REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR NQESH

1. Which of the following is NOT considered an instructional operating cost?

A. building maintenance

B. teacher training programs

C. curriculum development

D. media services

2. What is the primary reason for the recent surge in community interest in schools?

A. Increase in the number of “stay at home” parents

B. Lack of government funding for education

C. Increase in the number of single-parent families

D. Concerns about the American education system

3. What is the defining characteristic of an integrated curriculum?

A. Students of varying academic levels are instructed together.

B. The associations between disparate subjects are made explicit.

C. Students from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds are combined.

D. The academic content presents information from a variety of cultural viewpoints.

4. Which of the following adjectives describes the best kind of punishment for students?

A. harsh

B. self-administered

C. cooperative

D. creative
5. Which of the following subjects does NOT need to be taught sequentially?

A. Language Arts

B. Algebra

C. American History

D. Economics

6. What concepts promote a fair and ethical learning environment?

A. Recognizing diversity and developing programs to help students understand diversity

B. Ignoring diversity

C. Using community resources

D. All of the above

7. Which actions help develop, implement and maintain a school’s culture?

A. School culture does not need to be maintained

B. Implementing teacher enrichment programs

C. Expecting students, teachers and parents to accept policies without discussion

D. All of the above

8. Credible community resources include:

A. Corporate mentoring programs

B. Community organizations offering counseling and emergency assistance

C. Food banks, job centers, police and fire departments

D. All of the above

9. Why is effective communication with the community important?

A. Everyone is impacted by the same social and economic influences

B. Education does not need the support of local business

 C. Diversity affects the community

D. All of the above

10. Results from recognizing the importance of diversity in education may include:

A. Students from certain cultures are incapable of learning

B. Enables students to function in a complex society

C. Higher grades

D. All of the above

11. Who should be involved in strategic planning for the district?

A. Students

B. School board, teachers, and parents

C. Community leaders

D. All of the above

12. Critical elements that should be considered when planning the curriculum include:

A. Does it include the fundamentals?

B. Does the subject matter progress logically?

C. Does it recognize and respect the diversity of the community?

D. All of the above

13. Which step does not belong in an effective decision-making process?

A. Define the problem

B. Demand compliance without sufficient explanation

C. List options

D. Develop possible solutions

14. Professional development for teachers should:

 A. Include most current methods, message and media

B. Be fun and enjoyable

C. Be completed in a short amount of time

D. Be developed by the Board of Education

15. Why should technology be incorporated into the learning environment?

A. It is fun for the students

B. It is an integral and powerful part of today’s world

C. Students love to use a computer

D. All of the above

16.Which of the following would NOT be part of an administrative budget?

A. purchase of new school buses

B. public relations expenses

C. data processing expenses

D. legal fees

17. Which theory of leadership asserts that leaders are endowed with specific psychological
attributes that enable them to organize and administrate the work of others successfully?

A. social system theory

B. open system theory

C. classical theory

D. functional theory

18. Students who are not assessed because of disability or lack of English proficiency are often
given a(n) _____.

A. behavioral survey

B. excluded student questionnaire

 C. physical examination

D. deferral

19. What is the primary advantage of standardized testing?

A. It allows comparison with students from around the country.

B. The tests are easy to grade.

C. It is always error-free.

D. The tests are always written at an appropriate readability level.

20. Which of the following groups should have little or no influence over the development of a
district policy statement?

A. school administrators

B. relevant professionals in the community

C. teachers

D. students

21. Which concepts best promote a fair and ethical learning environment?

A. Recognizing diversity and developing programs to help students understand diversity

B. Ignoring diversity

C. Using community resources

D. All of the above

22. Which actions help develop, implement and maintain district culture?

A. Research into current trends

B. Establishing written expectations

C. District culture does not need to be developed

D. All of the above

23. Credible community resources include:

 A. Corporate mentoring programs

B. Community organizations offering counseling and emergency assistance

C. Food banks, job centers, police and fire departments

D. All of the above

24. Why is effective communication with the community important?

A. Everyone is impacted by the same social and economic influences

B. Education does not need the support of local business

C. Diversity affects the community

D. All of the above

25. Recognizing the importance of diversity in education produces what results?

A. Students from certain cultures are incapable of learning

B. Enables students to function in a complex society

C. Higher grades

D. All of the above

26. Some components of a well-planned budget are:

A. Personnel

B. Operating

C. Capital

D. All of the above

27. Environmental issues that could affect a school district include:

A. Condition of buildings

B. School districts are not affected by environmental issues

C. Endangered species of animals

 D. All of the above

28. Who should be involved in strategic planning for the district?

A. Students

B. School board, teachers, and parents

C. Community leaders

D. All of the above

29. Elements that should not be considered when planning the curriculum include:

A. Does it include the fundamentals?

B. Does the subject matter progress logically?

C. Does it recognize and respect the diversity of the community?

D. Student prefernces

30. Which step does not belong in an effective decision-making process?

A. Define the problem

B. Demand compliance without sufficient explanation

C. List options

D. Develop possible solutions

31. A student who scores in the 75th percentile has scored better than what percentage of other
students?

A. 24%

B. 25%

C. 75%

D. 76%

32. Which of the following is the best punishment for chronic truancy?

A. detention
 B. suspension

C. corporal punishment

D. no punishment

33. Which educational philosophy asserts that schools need to return to the basic set of
knowledge contained in the classics of human civilization?

A. existentialism

B. perennialism

C. postmodernism

D. reconstructionism

34. According to the NAEP, a student who has satisfactory performance in every assessed grade
is classified as _____.

A. basic

B. moderate

C. advanced

D. proficient

35. Which of the following is NOT one of Drucker’s four major steps for developing a
management by objectives (MBO) program?

A. developing comprehensive goals

B. fitting short-term objectives to long-term goals

C. establishing objectives for each position

D. attending leadership conferences

36. Standardized testing is considered a form of _____ assessment

A. continuous

B. formative

C. prospective
 D. summative

37. Student participation in extracurricular activities at a school has declined markedly in recent
years. What is the first step towards solving this problem?

A. Gathering information about the decline

B. Soliciting parent volunteers

C. Incentivizing participation

D. Reducing the number of extracurricular programs

38. Which of the following disciplinary issues requires the most care on the part of the school
building leader?

A. Dress code

B. Smoking

C. Truancy

D. Interrupting teachers

39. In order to create collaborative relationships among staff, a school building leader should
_____.

A. set benchmarks for employee performance.

B. promote respect and effective communication.

C. encourage teachers to resolve their differences without consulting administrators.

D. encourage teachers to participate in professional development programs.

40. Which of the following is the best strategy for promoting professional development among
teachers?

A. Creating new professional development programs

B. Encouraging individual teachers to participate in development programs

C. Making professional development one of the areas of employee evaluation

D. Punishing teachers who fail to participate in development programs

41. Which amendment to the United States Constitution places control for schools in the hands
of the state government?

A. Tenth

B. First

C. Third

D. Second

42. What is the most important personal quality to consider when hiring new members of a
school district leadership team?

A. Mathematical reasoning

B. Punctuality

C. Communication skills

D. Familiarity with local issues

43. Which of the following schools of educational philosophy asserts that students should be
encouraged to make positive social change?

A. Realist

B. Socialist

C. Idealist

D. Reconstructionist

44. What is the primary responsibility of a school district leader when a new science curriculum
is introduced?

A. Maintain frequent communication with school leaders and teachers

B. Wait for assessment to indicate the success of the curriculum

C. Field questions from parents and teachers

D. The school district leader has no responsibility.

45. What is the most important practice for promoting excellence at all of the schools in a
district?
 A. Communicating effectively with building leaders

B. Incentivizing high performance

C. Visiting classrooms

D. Investing in technology

46. How many weeks of unpaid leave is an employee allowed upon the birth or adoption of a
child?

A. 4

B. 6

C. 12

D. 20

47. If a school district is considering building a new state-of-the-art swimming facility, which of
the following would be the most likely role of the district business leader?

A. Selling the idea to the taxpayers

B. Scouting locations for the facility

C. Meeting with high school swimming coaches

D. Examining the proposed budget for the facility

48. Which of the following best describes the appropriate reporting of financial information to
school district leaders?

A. Regular and objective

B. Exhaustive

C. On-demand and comprehensive

D. Sporadic

49. Which of the following scenarios would require the quick creation of a tactical plan?

A. A sharp rise in the cost of gasoline for school buses

B. A decrease in the number of graduates from teaching programs

 C. Declining test scores among middle school students

D. An increase in complaints from new teachers

50. What is the best solution for a school district that cannot afford to have information
technology experts at every school?

A. Require IT experts to service multiple schools

B. Reduce the number of computers in schools

C. Ask for parent volunteers

D. Train teachers to solve basic IT problems

answer and explanation
1. A. Instructional operating costs are those expenses that go directly to support teachers.

2. D. Principals can use these concerns to recruit valuable help for the school.

3. B. Principals should encourage teachers to integrate curricula as much as possible.

4. B. Students show the most progress when they self-regulate.

5. A. There is no systematic order for the teaching of language arts, so teachers can be given a
little bit more flexibility with the curriculum.

6. Answer: A. Educational psychology is the study of how knowledge is obtained, how

knowledge is imparted and the effects of social interactions in an instructional environment.
Recognizing diversity exists, designing curricula and developing programs that address issues
that arise because of that diversity should be a major goal of every educator. Policies and
practices must be based on the principle that no matter what the child’s pre-school experiences,
every student has inherent strengths that can and should be used to help him/her succeed. When
the curriculum reflects student diversity, all children benefit.

7. Answer: B. To a large extent, a school district’s culture is based on the population served.
Involving parents, asking for their cooperation and keeping them informed is vital. Implementing
and encouraging teacher enrichment programs and developing a fair assessment system is
essential. Most districts are very diverse. Therefore, the culture needs to be sensitive to and
respect each group represented. The district should establish criteria that praises when earned,
encourages when needed and disciplines when necessary. It is important to establish written
expectations and to review them with teachers, support staff, parents, students and the
community at large.

8. Answer: D. It is important for the principal to have a clear understanding of what private,
public and government resources are available in the community in which the school operates.
He/She should have a good working relationship with key representatives of those resources that
often play a vital role in the lives of students and their families. He/she needs to know how
effective the programs and services are and each one’s unique strengths and weaknesses, as well
as any holes, barriers and issues that might impede their ability to help when called upon. The
principal needs to know when to call, whom to call, what criteria is needed to qualify and how
quickly to expect a response.

9. Answer: A. The school does not exist in a vacuum. It is a vital part of the community in which
it operates and is subject to the same social and economic influences as its neighbors. Schools
are not isolated islands of learning; they are an integral part of the community. As such, they can
have a critical role in shaping the attitudes of neighbors and be a force in creating a positive
atmosphere for everyone. Studies have shown and anecdotal evidence proves that when the
school is successful communicating its goals and is seen actively addressing its problems, there
is greater support from business and community leaders and parents are more involved. But the
most important result of good community relations is a better education for all students and
more opportunities for them to succeed in the real world.

10. Answer: B. It is imperative educators develop programs and curricula that emphasize all
children are capable of learning and meeting high academic standards. It is the responsibility of
educators to provide the tools and environment for students to achieve. Anything less is
unacceptable. When students are taught with a curriculum that embraces diversity, it enables
them to function more effectively in a complex, multicultural society. Students need to
understand the historical experiences of every cultural group in their society in order to
appreciate how past actions affect present circumstances. An empowering educational culture
that embraces multicultural diversity integrates information about the impact of all cultures and
enhances students’ ability to understand, appreciate and get along with different racial, ethnic
and gender groups. Mary Stone Hanley believes that “Multicultural education is about social
change through education.”

11. Answer: B. Strategic planning is the process of defining the school’s purpose, outlining its
goals and deciding how to best use its human and monetary resources effectively. The process
should involve representatives from key areas: the school board, teachers, staff, parents and the
community. When interested stakeholders are an integral part of the process, the results are
accepted quicker, implemented faster and achieved easier. The end result is a living document
that will be modified as conditions evolve, but will have short-term, medium-term and long-term
objectives with a well-defined path to reach each of them.

12. Answer: D. In primary and secondary schools, the curriculum is the blueprint for teaching
the fundamentals required to gain useful knowledge so students can function in the world. The
curriculum outlines what is to be taught, in what order and how and when students’
comprehension of the subject is to be assessed. Core subjects are mandated by the State Board of
Education, which also requires a certain level of proficiency in each before the student can be
promoted to the next level. Information needs to be presented in a logical, progressive format.
Students must be able to understand, integrate and apply knowledge gained into practical
applications in their every day lives. A curriculum must meet state requirements, prepare
students for mandatory statewide tests and address the social and psychological needs of its
students, while recognizing and respecting the diversity of its population. A curriculum is a
complex program to plan, implement and assess.

13. Answer: B. A leader must choose issues carefully, set attainable objectives, develop
workable solutions and enlist the support of those involved in and affected by the change.
Whatever decision-making process is used, an effective leader always considers the reason for
the change, how people will be affected and the probable consequences of the action. A sound,
logical, well-defined decision-making process leads to effective problem solving. Following are
suggested steps to finding a sensible solution to most any problem:
  Define the problem

 Gather relevant facts

 List options

 Develop solutions and consider the pros and cons of each

 Select the most viable solution(s)

 Explain the choice(s) to those affected

 Implement

 Follow-up to determine effectiveness

 Make adjustments, if necessary

14. Answer: A. Professional development is a continuous learning process that helps teachers
connect theory and practice to student achievement. Teachers are exposed to the most current
information about subject content and instructional techniques. The result is better real world
learning opportunities for students presented by teachers schooled in the most current methods,
message and media. Effective professional development should:

 Broaden and deepen the knowledge and understanding of a particular subject

 Always be based on verifiable research

 Introduce new methods of engaging students’ interest and attention

 Provide tools to assess student understanding

 Recognize accepted standards and reflect current curriculum

 Be intellectually stimulating

 Allow adequate time, offer continuing support and provide the necessary resources to
integrate new ideas and concepts into the classroom

 Be created by teachers with input from experts in the particular discipline

 Be presented in different formats that reflect various learning styles

 Have the support of the School Board and district and school administrators
15. Answer: B. Technology is a powerful tool for expanding instructional approaches and
enriching the learning experience. It is an integral part of today’s world and schools have a duty
to instruct students not only in how to use technology, but explain the benefits and risks as well.
The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory believes that “Technology is transforming
society and schools do not have a choice as to whether they will incorporate technology, but
rather how well they use it to enhance learning.” The key to successfully integrating technology
in the educational environment is creating a realistic plan based on existing learning and
teaching styles and the expectations of the users. The users should be involved in developing the
plan so issues are addressed before purchases are made. It is important teachers are trained in use
and encouraged to adapt the technology to their unique teaching styles. It is critical that after the
technology is in place, on-site assistance is readily available. If operational issues can’t be
addressed quickly, teachers will stop using the technology and return to familiar methods.

16. A. Many school districts are required to make sure that the administrative budget does not
exceed a certain percentage of the total budget.

17. C. The classical theory of leadership was perhaps first promulgated by Aristotle.

18. B. The excluded student questionnaire helps administrators understand why certain students
were left out of testing and gives an alternate assessment of their knowledge.

19. A. Standardized tests provide a basis for comparing students of varying backgrounds.

20. D. Although student interests and behavior will determine appropriate policies, students
should have very little hand in developing most policy statements.

21. Answer: a. Educational psychology is the study of how knowledge is obtained, how
knowledge is imparted and the effects of social interactions in an instructional environment.
Recognizing diversity exists, designing curricula and developing programs that address issues
that arise because of that diversity should be a major goal of every educator. Policies and
practices must be based on the principle that no matter what the child’s pre-school experiences,
every student has inherent strengths that can and should be used to help him/her succeed. When
the curriculum reflects student diversity, all children benefit.

22. Answer: B. To a large extent, a school district’s culture is based on the population served.
Involving parents, asking for their cooperation and keeping them informed is vital. Implementing
and encouraging teacher enrichment programs and developing a fair assessment system is
essential. Most districts are very diverse. Therefore, the culture needs to be sensitive to and
respect each group represented. The district should establish criteria that praises when earned,
encourages when needed and disciplines when necessary. It is important to establish written
expectations and to review them with teachers, support staff, parents, students and the
community at large.

23. Answer: D. It is important for the superintendent to have a clear understanding of what
private, public and government resources are available in the community in which the district
operates. He/she should have a good working relationship with key representatives of those
resources that often play a vital role in the lives of students and their families. He/she also needs
to know how effective the programs and services are and each one’s unique strengths and
weaknesses, as well as any holes, barriers and issues that might impede their ability to help when
called upon. The superintendent needs to know when to call, whom to call, what criteria is
needed to qualify and how quickly to expect a response.

24. Answer: A. The school district does not exist in a vacuum. It is a vital part of the community
in which it operates and is subject to the same social and economic influences as its neighbors.
Schools are not isolated islands of learning; they are an integral part of the community. As such,
they can have a critical role in shaping the attitudes of neighbors and be a force in creating a
positive atmosphere for everyone. Studies have shown and anecdotal evidence proves that when
the school district is successful communicating its goals and is seen actively addressing its
problems, there is greater support from business and community leaders and parents are more
involved. But the most important result of good community relations is a better education for all
students and more opportunities for them to succeed in the real world.

25. Answer: B. It is imperative that educators develop programs and curricula that emphasize all
children are capable of learning and meeting high academic standards. It is the responsibility of
educators to provide the tools and environment for students to achieve. Anything less is
unacceptable. When students are taught with a curriculum that embraces diversity, it enables
them to function more effectively in a complex, multicultural society. Students need to
understand the historical experiences of every cultural group in their society in order to
appreciate how past actions affect present circumstances. An empowering educational culture
that embraces multicultural diversity integrates information about the impact of all cultures and
enhances students’ ability to understand, appreciate and get along with different racial, ethnic
and gender groups. Mary Stone Hanley believes that “Multicultural education is about social
change through education.”

26. Answer: D. A personnel budget is based on the number of teachers and support staff.
Generally, personnel costs are sixty to seventy percent of a budget, so the number of people must
be accurate and all associated costs included. An operating budget includes all the costs
associated with running the district (utilities, maintenance, insurance, etc.). Some are fixed, some
vary from month to month, but all must be budgeted. A capital budget allocates funds for large
ticket items such as new buildings or additions to existing structures, fences, vehicles, etc. Many
items considered capital expenses are depreciated on some sort of schedule. In the final analysis,
budgets are really educated guesses based on historical costs and anticipated expenses. It is
impossible to predict the future with any certainty. Large, unanticipated expenditures cause
strains in the best planned budget.

27. Answer: A. Health, safety and educational issues directly affect the students’ ability to learn,
teachers ability to instruct and support staff to complete their tasks. They include but are not
limited to: The condition of the buildings (presence of mold, asbestos, lead paint, etc.); air and
water quality; menus designed to provide nutritious choices the children will actually eat; and
physical education and athletic programs that promote strong, healthy bodies. All these elements
need to be addressed, monitored and maintained. Economic issues (unemployment, recession,
etc.) can have a profound effect on tax revenue which funds public schools; which in turn
directly affect the ability to run the district efficiently and provide the mandated educational
opportunities for all students.

28. Answer: B. Strategic planning is the process of defining the district’s purpose, outlining its
goals and deciding how to best use its human and monetary resources effectively. The process
should involve representatives from key areas; the school board, teachers, staff, parents and the
community. When interested stakeholders are an integral part of the process, the results are
accepted quicker, implemented faster and achieved easier. The end result is a living document
that will be modified as conditions evolve; but will have short-term, medium-term and long-term
objectives with a well-defined path to reach each of them.

29. Answer: D. In primary and secondary schools, the curriculum is the blueprint for teaching
the fundamentals required to gain useful knowledge so students can function in the world. The
curriculum outlines what is to be taught, in what order and how and when students’
comprehension of the subject is to be assessed. Core subjects are mandated by the State Board of
Education, which also requires a certain level of proficiency in each before the student can be
promoted to the next level. Information needs to be presented in a logical, progressive format.
Students must be able to understand, integrate and apply knowledge gained into practical
applications in their every day lives. A curriculum must meet state requirements, prepare
students for mandatory statewide tests and address the social and psychological needs of its
students, while recognizing and respecting the diversity of its population. A curriculum is a
complex program to plan, implement and assess.

30. Answer: B. A leader must choose issues carefully, set attainable objectives, develop
workable solutions and enlist the support of those involved in and affected by the change.
Whatever decision-making process is used, an effective leader always considers the reason for
the change, how people will be affected and the probable consequences of the action. A sound,
logical, well-defined decision-making process leads to effective problem solving. Following are
suggested steps to finding a sensible solution to most any problem:

 Define the problem

 Gather relevant facts

 List options

 Develop solutions and consider the pros and cons of each

 Select the most viable solution(s)

 Explain the choice(s) to those affected

 Implement

 Follow-up to determine effectiveness

  Make adjustments if necessary

31. C. The 100 percentiles are often divided into four quartiles; the 75th percentile is the 3rd
quartile.

32. A. It would not make sense to punish a truant by keeping him or her from coming to school.

33. B. Reconstructionist educators believe in returning to classic texts.

34. D. The three achievement levels established by the NAEP are basic, proficient, and
advanced.

35. D. The final step in Drucker’s MBO program is determining appropriate measurement
procedures.

36. D. Standardized tests are administered at the end of the term in order to determine the overall
success of instruction.

37. A. Before a school building leader can determine the best course of action, he or she needs to
understand the reasons for the problem.

38. A. Issues related to risqué or offensive clothing require a school district leader to exercise
tact and courtesy to all of the parties involved.

39. B. Respect and mutual understanding are the foundations of collaboration and cooperation.

40. C. Many teachers are very busy and will only make time for professional development if they
are required to do so.

41. A. The Tenth Amendment states that any powers not explicitly given to the federal
government are given to the states. The power to control schools is not explicitly granted to the
federal government and, is therefore, granted to the states.

42. C. A school district leader must be able to communicate productively with employees and the
community to be an effective leader.

43. D. According to reconstructionist educators, students have a responsibility to learn about and
pursue social justice.

44. A. A school district leader may be required to make adjustments to new curricula. In order to
make these adjustments, a district leader must communicate with the school leaders and teachers
that are using the curricula.

45. A. A school district leader cannot cooperate with principals and teachers without effective
communication.
46. C. The Family and Medical Leave Act asserts that an employee cannot lose his or her job for
12 weeks. However, an employee will not necessarily be paid during this period.

47. D. The school district business manager will primarily be responsible for the financial side of
any venture.

48. A. Every school district needs to establish a clear and organized structure for disseminating
financial information.

49. A. A school district business leader creates tactical plans for dealing with short-term
problems.

50. D. Teachers can be trained to solve basic computer and/or network problems.

PRAXIS II Educational Leadership: Administration And

Supervision Practice Questions
1. Which of the following is detrimental to effective educational practices?

A. Periodic reviews
B. Adjusted to meet current needs
C. Ignoring diversity
D. Awareness of recent research.
E. Fair to all students

2. What should educators know about various community resources?

A. Strengths and weaknesses

B. When to call
C. Whom to call
D. Criteria to qualify
E. All of the above

3. Why is effective communication with the community important?

A. Greater support from business leaders.

B. More parental involvement
C. Better education
D. More opportunities to succeed
E. All of the above

4. Which of the following is not important to curriculum development?

A. Student input
B. Logical, progressive format
C. Present practical applications
D. Meet state requirements
E. Respect the diversity of the student population

5. Which of the following should not be part of the decision-making process?

A. Define the problem.

B. Gather the facts.
C. Consider the pros and cons.
D. Ignore the people who will be affected.
E. Follow up to determine effectiveness.

Answer Key For Educational Leadership: Administration And Supervision

1. Answer: C

Educational psychology is the study of how knowledge is obtained, how it is imparted, and the
effects of social interactions in an instructional environment. Recognizing diversity exists and
designing curricula and programs that address issues that arise because of that diversity should
be a major goal of every educator. Policies and practices must be based on the principle that no
matter what the child's preschool experiences, every student has inherent strengths that can and
should be used to help him succeed. When the curriculum reflects student diversity, all children
benefit.

Educational practices must be reviewed periodically and adjusted to meet the needs of the
population served. Since course selection involves making decisions that affect the rest of the
students' lives, administrators need to ask: Is the system fair to all students? Does it foster
segregation based on gender, race, or socioeconomic status? Does it encourage respect for racial
and cultural diversity? Does it make use of the tools provided by recent research about the many
ways students can learn?

2. Answer: E

It is important for educators to have a clear understanding of what private, public, and
government resources are available in the community in which the district operates. They should
have a good working relationship with key representatives of those resources that often can play
a vital role in the lives of students and their families. Educators need to know how effective the
programs and services are and each one's unique strengths and weaknesses, as well as any holes,
barriers, and issues that might impede their ability to help when called upon. They need to know
when to call, whom to call, what criteria is needed to qualify, and how quickly to expect a
response.
Community resources include, but are not limited to: Department of Children's Services,
Department of Health and Human Services, local law enforcement agencies, the local fire
department, Department of Homeland Security, Centers for Disease Control, food banks,
corporate mentoring programs, grass-roots community organizations that offer counseling,
emergency assistance, and various other programs and services.

3. Answer: E

The school district does not exist in a vacuum. It is a vital part of the community in which it
operates and is subject to the same social and economic influences as its neighbors. Teachers,
administrators, support staff, and students are all impacted by activities in the surrounding area
Schools are not isolated islands of learning; they are an integral part of the community. As such,
they can have a critical role in shaping the attitudes of its neighbors and be a force in creating a
positive atmosphere for everyone.

Studies show that when the school district is successful communicating its goals and is seen
actively addressing its problems, there is greater support from business and community leaders,
and parents are more involved-a win-win for all. But the most important result of good
community relations is a better education for all students and more opportunities for them to
succeed in the real world, which should be the ultimate goal of every superintendent.

4. Answer: A

The American Heritage College Dictionary defines curriculum as "all the courses of study
offered by an educational institution." In primary and secondary schools, it is the blueprint for
teaching the fundamentals necessary to gain useful knowledge that prepares students to
successfully function in the world. The curriculum outlines what is to be taught, in what order,
and how and when students' comprehension of the subject is to be assessed. Core subjects are
mandated by the State Board of Education, which also requires a certain level of proficiency in
each before the student can be promoted to the next level.

The curriculum is information that needs to be presented in a logical, progressive format.

Students must be able to understand, integrate, and apply knowledge gained into practical
applications in their everyday lives. A curriculum must meet state requirements, prepare students
for mandatory statewide tests, and address the social and psychological needs of its students.
Furthermore, it must recognize and respect the diversity of its population. A curriculum is a
complex program to plan, implement, and assess.

5. Answer: D

To be an effective leader, one must be able to make decisions and solve problems; the two
characteristics are closely related. Both require creativity, the ability to identify issues and
options, and effectively implement solutions. A leader must choose issues carefully, set
attainable objectives, develop workable solutions, and enlist the support of those involved in and
affected by the change. Whatever decision-making process is used, an effective leader always
considers the reason for the change, how people will be affected, and the probable consequences
of the action.

A sound, logical, well-defined decision-making process leads to effective problem solving. Here
are suggested steps to finding a sensible solution to most any problem:

 Define the problem.

 Gather relevant facts.
 List options.
 Develop solutions, and consider the pros and cons of each.
 Select the most viable solution(s).
 Explain the choice(s) to those affected.
 Implement.
 Follow up to determine effectiveness.
 Make adjustments, if necessary.

Management
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Management (disambiguation).

Management in all business and human organization activity is simply the act of getting people
together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning,
organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more
people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the
deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources,
and natural resources.

Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Overview
o 1.1 Theoretical scope
o 1.2 Nature of managerial work
 2 Historical development
o 2.1 Early writing
 2.1.1 Sun Tzu's The Art of War
 2.1.2 Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince
 2.1.3 Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations
 o 2.2 19th century
o 2.3 20th century
o 2.4 21st century
 3 Management topics
o 3.1 Basic functions of management
o 3.2 Formation of the business policy
 3.2.1 How to implement policies and strategies
 3.2.2 Where policies and strategies fit into the planning process
o 3.3 multi-divisional management hierarchy
 4 Areas and categories and implementations of management
 5 See also
 6 References
 7 External links

[edit] Overview
The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle — especially a horse), which in
turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later ménagement)
influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th
centuries.[1]

Some definitions of management are:

 Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain

policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often included
as a factor of production along with machines, materials, and money. According to the
management guru Peter Drucker (1909–2005), the basic task of a management is
twofold: marketing and innovation.

 Directors and managers who have the power and responsibility to make decisions to
manage an enterprise. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions
of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the
firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range
from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational
companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policy which is
implemented by the chief executive officer.

[edit] Theoretical scope

Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century, defined
management as "the art of getting things done through people". She also described management
as philosophy.[2] One can also think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a
quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach
one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this
perspective, Frenchman Henri Fayol[3] considers management to consist of seven functions:

1. planning
2. organizing
3. leading
4. co-ordinating
5. controlling
6. staffing
7. motivating

Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase
"management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining
management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with
the existence of a managerial cadre or class.

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus
excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public
sector. More realistically, however, every organization must manage its work, people, processes,
technology, etc. in order to maximize its effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to
university departments which teach management as "business schools." Some institutions (such
as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School of
Management) employ the more inclusive term "management."

English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word
describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of
the term was often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those being managed.

[edit] Nature of managerial work

The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.
Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (December 2007)

In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of
stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued
products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment
opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith
of donors. In most models of management/governance, shareholders vote for the board of
directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented
with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers; but
this occurs only very rarely.

In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect

politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some
countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new
president/governor/mayor.
Public, private, and voluntary sectors place different demands on managers, but all must retain
the faith of those who select them (if they wish to retain their jobs), retain the faith of those
people that fund the organization, and retain the faith of those who work for the organization. If
they fail to convince employees of the advantages of staying rather than leaving, they may tip the
organization into a downward spiral of hiring, training, firing, and recruiting. Management also
has the task of innovating and of improving the functioning of organizations.

[edit] Historical development

Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late
modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-
modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-
thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-
owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but
sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given
their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically.
However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the
codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment,
planning and control.

Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and
recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those
times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and
complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups
of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control)
gradually became more common.

[edit] Early writing

While management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a background of
works that assisted in modern management theories.[4]

[edit] Sun Tzu's The Art of War

Written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War is a military strategy
book that, for managerial purposes, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and
weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.[4]

[edit] Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince

Believing that people were motivated by self-interest, Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince in
1513 as advice for the leadership of Florence, Italy.[5] Machiavelli recommended that leaders use
fear—but not hatred—to maintain control.

[edit] Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations

Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations aims for
efficient organization of work through Specialization of labor.[5] Smith described how changes in
processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals could produce
200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists,
enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.[5]

[edit] 19th century

Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723 - 1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)
provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About
the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765 - 1825), James Watt (1736 - 1819), and
Matthew Boulton (1728 - 1809) developed elements of technical production such as
standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and
work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector
of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it,
"managed" in profitable quasi-mass production.

By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (1842 - 1924), Léon Walras
(1834 - 1910), and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings
of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881.

[edit] 20th century

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a
thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples
include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The
Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study
(1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management
textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first
management consultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered
Japanese quality assurance.

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business
School invented the Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like
Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management
and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891 - 1973),
Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management, while other
writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880 - 1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868 - 1933), Chester Barnard
(1886 - 1961), Max Weber (1864 - 1920), Rensis Likert (1903 - 1981), and Chris Argyris (1923 -
) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.

Peter Drucker (1909 – 2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of
the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors
until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many
in the same vein.
H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890 - 1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques
into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with
microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research,
sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management),
attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas
of logistics and operations.

Some of the more recent developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by
objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as
agile software development, as well as group management theories such as Cog's Ladder.

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave
perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way
opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many
management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of
management.

Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate
branches, namely:

 Human resource management

 Operations management or production management
 Strategic management
 Marketing management
 Financial management
 Information technology management responsible for management information systems

[edit] 21st century

In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into
functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several
categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects
subject to management.

Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as
public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management
programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit
management and social entrepreneurship.

Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business
ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.

As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and more
advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers, each of
whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue,
and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management to some degree
embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majority support to
management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Despite the move toward
workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace and
the de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control can
be seen in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far
less than employees at the lower levels of organizations. In some cases, management has even
rewarded itself with bonuses when lower level employees have been laid off.[6]

[edit] Management topics

[edit] Basic functions of management

Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing,

leading/motivating, and controlling.

 Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month,
next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for action.
 Organizing: (Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable
the successful carrying out of plans.
 Staffing: Job Analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs.
 Leading: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
 Controlling: Monitoring, checking progress against plans, which may need
modification based on feedback.
 Motivating: the process of stimulating an individual to take action that will accomplish a
desired goal.

[edit] Formation of the business policy

 The mission of the business is its most obvious purpose -- which may be, for example, to
make soap.
 The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or
future destination.
 The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain task is
aimed.
 The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may
be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and
understood by all employees.
 The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as
well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a
guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and utilize the factors of
production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managers decide on
what type of business they want to form.

[edit] How to implement policies and strategies

  All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.
 Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and
strategies.
 A plan of action must be devised for each department.
 Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
 Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
 Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level managers.
 A good environment and team spirit is required within the business.

 The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analysed
to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
 The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.
 A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies
and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.
 Contingency plans must be developed, just in case.

All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is required in the
execution of any departmental policy.

 Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-

step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency, get the vision right,
communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don't let up, and make
change stick.
[7]

[edit] Where policies and strategies fit into the planning process

 They give mid- and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each
department.
 A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.
 Mid- and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategic
ones.

[edit] multi-divisional management hierarchy

The management of a large organization may have three levels:

1. Senior management (or "top management" or "upper management")

2. Middle management
3. Low-level management, such as supervisors or team-leaders
4. Foreman
5. Rank and File
Top-level management

 Require an extensive knowledge of management roles and skills.

 They have to be very aware of external factors such as markets.
 Their decisions are generally of a long-term nature
 Their decisions are made using analytic, directive, conceptual and/or
behavioral/participative processes
 They are responsible for strategic decisions.
 They have to chalk out the plan and see that plan may be effective in the future.
 They are executive in nature.

Middle management

 Mid-level managers have a specialized understanding of certain managerial tasks.

 They are responsible for carrying out the decisions made by top-level management.

Lower management

 This level of management ensures that the decisions and plans taken by the other two are
carried out.
 Lower-level managers' decisions are generally short-term ones.

Foreman / lead hand

 They are people who have direct supervision over the working force in office factory,
sales field or other workgroup or areas of activity.

Rank and File

 The responsibilities of the persons belonging to this group are even more restricted and
more specific than those of the foreman