Chapter 3

MODELING OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

3.1 Equations of Electric Networks

In general, we write equations of electric networks based on Kirchhoff loop and node methods.

Example 3.1.1 Write the state equations and find the transfer functions of Ec .s/=E.s/ and I.s/=
E.s/ of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.1.

R i
+
L +
e(t ) C ec (t )
-
-
Figure 3.1: A simple electrical RLC circuit for Example .

Solution: We usually assign the inductor’s current and capacitor’s voltage as the state variables.

dec 1
8̂ 8̂
<C Di <ePc D i
dt ) C
:̂L d i
D ec Ri C e :̂iP D 1 ec R i C 1 e
dt L L L
2 3 2
dec .t/ 1 "3 2 3
0
6 dt 7 6 0
#
7D4 C e c .t/
C 4 1 5 e.t/ state equations
6 7 6 7
4 d i.t/ 5 1 R i.t/
5
dt L L L

The signal flow graph is displayed in Fig. 3.2. The transfer functions are computed as follows:
1
Ec .s/ LC
s 2 1
D D
E.s/ 1C R
L
1
s 1 C LC s 2 LC s 2 C RC s C 1
1
I.s/ L
s 1 Cs
D D
E.s/ 1C R
L
s 1C 1
LC
s 2 LC s 2 C RC s C 1

22
3.1 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

i(0) ec (0)
-1
L s
s
s -1 s -1
1 . 1 .
e i -R i ec ec
L C
L

Figure 3.2: Signal flow graph of the electric RLC ciccuit shown in Fig 3.1.
eR (t )
+ -
+ i
R +
ein (t ) C ec (t )
-
-
Figure 3.3: A simple electrical RC circuit.

Example 3.1.2 Consider the RC circit shown in Fig. 3.3. Find the transfer functions Ec .s/=Ei n .s/
and ER .s/=Ei n .s/.
Solution: 8̂ 8̂
<C de c
Di <ePc D 1 i
dt ) C
:̂eR C ec D ei n :̂iR C ec D CRePc C ec D ei n

1 1 Ec 1
ePc C ec D ei n ) D
CR CR Ei n RC s C 1
1  1  sC
Ec D I.s/; Ei n D C R I.s/ ) I.s/ D Ei n
sC sC 1 C sCR
1 1 sC ER RC s
Ei n D ER C I.s/ D ER C Ei n ) D
sC sC 1 C sCR Ei n RC s C 1
The signal flow graph is displayed in Fig. 3.4. By utilizing the signal flow graph, one is also able

ec (0)
1 1 s
C s -1
R 1
i eR ein e&c ec

Figure 3.4: Signal flow graph of the electric RC circuit shown in Fig 3.3.

to write the transfer functions as follows:

1 Ei n 1 CRs C 1
1: i ! ei n W N D 2; M1 D R; M2 D ;  D 1; DRC D
Cs I Cs Cs
1 EC 1
2: i ! eC W N D 1; M1 D ; D
Cs I Cs
ER
3: i ! eR W N D 1; M1 D R; DR
I

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 23 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.2 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

Ec 1
Ec I Cs 1
) D Ei n
D CRsC1
D
Ei n I Cs
CRs C 1
ER
ER I R CRs
) D Ei n
D CRsC1
D
Ei n I Cs
CRs C 1

3.2 Modeling of Simple Mechanical Systems

3.2.1 Translation Motion

In general most equations are governed by Newton’s law of motion.
X
forces D Ma

I.
M f (t )
f (t ) = Ma = M
d 2 y (t )
=M
dv (t )
2
dt dt
y (t )

II. Linear spring: An ideal spring is considered to be an massless element that stores potential
energy. It is analogous to a capacitor.

f .t/ D Ky.t/ (3.2.1)

K: spring constant or stiffness (N=m).

model:

K y (t )
f (t )

If the spring is pre loaded with a pre load tension of T , then (3.2.1) becomes

f .t/ T D Ky.t/

III. Friction for Translation Motion

1. Viscous friction: a retarding force

B y (t )
dy (t )
f (t ) f (t ) = B
dt
B: viscous frictional coefficient
2. Static friction: a retarding force that tends to prevent motion from beginning.
f (t )
+ Fs
y& f (t ) = ± ( Fs ) y& =0
- Fs

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 24 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.2 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

3. Coulomb friction:
f

+ Fc
y& (t )
f (t ) = Fc y&
y& (t )
- Fc

Fc : Coulomb friction coefficient

3.2.2 Rotational Motion

I. X
torques D J ˛

J : inertia ˛: angular acceleration

The algebraic sum of moments or torques about a fixed axis is equal to the product of the
inertia and the angular acceleration about the axis.
T
dw ( t ) d 2q (t )
J q(t ) T ( t ) = Ja ( t ) = J =J
dt dt 2

!: angular velocity  : angular displacement

II. Torsional spring

T D K , K: torsional spring constant

III. Friction for Rotational Motion:

d
1. Viscous friction: T DB
dt
2. Static friction: T D ˙.Fs / jD0
P

P
3. Coulomb friction: T D Fc
jP j

3.2.3 Gear Trains, Levers and Timing Belts

I. Gear Trains:
Fig. 3.5 displays a mechanical device that transmits energy from one part of a system to
another in such a way that force, torque, speed, and displacement may be altered.

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 25 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.2 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

N1
T1
N :teeth number
q1 T :torque
q :Angular displacement

T2 q 2
N2

Figure 3.5: Gear train.

r1 N1
1. D , or r1 N2 D r2 N1
r2 N2
i.e., the number of teeth on the surface of the gears is proportional to the radii r1 and
r2 of the gears.
2. 1 r1 D 2 r2
i.e., the distance traveled along the surface of each gear is the same.
3. T1 1 D T2 2
i.e., assume there is no loss, then the work done by one gear is equal to that of the other.
1 r1 2 r2
4. D ) !1 r1 D !2 r2
t t
T1 r1 N1 2 !2
) D D D D (3.2.2)
T2 r2 N2 1 !1
Fig. 3.6 illustrates the case when inertia and friction exist.

N1 T F
B1 1 c1

J1

T q1 B2
J2

T2 Fc 2 q 2
N2

Figure 3.6: Gear train if inertia and friction exist.

The torque equation for gear 2 is

d 2 2 .t/ d2 .t/ P2

T2 .t/ D J2 C B 2 C F c2 (3.2.3)
dt 2 dt jP2 j
The torque equation on the side of gear 1 is

d 2 1 .t/ d1 .t/ P1

T .t/ D J1 C B 1 C F c1 C T1 .t/
dt 2 dt jP1 j

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 26 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.3 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

By use of (3.2.2), (3.2.3) is converted to

 2  2
N1 N1 d 2 1 .t/ N1 d1 .t/ N1 P2
T1 .t/ D T2 .t/ D J2 C B 2 C F c2
N2 N2 dt 2 N2 dt N2 jP2 j
The previous equation indicates that it is possible to reflect inertia, friction, compliance,
torque, speed, and displacement from one side of a gear train to the other. The following
quantities are obtained when reflecting from gear 2 to gear 1:
 2
N1
Inertia: J2
N2
 2
N1
Viscous frictional coefficient: B2
N2
N1
Torque: T2
N2
N1
Angular displacement: 1
N2
N1
Angular velocity: !1
N2
N1 !2
Coulomb friction torque: Fc2
N2 j!2 j
II. Timing belts: as shown in Fig. 3.7, it allows the transfer of energy over a long distance. The

T1 , q1
T2 , q 2
r1 r2

Figure 3.7: Timing belts.

relationship between each variable is similar to (3.2.2).

III. Lever system: as shown in Fig. 3.8.

x1
f1

l1
f1 x1 = f 2 x2 , l1q = x1 , l2q = x2
f1 x2 l2
= =
l2 f 2 x1 l1

f2
x2

Figure 3.8: Lever system.

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 27 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.3 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

3.3 Examples of Modeling Simple Mechanical Systems

Example 3.3.1 Consider a simple mechanical system illustrated in Fig. 3.9.

y (t )
K
Ky (t )
M f (t ) dy M f (t )
B
dt
B

Figure 3.9: A mechanical system of Example 3.3.1 and its free body diagram.

dy.t/ d 2 y.t/
) f .t/ Ky.t/ B DM
dt dt 2
2
d y.t/ B dy.t/ K 1
) 2
D y.t/ C f .t/
dt M dt M M
Laplace transform of the above equation, assume all the initial condition are zero.
B K 1
s 2 Y .s/ D sY .s/ Y .s/ C F .s/
M M M
 
2 B K 1
) s C sC Y .s/ D F .s/
M M M
1
Y .s/ M 1
) D B K
D
F .s/ s2 C M
s C M
M s2 C Bs C K

dy
State equation: let x1 D y, x2 D
dt
xP 1 D x2
B K 1
xP 2 D x2 x1 C f .t/
M M M
" # " #" # " #
xP 1 0 1 x1 0
) D K B C 1 f
xP 2 M M
x2 M

The signal flow graph in displayed in Fig. 3.10.

Example 3.3.2 A mechanical system is displayed in Fig. 3.11. Write the state equation of this
system.

f D K.y1 y2 /
d 2 y2
K.y1 y2 / B yP2 D M
dt 2
1 B K
) y1 D y2 C f; yR2 D yP2 C .y1 y2 /
K M M

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 28 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.3 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

1
M s −1 s −1
f &y& B y& y
−
M

K
−
M

Figure 3.10: State diagram of Example 3.3.1.

y2 y1
B
K
M f

y2
K ( y1 - y2 )
B&y2 K ( y1 - y2 ) f
M
Figure 3.11: A mechanical system of Example 3.3.2.

1 K
K M s -1 s -1
f y1 &y&2 -
B y& 2 y2
M

K
-
M

Figure 3.12: Signal flow graph of the system displayed in Fig. 3.11.

The signal flow graph is displayed in Fig. 3.12. The transfer functions is computed as follows:
1 B K
Y1 .s/ K
Œ1 . Ms M s2
/ M s 2 C Bs C K
D B K K
D
F .s/ 1 . Ms M s2
C M s2 / Ks.M s C B/
1
Y2 .s/ M s2 1
D D
F .s/ 1 C MBs s.M s C B/

State equation: let x1 D y2 , x2 D yP2

) xP 1 D x2
B 1
xP 2 D x2 C f
M M
Example 3.3.3 Consider the two degree of freedom mechanical system shown in Fig. 3.13, where
a force f .t/ is applied to mass M2 , and y2 > y1 . The dynamic equations of this system are
 
M1 yR1 .t/ D K1 y1 .t/ C K2 y2 .t/ y1 .t/ D .K1 C K2 /y1.t/ C K2 y2 .t/
 
M2 yR2 .t/ D f .t/ K2 y2 .t/ y1 .t/ K3 y2 .t/ D K2 y1 .t/ .K2 C K3 /y2 .t/ C f .t/

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 29 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.3 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

y1 y2
K1 K2 K3
M1 M2
f (t )

K1 y1
M1 K 2 ( y 2 - y1 ) K 2 ( y 2 - y1 ) f (t )
M2 K 3 y2

Figure 3.13: Two degree of freedom mechanical system and its free-body diagram.

dy1 dy2
Let x1 D y1 , x2 D , x3 D y2 , x4 D
dt dt
xP 1 D x2
K1 C K2 K2
xP 2 D x1 C x3
M1 M1
xP 3 D x4
K2 K2 C K3 f
xP 4 D x1 x3 C
M2 M2 M2
Example 3.3.4 Write the state equation and draw the signal flow graph of the mechanical system
illustrated in Fig. 3.14.

dy2
K 2 y2 B2
K2 B2 dt

M2 M2
y2 (t ) y2 (t )
dy1 dy2
K1 M2g B1 K1 ( y1 - y2 )
M2g B1 (
dt
-
dt
)

M1 M1
y1 (t ) y1 (t )
f (t ) + M 1 g f (t ) + M 1 g

Figure 3.14: A mechanical system and its free-body diagram of Example 3.3.4.

d 2 y1
 
dy1 dy2
f .t/ C M1 g K1 .y1 y2 / B1 D M1 2
dt dt dt
dy1 dy2 dy2 d 2 y2
M2 g C K1 .y1 y2 / C B 1 . / K2 y 2 B2 D M2 2
dt dt dt dt
dy1 dy2
let x1 D y1 , x2 D , x3 D y2 , x4 D , one can obtain the state-space equations as
dt dt
xP 1 D x2

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 30 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.3 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

K1 B1 K1 B1 1
xP2 D x1 x2 C x3 C x4 C f Cg
M1 M1 M1 M1 M1
xP3 D x4
K1 B1 K1 C K2 1
xP4 D x1 C x2 x3 .B1 C B2 /x4 C g
M2 M2 M2 M2
Laplace transform the preceding equations, one get (Let all the initial conditions be zero)

sX1 .s/ D X2 .s/

K1 B1 K1 B1 1
sX2 .s/ D X1 .s/ X2 .s/ C X3 .s/ C X4 .s/ C F .s/ C g=s
M1 M1 M1 M1 M1
sX3 .s/ D X4 .s/
K1 B1 K1 C K2 B1 C B2
sX4 .s/ D X1 .s/ C X2 .s/ X3 .s/ X4 .s/ C g=s (3.3.1)
M2 M2 M2 M2
The signal flow diagram of (3.3.1) is shown in Fig. 3.15.

B1 M 2
M1g
B1 M 1 F (s) +
s

1 M1 sX 1
x3 -1 x1
sX 3 s X 3
-1
1 sX 4 s K1 M 1 sX 2 s -1 x2 s
-1
1 Y1 ( s )
g s x4 x4 x3 x2 X2 x1 y1
1
y2 - B1 M 1
- K1 M 1
Y2 ( s )
-( B1 + B2 )
M2
-( K1 + K 2 )
M2 K1 M 2

Figure 3.15: State diagram for the mechanical system in Example 3.3.4.

Example 3.3.5 Fig. 3.16 shows the diagram of a motor coupled to an inertial load through a shaft
with a spring constant K. A nonrigid coupling between two mechanical components in a control
system often causes torsional resonances that can be transmitted to all parts of the system.
dm d 2 m
Tm .t/ Bm K.m L / D Jm (3.3.2)
dt dt 2
d 2 L
K.m L / D JL 2 (3.3.3)
dt
I. Let L D x1 , PL D x2 , m D x3 , Pm D x4 . Then the state-space equations is written as

xP 1 D x2
K K
xP 2 D x1 C x3
JL JL

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 31 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.4 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

Tm
K Load
Motor
JL
qm qL
J m , Bm (a)
B m w m + K (q m - q L ) K (q m - q L )
K Load
Motor JL
K m , Tm , qm qL
(b)

Figure 3.16: (a) Motor-load system. (b) Free-body diagram.

xP 3 D x4
K K Bm 1
xP 4 D x1 x3 x4 C Tm ) xP D Ax C bu; .u D Tm /
Jm Jm Jm Jm
2 3 2 3
0 1 0 0 0
6 K 0 K 0 7 60
7 6 7
A D 6 JL JL
7; b D 6
6 7
4 0 0 0 1 5 40
7
5
K Bm 1
Jm
0 JKm Jm Jm

II. Let m L D x1 , PL D x2 , Pm D x3 . Then the state-space equation is written as

xP 1 D x2 C x3
2 3 2 3
0 1 1 0
K 6K 0 0 7
xP 2 D x ) A D 4 JL 5; b D 4 0 5
6 7
JL 1
Bm K Bm 1
K 1 0
xP 3 D x
Jm 1
x
Jm 3
C T
Jm m Jm Jm Jm

If the rotor shaft is rigid, m D L , that is, all the motor applied torque is transmitted to the load,
then substituting (3.3.3) into (3.3.2), one is able to obtain the overall equation of the system as

d 2 m dm
.Jm C JL / D Tm .t/ Bm :
dt 2 dt

3.4 Linearization of Nonlinear Systems

Most systems in real world are nonlinear systems. However, if a nonlinear system only operate in
a small range of an operating point, then the linearization can be carried out and the analysis and
design technique of the linear systems still can be applied.
A nonlinear system in vector-matrix form can be described as

d x.t/
D fŒx.t/; u.t/; (3.4.1)
dt
where x.t/ 2 Rn , u.t/ 2 Rp , f 2 Rn . For example,

dx1
D x1 .t/ C x22 .t/
dt

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 32 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.4 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

dx2
D cos.x1 .t// C x1 x2 .t/ C u.t/
dt

Now we use Taylor series to derive the linearizing model. Let

x.nor/ .t/: nominal operating trajectory 2 Rn
u.nor/ .t/: corresponding nominal input 2 Rp
Key point: Expand the nonlinear state equations (3.4.1) into a Taylor series about a nominal oper-
T T
ating point x.nor/ , x.nor/1 ; x.nor/2 ;


; x.nor/n , u.nor/ , u.nor/1 ; u.nor/2 ;


, u.nor/p . Neglect
 

(or discard) all the higher-order terms.

n   p 
X @fi .x; u/ ˇˇ X @fi .x; u/ ˇˇ
) xP i .t/ fi .x.nor/ ; u.nor/ / C .xj x.nor/j / C 
@x @ul
ˇ ˇ
j x.nor/ ;u.nor/ x.nor/ ;u.nor/
j D1 lD1
i
.ul u.nor/l / ; (3.4.2)

T T
where i D 1; 2;


n and x , x1 ; x2 ;


; xn , u , u1 ; u2 ;


, up . Let 4xi D xi
 
x.nor/i ,
4ul D ul u.nor/l ,

* xP .nor/i D fi .x.nor/ u.nor/ / (3.4.3)

) 4xP i .t/ D xP i .t/ xP .nor/i .t/ D xP i .t/ fi .x.nor/; u.nor/ /
n  
X @fi .x; u/ ˇˇ
D (3.4.2) (3.4.3) D 4xj .t/
@xj
ˇ
x.nor/ ;u.nor/
j D1

p  
X @fi .x; u/ ˇˇ
C 4ul .t/ :
@ul
ˇ
x.nor/ ;u.nor/
lD1

The above equation written in vector-matrix from is

4Px D A 4x C B 4u

T T
where x , x1 ; x2 ;


; xn , u , u1 ; u2 ;


, up , and
 

@f1 @f1 @f1

2 3
6 @x1



6 @x2 @xn 7
7
6 @f2 @f2 @f2 7
6 7




A D 6 2 Rnn ;
6 7
6 @x1 @x2 @xn 7
7
6 : :: :: 7
6 :: : : 7
6 7
4 @fn @fn @fn 5




@x1 @x2 @xn xnor ; unor

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 33 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.4 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

@f1 @f1 @f1

2 3
6 @u1



6 @u2 @up 7
7
6
6 @f2 @f2 @f2 7




7
6 @u1
B D 6 2 Rnp
7
@u2 @up 7
6 7
6 : :: :: 7
6 :: : : 7
6 7
4 @fn @fn @fn 5




@u1 @u2 @up xnor ; unor

are so called Jacobian matrices.

Example 3.4.1 Consider a nonlinear control system displayed in Fig. 3.17. The nonlinear dy-

x1 u x&1 = x2 x1
x&2 = u

Figure 3.17: A nonlinear control system considered in Example 3.4.1.

namic equations of this system are

xP 1 D x2
Kjx1 j
xP 2 D .1 e /sgn.x1 / D u

Kjx1 j
@f1 @f1 @f1 @f2
Note that f1 D x2 ; f2 D .1 e /sgn.x1 /. Hence D 0, D 1, D 0, D 0,
@x1 @x2 @u @u
@f2 @f2
D 0, we need to find .
@x2 @x1
1. if x1 > 0
Kx1 @f2 Kx1
) xP 2 D .1 e / ) D Ke
@x1
2. if x1 < 0
@f2
) xP 2 D .1 e Kx1 / ) D Ke Kx1
@x1
@f2
) D Ke Kjx1 j
@x1
) 4xP 1 D 4x2
Kjx1 j ˇ
ˇ @f2 @f2
4xP 2 D Ke 4x1 C 4x2 C 4u
@x2 @u
ˇ
x.nor/ ; u.nor/
Kjx.nor/1 j
D Ke 4x1

Example 3.4.2 Consider the following dynamic equations

1
xP 1 D ; xP 2 D x1 u
x22

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 34 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.4 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng

Assume that the nominal values of this system are x.nor/1 .t/ D t C 1, x.nor/2 D 1, unor D 0. Find
the linearizing equations at the nominal values of this system.
Solution:
@f1 @f1 2 @f2 @f2 @f2 @f1
D 0; D 3; D u; D 0; D x1 ; D0
@x1 @x2 x2 @x1 @x2 @u @u

@f1 @f1 @f1

2 3 2 3
" # " #
4xP 1 6 @x1 @x2 7 4x1 6 @u 7
D6
4 @f2
7 C6 7 u
4xP 2 @f2 5 4x2 4 @f2 5
@x1 @x2 x.nor/ ;u.nor/ @u x.nor/ ;u.nor/
2 3 "
2 # " #" # " #
3
x.nor/2
4x2 24x 2 0 2 4x1 0
D4 5D D C 4u:
u.nor/ 4x1 C x.nor/1 4u .1 t/4u 0 0 4x2 1 t

In general, linearization of a nonlinear system may result in a linear time-varying system.

Example 3.4.3 Consider the system shown in Fig. 3.18. The differential equations of the system

R L
+
i
e
_

y i2 / y

M Steel Ball

Mg

Figure 3.18: Magnetic-ball suspension system.

are
d 2 y.t/ i 2 .t/ d i.t/
M D Mg ; e.t/ D Ri.t/ C L :
dt 2 y.t/ dt
dy.t/
Let x1 .t/ D y.t/, x2 .t/ D dt
, x3 .t/ D i.t/. The state equations of the system are

xP 1 .t/ D x2 .t/
1 x32 .t/
xP 2 .t/ D g
M x1 .t/
R 1
xP 3 .t/ D x3 .t/ C e.t/
L L
Let us linearize the system about the equilibrium point y0 .t/ D x01 Dconstant. Then the other
equilibrium points are
d ˇ
x02 .t/ D .y/ˇ D 0;
ˇ
dt yDy0 Dx01

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 35 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo

3.4 Class Notes of Control Systems Instructor: Prof. Chih-Chiang Cheng
h d 2 y.t/ i ˇ
i 2 .t/jyDy0 Dx01 D Mg M y.t/ D Mgx01 ;
ˇ
dt 2
ˇ
yDy0 Dx01

, i0 .t/ , x03 D Mgx01

p
) i.t/jyDy0 Dx01

where x0 , Œx01 x02 x03 T . Therefore

2 @f1 @f1 @f1 3 2 3 2 3
@x1 @x2 @x3
0 1 0 0 1 0
@f2 @f2 @f2 7 1
A D 6 2x3 .t/ 7
6 g
2. Mgx01 / 2 7
6 7 6 1 2
7 7
2
4 @x1 @x2 @x3 5 D6 4 M x3 .t/x1 .t/ 0 M x1 .t/ 5
D6
4 x01 0 5
@f3 @f3 @f3 R R
@x1 @x2 @x3 xDx
0 0 L xDx0
0 0 L
0

h iT
B D 0 0 1
L

Textbook: Automatic Control Systems 36 Authors: F. Golnaraghi and B. C. Kuo