CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

1) Describes that Job recruitment and selection process is one of the most tedious tasks that
human resource department in every organization has to perform.
The recruitment and selection process consists of several steps. This paper focuses mainly
on the step in which the applicants have to fill out application forms and undergo an initial
screening interview. This step is very important because human resource recruiters must
choose qualified candidates out of many applicants to be interviewed with the supervisors
responsible for the job. Recruiters of many companies face a lot of problems performing
this step especially when they have to perform it manually. Thus we were motivated to
develop a more efficient way in filling out and processing application forms and develop
job application support system to aid interviewers during the preliminary
interview process. Job application support system consists of three main components
including electronic application form, electronic telephone interview and electronic
interview. The application module is constructed based on the competency matrix derived
at each level of employment. Interview questions are determined based on the chosen
competencies and are used to screen out candidates during a competency-based behavioral
interview. A quantitative multi-objective decision model and job assignment model are
developed for job-applicant matching process. The models are used to manage the data
from the job application forms and evaluate the results from job interviewers. Job
application support system is expected to bring about many positive changes. It can speed
up the recruitment process by filtering out unwanted applicants and allow a better
facilitation of the interview process by providing interviewers with guidelines and forms
with which they could fill out. Cost can be saved because there are less paperwork. The
quantitative multi-objective decision model and job assignment model that are developed
can provide a more efficient way for job applicant matching process. (Chalibadhongse,
2006)
Describes that Benefits from online social networking are being incorporated into
the selection processes used by e-recruiters. While this offers great potential for both
recruiters and applicants, especially in an increasingly globalized environment, it requires
both parties to have mutual understanding of each other's perceptions. This paper
empirically explores a global sample containing 1498 applicants from 68 countries and 405
recruiters from 39 countries. We find that both students and recruiters underestimate the
impact of each other's social network profile. A model is presented based on
communication theory is used to explain these gaps. These gaps in perception will act as
barriers to better utilization of global e-recruitment and need to be closed to allow
efficient and effective use of social media for this function. (Reiners, 4576-4578)

Discussed In this paper two grade organization in which depletion of manpower occurs due
to its policy decision is considered. Two mathematical models are constructed employing
two different conditions. The analytical results are numerically illustrated and relevant
conclusions are presented.
1) There is Decrease in the average loss of man hour‟s delays the time to recruitment on
the average in reality when all other nodal parameters are fixed.
2) There is Increase in the average inter decision times delays the time to recruitment on
the average in reality when all other nodal parameters are fixed. (A. Srinivasan, 2011)
Discussed in this paper a manpower system is modelled as s Stochastic differential
equation. The concept of time as an optimality performance criterion is used to obtain an
optimality performance criterion is used to obtain an optimal recruitment control vector for
the manpower system via the necessary condition of pontryagin theorem..It is also shown
that the optimal recruitment control vector minimizes the control vector minimizes the
control time globally. The condition under which the system is controllable is also
examined.
In this paper the concept of time as an optimality performance criterion is used to obtain an
optimal recruitment control vector for a manpower system modelled by a stochastic
diffential equation via the necessary condition of pontryagin theorem. (Akaninyene U.
Udom and Peter I. Uche, 2009)
This document describes the process of manpower planning and addresses strategic as well
as tactical planning constituents and associated planning problems that have a direct or
indirect influence on the planning of quantitative manpower requirements in Air traffic
service. The planning constituents identified and described were put in to perspective by a
conceptual process model of manpower planning .mandatory and complementary elements
in staffing that normally are related to the calculation of staffing or multiplication factors
and therefore have a direct influence on the number of staff needed to man operational
positions were identified and described.
The overall impression of the group was that strategic as well as tactical problems exist
with regard to manpower planning.
Strategic problem
Air traffic control workforce are not addressed changes in working conditions and work
practices alter planned objectives in ATS and should be taken in to consideration and
associated modifications should be incorporated the manpower planning process as
outlined in this report to avoid continuous fire brigade measures.
Tactical problem
Very often manpower planning is purely descriptive and becomes a theoretical exercise.
Research is also required to assess the implications of any change in staffing related issues
outlined in this report in order to identify possible threats and dangers in manpower
planning at earliest possible stage. (EATCHIP, 1996)
In this study reports the findings of survey data on recruitment and pre-employment
selection methods in use by human resources departments in major companies in U.S.A.
The analysis based on responses from 151 firms.
The findings indicate that the majority of companies rely on traditional recruitments and
personnel selection techniques over the use of online assessment instruments. Personality
testing is popular in about 20% of the firms and one-fifth of the respondents plan to
implement online testing in the future.
moreover to enhance the chances for successful recruitment and long term benefits for
employees a plethora of research studies has investigated and endorsed the utility of the
“person- fit” paradigm.
Future research in this area focus on
A) The psychometric credibility of specific online assessment instruments.
B) The drawbacks and limitations of online approaches in human resources
C) Applicants attitudes and perceptions of outline selection methods. (Chris Piotrowski,
2006,Vol. 8, No. 3)
Developed a markov model of the personnel flow of junior officers(01-04).The Nurse
Corps Managers personnel primarily through the recruitment process, drawing on multiple
accession sources. Allowing greater flexibility in recruiting practices, fewer recruits would
generate a 25%reduction in rank imbalances but result in understaffing. Recruiting
different ranks at entry would generate a 65% reduction in rank imbalances without
understaffing issues.
The Markov model demonstrated a pre-existing average of LTs and an underage of LTJGs
and LCDRs.The shortage of LTJG can be directly traced to promotion rates of LTJG and
ENS and the Nurse Corps end-strength requirements of each Specifically by the end of
their 2nd year, 95% of ENS have left their grade-of these 75% promote and 25% leave.LTs
typically remain in their grade for 5 years before they are promoted, though many leave the
service before that point.
This study was limited by sample size, both in terms of the multivariate regression and in
terms of the Markov models. They were restricted to conducting only 10 regressions. The
Markov model uses static promotion rates based on historical trends. Therefore, this model
is limited to the extent that these past rates hold in the future.
Finally, recruiting decisions by accession source have been made without regards to their
costs changes in the mix of accession sources are not sufficient to resolve the underlying
issues that cause pressure at neither certain grades nor the issues that cause pressure at
neither certain grades nor the series of both overages and underage‟s observed within all of
the ranks.
Policy changes should only be attempted after it has been ensured that the desired end-
strengths of each rank are correct. Modelling to improve manpower management may
enable the navy Nurse Corps to more efficiently fulfil its mandate for high-quality
healthcare. (PDaniel Knistler, 2006)
In this paper he evaluates a number of training, recruitment and employment programmes.
The evaluation method is a combination of a quasi – experimental design ( a simple pre-
treatment-post treatment design) and a stochastic process model to describe the response
variable. He concludes that the programmes have no effect on orders workers. Female and
minority workers benefit most from the programs. The training programmes are less

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effective than the recruitments programs which are in turn less effective than the
employment programmes.
The observational plan used in this paper is not ideal. However, this problem can be solved
by neglecting the last spell of unemployment before selection. The estimates obtained in
this way could be compared with the estimates obtain from a designed experiments. If one
is interested in differences in the participations effect between demographic groups, the
randomized blocked design seems to be the most appropriate experimental design. He
concludes that there is scope for farther applications of the method, especially if the
suggestions made above are followed. (Ridder)
In this study they proposed a method for the determination of the optimal number of
workers required in the factory of a manufacturing company. The method is a combination
of a simple Queue model and regression analysis. This method was established that the
company needs six additional workers on the production line to achieve a production of
22,750 units per annum.
The factory used as a case study was a refrigerator company where an optimal number of
workers on the production line were determined to be 94 as against the present number of
88 workers. Though the method gives an indication of the number of workers in need
presently, the table so derived may be guide for the management in the determinations of
the number of workers needed to produce a certain number of units. (Ismaila S O, 2009).
This report presents the review of workforce planning applications of operations research
and explores potential modelling of military training. We classify the operations research
techniques applied in workforce planning into four major branches: Markov chain models,
computer simulation models, optimisation models and supply chain management through
System Dynamics. For each of these, we outline the underlying mathematical formalism
and concepts, overview models published and discuss potential limitations. The prospect
of modelling training forces via System Dynamics is demonstrated by a causal-loop
analysis of the military officer system and a simulation model based on a stock-flow
diagram for a one- rank officer training system.

Markov chain, computer simulation and SD are structured to predict what will happen to
the system if present policies continue, while optimisation techniques are designed to find

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what kind of policies should be adopted for given goals. All these techniques face a
number of potential limitations as we indicated in the text. Among the four classes of
techniques reviewed, SD is the one specifically suitable for the study of system dynamic
behaviours where effects of feedback and nonlinearity are vital. With a simple causal-loop
model, we expose the peculiarities of military training systems due to their closedness and
hierarchical nature. Moreover, we have proposed a template SD model for officer training
systems, which could be extended to build the Training Force Sustainment Model if the SD
route is to be pursued. (Wang)
After a period when it was considered to be an interesting optional contribution to an
organisation‟s strategic planning process, workforce planning is now increasingly
recognised as essential to business success. The post-recessionary period has seen
organisations deciding on the best „shape‟ in which to compete in a period of
unpredictability. Key to this is the development of a new approach to workforce planning
that is dynamic, iterative and related to the achievement of shorter-term capacity planning
as well as longer-term competitive advantage. The role of the HR professional as a
strategic business partner as well as an operational deliverer of good people practice is
critical to the success of this approach (Turner, november 2010).

The paper discuses a case study of manpower planning for the Slovenian Armed Forces
using Markov chains. This includes the description of the method and the results of
manpower projections (in 1, 2, ... 5, 10, 20 years) under the presumption that past
transitions between different defence segments (such as transitions from private first class
to corporal) and transitions between the defence segments and the segments of general
population continue in the future. Finally, two optimization questions are addressed:
„Which transitions would immediately (i.e. in four years) lead to the target (desired)
structure?' and „Which transitions would sustain the target structure in the long run?'.
On the basis of available manpower micro data for the period from 1st of January 1997 to
31st of August 2006, the career histories for all 12.246 individuals employed in the
administration of Ministry of defence, in the regular Slovenian Army or under service
contract in the army reserve have been established. In total, 120 defence segments have
been identified: 23 in the administration of Ministry of defence (civil servants and

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inspectors), 45 in the regular army, 45 in the reserve army, and 7 among members of civil
personal. Average transitions in the period form 31rd of December 2001 to 31rd December
2005 between different defence segments, and between the defence segments and the
segments of general population have been calculated. They were used in projections based
on different scenarios. Analysis immediately identified considerable discrepancies between
official targets and projected sizes of defence segments if existing transitions will continue.
Optimization of the transitions has been solved with heuristic modelling approach. A
simulation model with a specific loss function has been used. To perform feasible
simulations in a 120 x 120 matrix, only those transitions were optimized, where experts
had previously estimated that real measures existed to provide potential change (e.g.
recruitment policy, regulation of promotion, retirement strategy etc). The solution proved
successful for calculating both the transitions leading to the desired manpower structure,
and those ensuring its long term preservation.
The paper contributes new insights into the section of manpower planning.
In this paper we presented a case study of applying a Markov chain in the Slovenian
Armed Forces. First, extensive administrative effort was needed to obtain data on the
individual status of all employees for the 2001-2005 period. We needed an exact
assignment (of each person and for each year) to one of 120 key defence segments (soldier,
lieutenant etc.). This then formed the basis for calculating transition probabilities in a 120 x
120 matrix. The Markov model was then applied to these data. Considerable gaps were
found in the projected sizes of the segments compared to the official targets. Of course,
experts and decision-makers were roughly aware of these discrepancies but the results of
the modelling provided much more explicit and elaborated evidence of the problems
related to future trends.
However, the Markov chain model itself could not provide an answer as to how to achieve
the desired manpower structure. This problem was successfully addressed here by
simulations. The simulation algorithm selected a solution closest to the target structure
from a large number of computer-generated scenarios. A specific loss function was
developed for this problem.
The approach described in this article can be upgraded in several ways. For planning a
smaller number of selected segments a semi-Markov model could be developed in which

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the “age” of the units in the segments (i.e. the time a person is employed in the segment) is
considered in calculations of more accurate transition probabilities. Another direction is the
implementation of a time non-homogeneous model instead of a time homogeneous model;
this means that the transition probabilities could vary over time.
Analysis of manpower projections for the administration of the Ministry of Defence show
critical shortage of manpower especially among lower ranks in the Slovenian Armed
Forces (soldiers of Private PV-1 I and II ranks).
In the case of continuation of average transitions in 2001-05 period (S0) in the army
reserve 1159 soldires of Private PV-1 II rank, 345 soldires of Private PV-1 I rank, 407 of
Private PV-2 rank and 314 soldires of Private 1st Class rank will be missing in 2010. In the
regular army on the other hand 394 soldiers of Private PV-1 II rank, 608 of Private PV-1 I
rank and will be missing in the same year, while there will be a surplus of 93 soldiers of
Private PV-2 rank.
In the 2007-2010 period the Slovenian Armed Forces would have to employ 589 soldiers
of Private PV-1 rank (i.e. 295 of Private PV-1 I rank and 294 of Private PV-1 II rank) in
the regular army and 740 Private PV-1 rank (i. e. 244 of Private PV-1 I rank and 496 of
Private PV-1 II rank) in the army reserve annually to achieve the desired manpower
structure for 2010 by 2011. The realisation of the desired manpower structure in such a
short period would therefore require unrealistic expansion of employment.
Equally disadvantageous will be in a scenario S0 a shortage of non commissioned officers
of Sergeant, Staff Sergeant, Platoon Sergeant and Master Sergeant rank in the army
reserve, since it impedes normal functioning of military units. For this reason the predicted
shortage of officers of Capitan, Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant rank in the army reserve
is also troublesome.
Manpower projections for 2010 for defence segments of Private 1st Class, Private PV-2,
Private PV-1 I and Private PV-1 II that are based on newer data on transitions between
them and the segments of general population for 2006 (scenario S3) and 2007 (scenario S4)
deviate even more from the desired manpower structure. (Darko Štamfelj)
A model for manpower management is presented based upon the study of a large technical
department of a corporation. The model can be used in an optimization mode

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to determine recruiting plans, given manning needs, and in a simulation mode to project the
results of changes in salary structure or advancement policies. The model explicitly
recognizes different levels of performance at each job level, and the fact that certain
sources of employees are more likely to produce!‟Better employees than others. Also
Modelled is the phenomenon of the "learning period"-the time it takes for a person to
Approach his potential in a given job. Several numerical examples of the use of the model
based on observed data are presented.
A model for manpower management, based on the authors‟ experience with a large
technical department of a corporation, was developed. The model explicitly con- sidered
the fact that managers classify employees into good and poor performers, that certain
sources of new employees are more likely to produce good performers than others and that
there is a period of learning before a person reaches his full potential in a job. Numerical
examples of the use of the model were presented, first to determine the pattern of
recruitment from various sources, given manning requirements, that
maximizes a measure of performance of the department. Next some of the parameters of
the model were varied to determine the effect of changes in turnover rate and rate of
promotion to higher job levels. The model presented is descriptive of the movement of
individuals through an organization. It does not attempt to explain why people leave an
organization or why they join it in the first place. We believe that the development of such
explanatory models is likely to be a fruitful area for future research(RAOS, August 1975 ).

The current research provided unique information that was previously unavailable. A large
sample was used that reached across many government departments and agencies, and
ranged from the application to the appointment stage in the recruitment process. The
survey results helped to clarify and eliminate some hypothesized reasons for drop-off.
Drop-off is not due to differential drop-out rates. All three employment equity (EE) groups
and the reference group had similar drop-out rates and for similar reasons. Language
obstacles, while a concern for all groups, were comparatively low for visible minority
group members. Self-declaration as members of EE groups in this study was current as it
was derived from the same source that was being studied and was matched to the periods

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under study. The EE information reported in the survey and derived from the PSRS
application was found to be consistent.

Drop-off was observed for visible minorities mainly at two stages in the recruitment
process: when organizations determined who should be retained for further processing,
based on their review of applications and when determining which applicants were to be
interviewed after the testing stage. To ensure that no biases are introduced at these stages,
all departments and agencies should carefully review the initial applications with attention
to the job requirements to ensure no-one has been eliminated on irrelevant grounds.
Comparison with previous study

The 2006 Public Service Commission (PSC) study entitled Drop-off Rates for Employment
Equity Groups – Automated Screening Reports & Appointments 2000-2005 reported that
visible minorities averaged 25.7% of applications but only 10.5% of appointments, i.e. a
drop-off of 15.2 percentage points. This study used applications as the unit of measurement
as opposed to applicants (Drop-off of employment equity groups in recruitment, October
2009).
Results from this dissertation raise new questions and several potential directions of
Future research. Future extensions can be envisioned in both the modeling and solution
Methodology areas. In collection networks, it is important to retain the recruited retailers in
the network to reduce the future cost to recruit additional retailers and increase the
probability to achieve the collection target volume. In this research, strategic, tactical, and
operational decisions affect the retention of collection network entities in the face of their
defection opportunities to other processors or markets. Retention may depend on many
factors, such as system service levels (e.g., allocation of trucks, logistics, and inventory
storage capabilities), profitability, and economies of scales (e.g., volume that justifies a
baler).Currently I have developed a tactical collection model under the assumption that
once the agent is recruited to the network, it always stays in the network. However, in
actual situations, sometimes a collection agent may opt to leave the network. Future work
includes extending the recruitment model to include retention and defection considerations.
An important subtask is to define the criteria that determine the retention and defection

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actions of the agent after it is recruited. The additional complexity will impact the
capability of the current approach to solve large scale collection recruitment problems.
In this research, it is assumed that the regional recruiter will cooperate with the processor
and provide the truthful status information. If this assumption is not true, the regional
collector may furnish incorrect information that benefits itself in order incentives for the
regional recruiter to provide truthful information and what the processor should do to be
certain that the regional recruiter will cooperate research on an approach to offer discounts
for the correct status information and to set a Further penalty fee for incorrect status
information may be a possible way to incentivize the regional recruiter corporation
The topic was such that it required vast and thorough study necessitating complete
enumeration of the organization and analysis of several issues.

Following are the limiting factors: -

 Collecting information from people during the working hours was difficult.

 Due to work shifts it was difficult to approach the employees.

 Some employees did not have in depth knowledge about their work and were
not able to give relevant information.

 Most of the employees were hesitant in giving frank opinions and answer during
personal interview.

 Time constraint is one of the limiting factor (Wongthatsanekorn, April 10, 2006)

Selection preferences have a long history in both generative and computational linguistics.
However, since the publication of Resniks dissertation in 1993, a new approach has
surfaced in the computational linguistics community. This new line of research combines
knowledge represented in a pre-defined semantic class hierarchy with statistical tools
including information theory, statistical modeling, and Bayesian inference. These tools are
used to learn selectional preferences from examples in a corpus. Instead of simple sets of
semantic classes, selectional preferences are viewed as probability distributions over
various entities. We survey research that extends Resniks initial work, discuss the strengths

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and weaknesses of each approach, and show how they together form a cohesive line of
research.

Resniks dissertation (Resnik, 1993) initiated a new approach to selectional preference

representation and induction. The approach combines knowledge represented in a pre-
defined semantic class hierarchy with statistical tools including information theory,
statistical modelling, and Bayesian inference. The final ingredient is a large corpus of
written language from which to derive training materials. We have surveyed research that
extends Resniks initial work and discussed the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

All of the approaches use a concept taxonomy to allow for generalizations that go beyond
what could be inferred from the data alone. Dependence on a specified hierarchy also
ensures that the selection preference knowledge induced will be consistent with a given
pre-conceived notion of what the semantic classes are. Further, all of the researchers have
based their work on the Word Net semantic hierarchy most surely because its coverage is
extensive and it is readily available. There is nothing in these approaches, however, that is
specific to Word Net, and all of them could work with other concept networks of a similar
nature. (Fien-Helfman)

In a non- stationary world Selection and forecasting are integral to econometric modelling
and this thesis addresses both issues, with an application to UK inflation. Two automatic
model selection algorithms, PcGets and RETINA, are evaluated on time-series and cross-
section data. PcGets aims to select an undominated, congruent model of the phenomena of
interest, whereas RETINA selects a parsimonious set of regressors that have predictive
ability. Monte Carlo simulation results assess the null and non-null rejection frequencies of
the algorithms in the presence of nonlinear functions. Both algorithms have the same
properties as those for linear models under orthogonality, but co linearity increases null
rejection frequencies and reduces non-null rejection frequencies. Simple operational rules
that „double de-mean‟ all functions are proposed to mitigate that problem.

A nonlinear model selection strategy is proposed, that commences with a new test for
nonlinearity, specifies the general model using polynomial functions as approximations,
and undertakes a general-to-specific reduction using a multi-stage procedure. Nonlinearity

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poses a number of problems, including co linearity generated by nonlinear transformations,
extreme observations leading to non-normal (fat-tailed) distributions, and often more
variables than observations from general expansions approximating the nonlinearity, yet
one must avoid excess retention of irrelevant variables. Solutions to all of these problems
are proposed. A successful algorithm requires the synthesis of all of these developments to
be implemented, as exclusion of one component of the algorithm can lead to severely
erroneous conclusions.

A model of inflation is built in which many determinants of inflation play a role in its
explanation. The single cause explanation of inflation is refuted, along with a generic
business cycle explanation. As forecast failure is prevalent, with naive devices often
outperforming econometric models, a forecast competition is undertaken for UK annual
and quarterly inflation, in which equilibrium correction models are compared to various
forecasting rules. Robust forecasting devices prove useful in forecasting macroeconomic
time-series, and they often outperform econometric models, both when there are structural
breaks in the data and when the underlying process appears to be stable but with breaks in
the explanatory variables. Increasing the information set does lead to improvements in
forecasting performance suggesting that disaggregation can yield benefits. It is observed
that much of the forecast error in the structural models is driven by the deterministic terms.
Breaks in the mean of the co integrating vector or the growth rate of the system will cause
forecast „failure‟, and results show how sensitive forecasts are to errors in these terms.
(Castle, 2006)

Well-designed research provides the most effective approach to the solution of many
problems facing highway administrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of
local interest and can best be studied by highway departments individually or in
cooperation with their state universities and others. However, the accelerating growth of
highway transportation develops increasingly complex problems of wide interest to
highway authorities. These problems are best studied through a coordinated program of
cooperative research.

In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators of the American Association of

State Highway and Transportation Officials initiated in 1962 an objective national highway

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research program employing modern scientific techniques. This program is supported on a
continuing basis by funds from participating member states of the Association and it
receives the full cooperation and support of the Federal Highway Administration, United
States Department of Transportation.

Statisticians and Policy analysts have used a wide variety of Statistical techniques in
manpower planning. These range from relatively simple techniques such as statistical ratios
to highly complex methods such as the nonparametric techniques and in particular Markov
process. Human resource personnel when estimating the numbers of people required in an
organization have used one or more of the following ways or techniques: by exercising
managerial judgment, by using work-study techniques, and by using statistical techniques.
Bowey (1974) noted that manpower planning is not a clearly defined practice. To some it is
a statistical technique in which rates of wastage and other rates are incorporated into a
computerized model, and predictions made about required rates of recruitment. But social
scientists have pointed out that trends in statistics are only the result of social processes.
The use of statistical techniques in human resource planning is largely the concern of
research organizations and government statisticians. However, many organizations make
use of analyses of labour turnover, labour stability and similar ratios that in most cases
have resulted in either high wage bill because of overstaffing or underemployment of the
workforce. It is now about time that Human Resource personnel should employ some of
the scientific techniques in manpower planning for a rational approach to the demand and
supply of labour to meet the organizations‟ objectives. Most researchers would also concur
with the fact that people are the most volatile resource available to organizations, and they
are recruited, employed and rewarded against a complex background of economic and
social forces, which make firm decisions problematic for human resource planning.
Teachers Service Commission is one such organization that has been faced with unplanned
recruitment of teachers against a growing enrolment of pupils in schools. Consequently, the
Commission has not been able to remunerate or better the terms of the teachers primarily
because of inadequate planning and improper maintenance of the teachers‟ records. This
particular study therefore, has selected one of the key areas of educational development to
try and explain how the teachers have been moving from one job group to another and to
forecast the stocks of teachers in public schools. Absorbing Markov Chain Model and

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transition probability matrices have been found to be useful in this case. An attempt has
also been made to estimate the stocks of teachers required using normative approach.
Normative approach basically attempts to estimate the stocks of teachers based on two
parameters namely the target enrolment of pupils and the anticipated teacher-pupil ratios at
the different levels of the educational system. The data has been sourced from the Teachers
Service Commission and the Ministry of Finance (mackobongo).

The relative importance of recruitment and post-recruitment processes in determining adult

density among marine species varies considerably between species and populations. This
study aimed to investigate the relative effects of variation in recruitment and survival rates
on the density dynamics of 3 spatially separated natural populations of the barnacle
Semibalanus balanoides (Isle of Man, SW Ireland and west Sweden). We analyzed 2
different data-based stochastic matrix models of open populations with space-limited
recruitment. Assumption testing supported the application of matrix-model theory for
studying and comparing population variables of open populations. Recruitment was found
to be partly dependent on free space, and mortality was size-specific and independent of
other vital rates. Model simulations showed that the relative importance of recruitment and
survival in shaping adult density depends on the existing variation of these vital rates at
each location. In the Isle of Man the variation in density was primarily caused by
variability in recruitment, while in SW Ireland the variability in survival induced the most
variation. In west Sweden variation was high due to variability in both recruitment and
survival. A life-cycle elasticity analysis across locations indicated that the population
dynamics were generally more sensitive to changes in survival than to changes in
recruitment. Also, locations with high variability in vital rates seemed better able to buffer
sudden changes in vital rates. In addition, differences in survival and growth produced
population structures that varied between populations. In the Isle of Man and west Sweden
the populations consisted of mainly Size Category 1 individuals, while the population in
SW Ireland had a linear relationship between size category and the proportion of
individuals (Carl J. Svensson Stuart R. Jenkins, 2004 published july 14).

This study reports the findings of survey data on recruitment and pre-employment selection
methods in use by human resources departments in major companies in the USA. In

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addition, data on use of online pre-employment tests, currently and in the near term future,
were also collected. The analysis is based on responses from 151 firms. The findings
indicate that the majority of companies rely on traditional recruitment and personnel
selection techniques over the use of online assessment instruments. Personality testing is
popular in about 20% of the firms and one-fifth of the respondents plan to implement
online testing in the future. Furthermore, screening for honesty-integrity (28.5%) and
violence potential (22%) was found to be somewhat popular. It would be helpful if future
research could pinpoint the reservations that companies have about online pre-employment
tests.

Psychological tests and assessment instruments that tap prospective employees‟

personality, interpersonal style, and response to stress situations have received increased
attention from both human resource professionals and researchers in I/O psychology over
the past 20 years (e.g., Gatewood & Feild, 1998; Ryan & Sackett, 1987). Indeed, the nexus
between personality factors and personnel selection and placement has spawned major
investigatory efforts, conceptual reformulations, and pragmatic applications in both
research and practice (Hogan, 2001; Landy et al., 1997). Moreover, to enhance the chances
for successful recruitment and long-term benefits for employers, a plethora of research
studies has investigated and endorsed the utility of the ‟person-fit‟ paradigm (Anderson et
al., 2004; Chan, 2005; Hollenbeck et al., 2002).

However, there has been recent concern and thoughtful discussion on the potential threat of
unscientific claims about personnel selection methods that include personality testing on
the Internet and the use of online testing for selection purposes specifically (see Anderson
et al., 2004, for a discussion). At the same time, and largely based on the public‟s
acceptance of the Internet and related technological applications, both public and private
companies, including governmental agencies, are re-thinking traditional personnel
selection processes and recruiting methods (e.g., Mooney, 2002). Yet several feature
articles in human resource publications, while touting the benefits of online testing of job
applicants, caution that online selection firms are not regulated. Moreover, most person
job-fit tests have not been standardized, lack norms, and developers have not presented
predictive validity data on their selection measures (Barbian, 2001; Bates, 2002).

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Undoubtedly, these concerns about personnel testing on the World Wide Web have
attracted the attention of rigorous research efforts by scholars worldwide and the findings
are receiving coverage in peer-reviewed journals (e.g., Bartram, 2004; Ployhart, Weekley,
Holtz, & Kemp, 2003). However, in the contemporary business environment, companies
are faced with a critical challenge to recruit and retain qualified employees (Langan,2000).

Thus, it appears that companies now have at their disposal a conceptually sound framework
(person job-fit) and a cost-effective, speedy, and convenient system (online testing) to meet
their personnel selection needs in a highly competitive environment. However, recent
reviews of the literature report that employers continue to rely on traditional (i.e., general
IQ, integrity, structured interviews, wbrk samples, references, official transcripts) methods
for personnel selection (see Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; Wilk & Cappelli, 2003). To obtain a
clearer perspective on these issues, the current study was designed to obtain empirical data
from major companies in the U.S.A. on the extent of their use of traditional selection
techniques and use (if any) of online personality testing for selection and hiring purposes.
Since companies tend to be guarded on sharing information about practices and policy
regarding personnel selection, our intent was to keep queries short and direct. Accordingly,
our results, by design, are conceptually limited and the findings should be considered
exploratory in nature (Chris Piotrowski, 2006,Vol. 8, No. 3).

It‟s often been said that our employees are the backbone of every company and
organization. It‟s often been said that our employees are the backbone of every company
and organization. In other words, it‟s our employees and their productivity, their
innovation and their passion that helps to facilitate success in today‟s global economy.
Talented employees create opportunities to develop new products or services and/or enter
new competitive markets. They are also called upon to fill leadership roles and to build
synergistic teams (Croteau, 2010).

Recruitment and selection refers to the sequence of linked activities and initiatives related
to the recruitment and selection of job candidates and other employable professionals for
an organization. Enterprises and businesses are always involved in the continuous process
and cycle of sourcing, hiring and retaining human resources and talent. The HR department

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or division of an organization is vested with the overall responsibilities of recruitment and
selection (Dutta).

 Blueprint of Human Resource Management.

 Phase of Evaluation.
 Process of Induction.

Recruitment is the process of attracting people who might make an organizational

contribution to fill a particular role or job. Recruitment is often stimulated when an existing
employee leaves. The organizational response is often to try and replace the individual with a
replica of that person. However, a more systematic response would involve the post and
possibly reallocating some responsibilities to empower other staff. Following the
recruitment of a pool of applicants, employers need to make a choice between candidates
(Newell, available athttp://books.google.co.in/).

The person specification is the single most important document in effective recruitment
and selection. It enables you to do a number of things. It allows you to define the kind of
person you want and so helps you to write an accurate job advert. It enables you to assess
each candidate fairly and objectively. And it enables you to compare candidates against
each other and therefore make selections based on evidence. The best-written person
specifications also comply with the following 3 practices.

1. Job Requirements are Specific and Measurable.

2. Job Criteria are Fair, Relevant and Justifiable.

3. Each Requirement is Classed as Essential or Desirable.

1. what a Person Specification is.

2.how to decide on the categories in your specification.
3. what attributes you can include and what you can't.
4. how recruiting fighter pilots in the Battle of Britain created one of the first person
specifications.
5. The importance of using specific attributes.

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6. Why your criteria should be the minimum needed for the job.
7. The difference between essential and desirable criteria (Management, ,Recruitment
and Selection, 173).

People Management The modules in "Step by Step to Recruitment and Selection" are:
1. Approaches to Recruitment
2. Being Fair
3.Policy and Procedure
4.Groundwork
5.The Vacancy
6.The Selection Interview
7.Selection Interview Skills
8. Go and No Go Questions
9. Testing Candidates
10. Selection and Appointment.(Management, Recruitment and Selection, 15)

It is of utmost importance for an employer to be absolutely clear on what they expect an

employee to be. The skills required for the job should be enumerated as precisely as
possible. Transferable skills which the company could use also deserve a mention. So the
chances of zeroing in on the right candidate increase greatly if they vacancy advertised is
very specific as to the requirements. If recruitment agency service is opted for by the
employer, the agency or the consultant should get very precise instructions from the
employer (Agarwal, 2008).

Recruitment &choice are crucial processes, which have impact to potentiate the
composition & tradition of the organization. Assessing the worker with regard to
integration & retention impact the existing workers & the organization's overall
performance. You will find various perspective aspects of recruitment & selection, for
example psychometric, social, & person business fit (POF). The psychometric viewpoint
prominence to recognize, calculate, & choose the candidate on the grounds of having best
knowledge, skills, & abilities (KSA),which necessary for the task publish. Written tests &
tools tend to be specified to evaluate the actual applicants KSA, & therefore their own

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suitability. The sociable perspective deals to focus interest about the social conversation
between the 2 main parties; you & the prospecting organization. In addition, towards the
quality steps of a candidate shared believe in is built via assessment procedure which
involves trade of sights & perceptions associated with both sides (BabuRao, 2011).

In species with deferred breeding, the population can be viewed as composed of

phenotypes with different underlying age of first breeding defined at birth. The distribution
of underlying age of first breeding within cohorts and the realized distribution of age of
recruitment in individuals that survived from birth to first breeding (assessed in the
breeding segment of the population) may differ. Realized age of recruitment is governed by
the product of two demographic components: [local survival probability from birth to age i
- 1] x [transition probability from the "prebreeder" state to the "breeder" state between age i
- 1 and i]. The usual approach to gain insight into selective pressures shaping age of
recruitment is to address covariation of realized age of first breeding with population size
or social and environmental factors. Ideally, one should also conduct comparisons among
groups of individuals encountering different conditions at a given age as prebreeders.
However, in many species with deferred breeding, individuals are not encountered between
birth and first breeding. Consequently, approaches to estimating recruitment probability in
the absence of data from prebreeders have been developed. Some of these measures of
recruitment ignore variation in the size of the pool of prebreeders among groups (as
opposed to transition probability). Unless survival before full recruitment is known to be
identical in the groups, inferences about the causes of variation in realized age of first
breeding among groups are difficult: such differences may result from differences in
survival probability before all the individuals make the transition between states. We
assessed the consequences of differences in pre-breeding survival among groups on
realized age-specific recruitment probability using numerical simulations. Depending on
the specific scenario, realized age-specific breeding proportions were delayed or advanced
compared to those expected according to the true underlying age-specific transition
probabilities. We consider an example of this problem using data from a population of a
seabird species, the kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), where data from pre-breeders and breeders
were available. Consistent with results from our numerical simulations, we show that
transition probabilities directly estimated (the underlying local recruitment probabilities)

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and those derived from analysis of data from the breeding segment of the population are
different (Emmanuelle Cam, Aug., 2005).

Recruitment helps insect societies by bringing individuals to places where work needs to
be done, but it also imposes energetic and opportunity costs. The net effect depends both
on recruitment efficiency and on the ease with which insects can find work sites on their
own. This study examined both of these factors for colony emigration by the ant
Temnothorax curvispinosus. Emigrations were organized by a corps of active ants who
transported the rest of the colony. These active ants either found new sites independently or
followed tandem runs led by successful scouts. Although most tandem runs broke apart
before reaching their target, even lost followers found the new site faster than did unguided
searchers. When the new site was near the old nest, tandem runs were rare and summoned
only a small proportion of the transporter corps. When the new site was instead distant and
inconspicuous, tandem runs were common and brought roughly one third of the
transporters. This pattern likely results from the quorum rule used by individual scouts to
decide when to switch from tandem runs to transports. By monitoring how many nestmates
have already found the nest, the ants ensure that the costs of recruitment are born only
when necessary (Pratt, Jun., 2008).

Formal manpower planning system exists only in two of the three public sector steel plants
covered in this paper. The third one, however, has arrangements for some of the aspects of
manpower planning, viz., manpower demand estimation and to a certain degree for
estimation of current supply of manpower. In all the three steel plants, work-study,
opinions of line managers/departmental heads and superannuation data constitute the major
tools for manpower demand forecasting. As regards estimation of the current supply of
manpower, very little progress was noticeable at the time of writing this paper. Only a few
types of manpower inventories were maintained and some significant items of inventories
were not maintained at all. There was practically no system of forecasting of changes in
manpower supply in these organizations. Besides, many of the deficiencies of manpower
planning in these steel plants were due to external constraints as well as internal
inadequacies. However, the existence of public ownership did not create any special
problem for operation of manpower planning. This study recommends the setting up of an

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independent and effective manpower planning department in each of the steel plants, for
performing all specialized activities connected with the manpower planning (Ghosh S. ,
Oct., 1981).

Since the late 1950s, much work has been done on developing models of manpower
systems which may be used for the purposes of planning. Many organizations have made
successful use of such models, but in spite of these successes, manpower planning models
are only gradually coming into widespread use. The aim of this paper is to review the
models which have been developed, concentrating on their assumptions and applications
rather than on mathematical or statistical details. A common theme of successful
applications is that good presentation of results and ease of use are more important to users
than theoretical sophistication (Edwards, Nov., 1983).

This paper deals with manpower planning at the level of the firm where leaving, or
wastage, is a fundamental feature. It discusses the methods of describing the underlying
regularities of the leaving processes and of constructing appropriate models for prediction
and control. It also provides a framework to which the other articles in this issue can be
related (Bartholomew, Mar., 1971).

Telephone communication is one of the major means by which many organizations serve
their customers. The common problem of every telephone service department is the
assignment of the proper number of representatives who have to respond to customers'
calls; too few would produce a low level of service, while too many would produce a high
level of service but the efficiency would be low. The objective of this study is to
demonstrate an approach that can and has been used as guideline for improving manpower
planning in a large telephone department (Globerson, Nov., 1979).

Although the existing theory predicts that a referral's chances of being hired increase with
the job performance of the referrer, no empirical evidence is available to support this claim.
To address this discrepancy, we decompose the recruitment process into objective
selection, subjective selection, and self-selection and theorize that the likelihood of
passing a particular recruitment stage increases with the performance of the referrer under
objective selection and self- selection, but remains undetermined at a stage of subjective

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selection. Our analysis of unique comprehensive data on online recruitment of sales agents
in a virtual call centre supports these arguments. The effectiveness of personnel as a
recruitment channel varies with the type of the recruitment stage and performance of the
referrer. When the firm evaluates candidates by an objective criterion, the advantage of a
referral increases with the performance of his or her referrer; those referred by relatively
high-performing workers are significantly better than the applicants who learned about the
job from Internet ads. When job candidates self-select into the next stage of the online
application process, the referral of any agent is more likely to continue than a no referral,
and this likelihood increases with the performance of the referrer. On a subjective stage,
the outcome is contingent on the intricacies of the recruitment process. In our case, an
applicant's chances of being hired increase with the performance of his or her referrer
because the firm rejects the referrals of low-performing workers at a higher rate than it
does no referrals, while it treats equally the referrals of high-performing workers and no
referrals. The study's contributions to the literature on social networks in labour markets
are discussed (Lup, Nov. - Dec., 2006).
This investigation consisted of a questionnaire survey of the graduate selection methods
used by 536 organizations in the U.K. The use of application forms for pre-selection
purposes was widespread, although only a minority of organizations appeared to have
approached this task in a systematic way. While references were also widely used, they
were often taken up very late in the selection process, and only a minority of organizations
sought specific information about job related abilities from referees. Interviews were
universally used, both on their own, and as a component of an assessment centre. A total of
44 per cent of organizations used assessment centres as part of graduate recruitment. For
most of those organizations using assessment centres, the interview was reported as being
the most important component of the centre in determining final selection decisions. Most
organizations provided some training for their selectors but this was typically general in
nature, rather than being specific to graduate recruitment. The results are discussed in
terms of their implications, both for practical application, and for future research (Keenan,
Jul., 1995).

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop an integrated model for manpower
forecasting for the information security (IS) industry, one of the fastest growing IT-related

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industries. The proposed model incorporates three critical factors (feedback structure, time
lags, and a flexible saturation point) in a system dynamics (SD) simulation frame.

Design/methodology/approach – A simulation model using SD is developed for a dynamic

manpower forecasting by decomposing complex processes of manpower planning into a
set of feedback loops with a causal-loop diagram. Data gathered from a Korean
Government agency were utilized in the simulation for forecasting the manpower demand
and supply in the context of the IS industry.

Findings – The simulation results showed an overall IS manpower shortage in the IS

industry. Policy alternatives were proposed based on the simulation results. The simulation
model was rerun to reflect the various alternatives to achieve a stable manpower balance
between demand and supply.

Originality/value – The research provides insights into the development of effective

manpower planning at the industry level (macro level), and policies to increase its
efficiency and effectiveness. The research model was developed and verified using SD.

(Sang-Hyun Park S. M.-J., 2008)

Manpower planning is a key aspect of the human resource management function in

organizations. Specifically, manpower planning examines the gap between staff
availabilities (internal and external to the organization) and staffing requirements (to
perform tasks in the organization) over time, and prescribes courses of action to narrow
such a gap. Different perspectives in manpower planning have each been studied widely in
the past. However, few insights are available on the interactions among these perspectives
and the impact of these interactions on the resultant manpower plans. Describes these
interactions in the form of decision and feedback loops. From this description, derives an
integrated decision support system (DSS) framework for manpower planning. Also
presents a methodology for analysis of the manpower planning business process and
feasibility assessment of DSS deployment. The system framework and analysis
methodology constitute a basis for applications deployment and consultancy undertaken by
the author‟s institute. (Khoong, 1996)

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Manpower planners within South African companies have very few, if any, decision
support tools at their disposal to assist them in the formulation of their manpower
strategies. Such quantitative tools as do exist are mathematically too sophisticated to be
easily understood and implemented by manpower managers who are, on the whole, non
numerate. The approach proposed in this paper, namely simulation modeling, discusses and
demonstrates a powerful quantitative method which is conceptually easy to understand and
whose results are easily interpreted. This particular simulation model examines the impact
on organizational staffing levels over time as a result of specific present/proposed
manpower policies in the areas of procurement and promotion. Through manipulating the
inputs, the manpower planner can, with relative ease, examine the consequences of a range
of alternative policies within a very short period of time. (Wegner, Discrete simulation
modelling for corporate manpower planning, (1985)

Health manpower planning is a key component of health sector planning. It is crucially

important for countries with scarce indigenous human resources, such as the oil-rich
developing countries in the Middle East. Most of these countries have adopted a policy of
indigenization. Health manpower planning models have evolved over the years, and the
concepts and principles of these are generally applicable to any country. However, in view
of the special characteristics and features of the oil-rich Middle East countries, it is
necessary to adapt and evolve a model with increased applicability to such settings.

This paper presents an integrated computer-based model (already successfully

implemented in an oil rich country), which enables simulation of alternative human
resources and health system infrastructural strategies. (Ghosh B. , A Health Manpower
Planning Model for Oil-Rich Developing Nations, March 30, 1994)

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