of the tube should be such that fixed
wattage loss happens at both ends. Where this wattage loss or
glow of electrodes takes place is called cathode and anode fall
region. This watt loss is very small.
Again the cathodes should be oxide coated. Hot cathode provides
an abundance of free electrons. Hot cathodes, mean those
electrodes which are heated by circulating current and this
circulating current is provided by choke or control gear. Few lamps
have cold cathode also. Cold cathodes have larger effective area
and higher voltage such as 11 kv is applied across them to get
ions. Gas starts to be discharged due to this high voltage
application. But at 100 to 200 V the cathode glow get separated
from the cathode, it is called cathode fall. This provides a large
supply of ions which are accelerated to the anode to produce
secondary electrons on impact which in term produce more ions.
But cathode-fall in hot cathode discharge is only at 10 V.
HIGH PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP:

In case of fluorescent lamp the mercury vapour pressure is

maintained at lower level such that 60% of the total input energy
gets converted into 253.7 nm single line. Again transition of the
electrons requires least amount of input energy from a colliding
electron. As pressure increases the chance of multiple collisions
gets increased. A schematic diagram of mercury lamp is shown
below. This lamp is containing an inner quartz arc tube and outer
borosilicate glass envelope. The quartz tube is able to withstand
arc temperature 1300oK, whereas the outer tube withstands only
700oK. Between two tubes nitrogen gas is
used to be filled to provide thermal insulation. This insulation is
for to protect the metal parts from oxidation due to higher arc
temperature. The arc tube contains the mercury and argon gas.
Its operational function is same as the fluorescent lamp.

HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP:

It is very difficult to get any material which is free from corrosion

in presence of sodium vapour in high temperature and pressure.
This was the main difficulty of producing high pressure sodium
lamp. In 1959, the development of polycrystalline alumina (PCA)
opened a new path to introduce the high pressure sodium vapor
Lamp. As this material is very rarely affected by high pressure
and temperature sodium vapour. The first lamp with 400 W,
42000 initial lumens and 6000 hour life first came in the market
in 1965. But afterward some improvements made this lamp with
50000 initial lumens with 24000 hours at 10 hours per start. We
can get a lamp that has 2.4 times lumens output of its mercury
counterpart with same rated life span.

Diagram of High Pressure Sodium Lamp

 It has an inner PCA arc tube that is filled
with xenon gas. This xenon gas is used for starting purpose of the
lamp as ionization potential of xenon gas is lowest among all
other inert gases used for this purpose. In addition to xenon gas
sodium mercury amalgam is present in this arc tube, too. In each
end, back wound and coated tungsten electrodes are mounted.
To seal the tube monolithic seal is used instead of niobium end
cap.
The arc tube is inserted into a heat resistant outer bulb. It is
supported by an end clamp that is floating. This end clamp
permits the entire structure to expand contract without distorting.
The space between the tube and the bulb is a vacuum space. This
vacuum space is needed to insulate heat from the arc tube.
Because it is necessary to keep the arc tube at required
temperature to sustain arc during normal operation.
High pressure sodium lamp has very small diameter (3/8 inch).
So there is no enough space to provide any starting electrode in
the arc tube. So higher voltage is required to initiate arc. A ballast
with igniter is used for this purpose. High voltage is fed to the lamp
from the ballast by using the phenomenon of superimposing a low
energy high voltage pulse. Generally a typical pulse has a peak
voltage of 2500V and it has durability for only 1 microsecond only.
This high voltage pulse makes the xenon gas ionized sufficiently.
Then it initiates and maintains the xenon arc. The initial arc has
sky blue color. Amalgam used in the reservoir formed inside the
arc tube. It is in the back of one of the electrodes. It is normally
vaporized during lamp operation. As the xenon arc has started
temperature of arc tube is increased which first vaporizes mercury
and the lamp start glowing with bluish white color. This color
represents the effect of the xenon and mercury mixture at
excitation. Gradually the temperature again rises, and sodium
becomes vaporized lastly and becomes excited, a low pressure
monochromatic yellow sodium spectrum results. During the period
of sodium spectral line becomes at 589 nm. With temperature the
sodium pressure increases from 0.02 atm in the monochromatic
discharge to over 1 atm in the final steady state, broad spectrum
condition. Also presence of excited mercury and xenon gives bluish
effect to the lamp radiation and finally pleasant golden bright light
comes out.
These lamps have high luminous efficacy and life span is about
24000 hours. It has excellent lumen maintenance capability. Data
of several common high pressure sodium lamps are given
below.

CFL Construction
The most important technical advance has been the replacement of electromagnetic ballasts withelectronic
ballasts; this has removed most of the flickering and slow starting traditionallyassociated with fluorescent
lighting.There are two types of CFLs:
integrated and

Non-integrated lamps.
Parts
There are two main parts in a CFL:

The gas-filled tube (also called bulb or burner) and

The magnetic or electronic ballast.An electrical current from the ballast flows through the gas (mercury vapor),
causing it to emitultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light then excites a phosphor coating on the inside of the
tube.This coating emits visible light.Electronic ballasts contain a small circuit board with rectifiers, a filter
capacitor and usually twoswitching transistors connected as a high-frequency resonant series DC to AC inverter.
Theresulting high frequency, around 40 kHz or higher, is applied to the lamp tube. Since theresonant converter
tends to stabilize lamp current (and light produced) over a range of input

Schematic Diagram of Metal Halide Lamp

Schematic diagram of a metal halide lamp is shown below.

How does a Metal Halide Lamp Work?

 When full voltage is applied across the main electrodes, no arc
is produced at the time of switching.
 The auxiliary electrode or starter electrode near the main
electrodes attached to the glass stem creates initial discharge
between them.
 A bimetal switch is there to short the starter electrode to the
main electrode just at the time of staring.
 Starter electrode is used to create initial arc between main and
auxiliary electrode that heats up the metal halide salts.
 Starter electrode or auxiliary electrode is with high resistance to
limit the current at initial arc.
 Again discharge is first in argon and then in mercury.
 Small amount of mercury vapor helps to establish main arc
formation between main electrodes through metal halides vapor
one by one.
 To reach up to full light output this lamp takes 5 minutes.
How arc Inside the Metal Halide Arc Tube
Establishes?
In the OFF condition of the lamp, metal iodides i.e. indium,
thallium and sodium iodides used inside the lamp are present on
the bulb wall.
Due to rising of arc temperature, the metal iodides vaporize and
diffuse from wall into the arc stream. Then they dissociate and
yield free metal and iodine atoms.
Almost like this fashion, the mercury atoms inside the bulb are
excited and ionized.
Generally all iodide salts do not get vaporized at same time
in metal halide lamp. So step wise, the process of vaporization
is
 First argon gas and then mercury get vaporized to form arc.
 Only indium gets vaporized first to form a blue sheath around
the mercury arc.
 Then thallium gets vaporized and it forms yellow sheath around
the thallium.
 Finally sodium iodides get vaporized and it makes the lamp very
sensitive to changes in the lamp wattage.
Lamp will be deficient in yellow and red if the lamp watts are
lower than rated value. It is because of very small amount of
sodium gets vaporized.
Again in case of sodium-scandium metal halide lamps,
scandium vaporizes first and then sodium.

What are the Basic Requirements of Metal Halides

Inside the Arc Tube?
The basic requirements of the metal additive are mentioned
below:
1. The iodide vapor pressure must be relatively high enough.
2. The energy level configuration of the metal must be robust to
encourage a high percentage of the visible radiation.
3. At the bulb wall operating temperature the iodide of the metal
must be stable.
4. The excitation level of the metal atoms must be lower than the
average of the excitation level of mercury (about 7.8 eV).
Thallium has a strong spectral line at 535 nm and it requires only
3.3 eV for its arc generation. Its iodide salt creates vapor
pressure at about 10 mm at 800 K on the arc tube.
Why Metal Halide Lamp is with Frameless
Construction?
This lamp has frameless construction. Molybdenum is used as
outer electric wire and it is non magnetic. The reason is ac
current would flow through the frame and create
pulsating magnetic field. So this would cause the electron to
leave the frame would attract to combine with the sodium ions
which would migrate through the arc tube wall. It would cause
serious depletion of the sodium from the arc stream.

Why is there Reflective Coating at both ends of

Metal Halide Arc Tube?
The metal halide lamp has an arc tube of which the ends are
taken to be treated with a reflective white coating that is used to
redirect the energy back into the tube. A uniform temperature
can be maintained over entire arc tube length due to short
length.

What are the Ratings of Metal Halide Lamp Available

in the Market?

How neon lamps work

1. A neon lamp is a sealed glass tube filled with neon gas, which is one
of the so-called "noble" (inert or unreactive) gases on the far right of
the Periodic Table. (There are minute quantities of neon in the air
around us: take a deep breath and you'll breathe in a volume of neon
as big as an orange pip!)
2. There are electrical terminals at either end of a neon tube. At one
end, there's a negative terminal ("-ve", shown blue); at the other end
there's a positive terminal ("+ve", shown green).
3. When the tube is switched off, it contains ordinary atoms of neon gas
(brown circles).
4. Rig the terminals up to a high-voltage power supply (about 15,000
volts—because you need a lot of "electrical force" to make things
happen) and switch on, and you'll literally start pulling the neon
atoms apart. Some of the atoms will lose electrons to become
positively charged ions (big green dots). Being positively charged,
these neon ions will tend to move toward the negative electrical
terminal.
5. The electrons the neon atoms lose (small blue dots) are negatively
charged, so they hurtle the opposite way toward the positive terminal
at the other end of the tube.
6. In all this rushing about, atoms, ions, and electrons are constantly
colliding with one another. Those collisions generate a sudden
smash of energy that excites the atoms and ions and makes them
give off photons of red light.
7. So many collisions happen with such rapidity that you get a constant
buzzing of red light from the tube. You also get quite a lot of energy
given off as heat. If you've ever stood near a neon light, you'll know
they can get very hot. That's because the atoms are giving off quite a
bit of invisible infrared radiation (in other words, heat) as well as
visible radiation (better known as red light).