Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Potential of biodiesel as a renewable energy source in Bangladesh

M. Habibullah n, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, S.M. Ashrafur Rahman, M. Mofijur,
H.M. Mobarak, A.M. Ashraful
Centre for Energy Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The transportation, agricultural, and power sector of Bangladesh is largely dependent on fossil fuels that
Received 5 January 2014 decrease day by day. The government has to import large volumes of fuel from foreign sources to meet the
Received in revised form fuel demand for power production, causing a negative impact on the country’s economy. Finding an
28 August 2014
alternative to fossil fuels is becoming the most urgent issue. Biodiesel can thus be a destined source to
Accepted 23 April 2015
future energy demands. Increasing the usage of biodiesel will also decrease the global problem of
environmental pollution, as fossil fuels are considered to be the major source of harmful emissions.
Keywords: Biodiesel is renewable, bio-degradable, non-toxic, technologically feasible, and can be used as a bio-
Biodiesel lubricant. In this study, the current energy scenario of Bangladesh, available potential biodiesel feedstocks,
Renewable energy
production process and engine fuel property, environmental impact, performance and emission char-
Transesterification
acteristics on diesel engines, comparison of cost analysis, and future direction are discussed. Various
Diesel engine
Properties research related to these feedstocks are performed in Bangladesh, which include an overview of biodiesel
Performance and emission properties, engine performance, and emission parameters used in diesel engines. All types of biodiesel
have similar functional properties compared with diesel fuel and can be successfully used in compression
ignition engines. Biodiesel can thus serve as a subsequent replacement of non-renewable fossil fuels.
Compared with diesel fuel, CO and HC emission were also low, but a slight increase in NOx was observed in
some cases. One of the major advantages is that Bangladesh is a country with plenty of biodiesel feedstock
sources, such as mustered, Jatropha curcas, rapeseed, sesame, castor, cottonseed, neem, algae, coconut, and
groundnut. In conclusion, producing biodiesel from different feedstocks is greatly possible and can thus
assist in future energy needs.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
2. Energy scenario in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
2.1. Available energy for supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
2.2. Electricity policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
2.3. Structure of energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
3. Biodiesel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
3.1. Feedstocks of biodiesel available in Bangladesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
3.2. Conventional production of biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
4. Potentiality of various biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
4.1. Mustard oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
4.2. Soybean oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
4.3. Cottonseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
4.4. Coconut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
4.5. Micro algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
4.6. Rubber seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

n
Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: þ60 3 79674448; fax: þ60 3 79675317.
E-mail address: habib.duetian@gmail.com (M. Habibullah).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.149
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
820 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

4.7. Sesame oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

4.8. Mosna oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
4.9. Jatropha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
4.10. Karanja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
4.11. Castor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
4.12. Neem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
4.13. Linseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
5. Major physical and chemical properties of biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
5.1. Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
5.2. Lubricating properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
5.3. Cetane number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
5.4. Cloud and pour points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
5.5. Flash point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
6. Biodiesel as diesel engine fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
6.1. Environmental consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
6.2. Greenhouse gas reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
6.3. Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
7. Price comparison of biodiesel feedstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
8. Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

1. Introduction
In recent times, the continuous increase in energy demand for
global industrialization and modernization has led to a non-renewable
energy crisis. Considering that energy is a major factor for globaliza-
tion, the awareness towards searching for renewable and sustainable
alternative energy sources is increasing day by day. The current power
scenario in Bangladesh is very critical as major power stations are
operated with natural gas. Hence, this natural reserve will soon fall to
an alarmingly low level if any other reserve is not discovered in the
near future [1]. Bangladesh is already heavily dependent on importing
crude oil from other countries, and during the fiscal year 2011/2012,
approximately 1550232 Million tonne was imported [2]. The total
import bill was US$125.50 billion to fulfill the energy demand in this
fiscal year, which is a large setback for a developing country [2].
Household life and industrial production are suffering heavily because
of insufficient electricity production resulting from gas supply shortage
all over the country; this scenario also causes a regular load shedding
problem that affects economic development [3]. A greater portion of
power is produced from natural gas, but the generation capacity is not
sufficient because of the gas supply shortage. Hence, the Government
of Bangladesh is now concentrating on finding renewable sources of
energy. Another disadvantage of using fossil fuel is the emissions
produced from its combustion that has an adverse effect on human
health and the environment, especially greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
sions [4]. It causes global warming, the melting of polar ice sheets and
caps, sea level rise and subsequent coastal inundations, as well as
damage to agriculture and natural ecosystems [5]. For different
hazardous emissions such as CO2, CO, SO2, NO2, and PM, visible smoke
is produced by combustion of petro diesel, and Bangladesh is currently
contributing 0.14% CO2 to the world’s total emissions [6]. Fossil fuel
consumption is growing by more than 5% per year [4]. Utilization of
renewable and sustainable energy may be the fruitful solution to solve
several problems, including diminishing reserves, high price, import
dependence, and ecological factor [7–9].
Biodiesel has drawn the attention of many researchers as a
renewable energy resource because of its immense potential to be
part of a sustainable energy mix in the near future. It is non-toxic,
biodegradable, and more eco-friendly in nature, which has the quality
to be used successfully as an alternative to diesel fuel in compress-
ion ignition engines [10,11]. Biodiesel is produced from edible and
non-edible vegetable oils, waste cooking oils, and animal fats [12–14].
Most vegetable oils have been considered as a potential renewable
resource that is available in Bangladesh. Fuel from vegetable oil also
emits less pollution than diesel fuels [15]. In this paper, the recently
published research works highlighting the potential of biodiesel
alternative to diesel as a renewable energy source in Bangladesh is
reviewed. Available promising biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladesh
include mustered, Jatropha curcas, rapeseed, sesame, castor, cotton-
seed, neem, algae, coconut, and groundnut [16–24] that can be imple-
mented to produce biodiesel. These biodiesel feedstocks have been
awaiting sustainable production in recent years. Different properties
such as calorific value, density, viscosity, flash point, pour point,
boiling point, cloud point, and cetane number are also reported in this
review. The Bangladesh government is encouraging the use of renew-
able energy sources to supply fuel for diesel engines primarily used in
small irrigation pumping systems and electricity generators, and
decrease fossil fuel dependence. The unemployment problem of
Bangladesh has become a great concern presently because of over-
population comparable with the lack of work area in the country [25].
The problems of using biodiesel in Bangladesh are: food security, lack
of available technology and available lands to use produce biodiesel.
Bangladesh has a huge population, almost over 150 million. In order
to feed this huge amount of population, lots of land needed to harvest
food. Thus, these lands cannot be used to produce biodiesel. Secondly,
edible feedstock cannot be used to produce biodiesel. And lastly, state
of the art biodiesel production technology needs to be introduced as
soon as possible. At present there is actually no working projects
running in Bangladesh for producing biofuels [26]. But in future some
initiatives should be taken care of. According to Energy-Bangla,
Japanese industrial giant Honda Denki Co. Ltd. has expressed its
interest to invest up to US$1 billion in Bangladesh’s green power,
biofuels and sugar sectors [27]. Many unused land areas can be found
all over the country where commercial biodiesel plants can be built.
Ferdous et al. [28] reported that, by using the available rail and road
sides of Bangladesh 2387,500 t of non-edible oil seeds can be
produced every year which will supply 1322,235 t oil leading with
1001,881 t biodiesel. Also, they reported that, if commercial agents
are used to produce biodiesel, cost per liter of biodiesel will be less
than 120 Taka (1.5 USD/Liter). The costs are: Raw oil cost (44.5–49.5
Taka/L), H2SO4 (0.5–0.6 Taka/L), CH3OH (94–113 Taka/L, recovery
43–51 Taka/L). Aminul et al. [29] reported that, if 50% of the available
 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834 821

Nomenclature RSO Rubber seed oil

HC hydrocarbon
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials NO nitric oxide
BP brake power NOx oxides of nitrogen
ktoe kilo ton of oil equivalent PM particulate matter
FY fiscal year CO carbon monoxide
mmcm million cubic meter CO2 carbon dioxide
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption NOME neem oil methyl ester
BTE brake thermal efficiency CN Cetane number
BGFC Bangladesh gas fields company DF diesel fuel
SGF Sylhet gas fields EGR exhaust gas recirculation
BAPEX Bangladesh petroleum exploration & production BD Bangladesh
company MY Malaysia
IOC International oil company

land can used, Jatropha: 1.19 million tons, Castor: 0.15 million tons,
Pithraj: 1.04 million tons can be produced annually. Sazdanoff et al.
[30] reported that, 700, 285, 201, 126, 112, 99 and 62 Gallons of Algae,
Coconut, Jatropha, Rapeseed, Peanut, Sunflower and Soybean biodie-
sel per acre can be respectively produced if the available lands are
used. Thus using the potential sources for biodiesel production, dep-
endency on imported oils can be reduced significantly. In addition,
feedstock plantations could cause forestation and create ecological
balance all over the country.
This paper focuses on the potential of biodiesel feedstock as a
renewable energy source that can mitigate the current depen-
dence on the fossil fuel source in Bangladesh. Various recent
publications related to potential biodiesel feedstocks in Bangla-
desh, production process, and their engine fuel property, their
impact on environment, performance, and emission characteristics
on diesel engine, and comparison of cost analysis are reviewed in
this paper.
rate, the total installed capacity was 4005 MW in the FY 2000–2001
which has been increased to 6685 MW in the FY 2010–2011 with an
annual increasing rate of 6.62%. However, the maximum generation
has been increased from 3033 MW in the FY 2000–2001 to
4699 MW in the FY 2010–2011 with an annual increasing rate of
5.49% (Table 1) [34–36]. Both the installed capacity and maximum
generation rate has been increased slightly over the time. The
natural gas is the main primary fuel that is contributing 82.81% to
produce electricity (Fig. 4). Many power plants are idle to produce
their rated capacity because of the gas supply shortage [32].
2.3. Structure of energy consumption
The primary energy consumption, which includes traded fuels
and modern renewables, was 14.1 million tons oil equivalent for
2001 and 24.3 million tons oil equivalent for 2011 [37]. Fossil fuel

2. Energy scenario in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is located in the north-eastern part of South Asia; it

is a very densely populated country, and only 33% of the total
population is electrified that still suffers severe load shading [31].
Energy is the main driving force for the economic development of
a country.

2.1. Available energy for supply

Commercial and biomass energy resources are the main energy

resources of the Bangladesh. Presently among known commercial
Fig. 1. Total primary energy supply pattern in Bangladesh (2010).
energy resources, has the highest dependence on natural gas:
locally produced and consumed and contributing 53.61% of total
energy use, while biofuel and waste 28.38%, crude oil 4.03%, oil
products 10.83%, coal 2.94% and hydropower 0.2% comprises the
balance (Fig. 1) [32]. A total of 12,344 kilo ton of oil equivalent
(ktoe) was supplied in the fiscal year 2006, while in the fiscal year
2011 total gas supplied was 16,614 ktoe (Fig. 2).

2.2. Electricity policy

Electricity is the most usable form of energy and important

issues for development of the country.
An adequate supply of electricity must be achieved to achieve
the digital Bangladesh vision-2021, which was the primary goal of
the Awami League’s Election Manifesto-2008. Currently the coun-
try’s power demand is 10,000 MW/day (Fig. 3), but production
output is at only 6350 MW/day [34,35]. Given the high demand Fig. 2. Year-wise total primary energy supplies.
822 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

energy consumption is increasing drastically (Fig. 5) and commer-
cial energy sources such as natural gas and coal are limited
compared to the requirement of the country the rate of gas
production capacity is declining day by day (Table 3). The hydro-
power plant could not run at full rated capacity due to declination
of water head but the demand for electricity is increasing dras-
tically due to the growth of population and industry. So all the
country’s natural resources of the country will eventually be
exhausted [38]. For this reason, importing fuel from other coun-
tries is increasing every year (Table 2), which also increases
exposure to external price shocks in the international market. If
necessary steps are not taken immediately and the current situa-
tion continues, the production of industries will lower because of
the power crisis. As a result, the country’s economy will suffer, and
the poverty and unemployment problem will increase. We can
address this situation with renewable energy such as biodiesel
that can help us improve the power crisis and move forward
economically and environmentally [31].
3. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is known as fatty acid methyl ester which can be used as
an alternative fuel for diesel engines is produced by chemically
reacting a vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol such as
methanol using transesterification process [39,40]. In this process a
catalyst, usually a strong base, is needed, such as sodium or potassium
hydroxide, and produces new chemical compounds called methyl
ester which is referred as biodiesel. Biodiesel is non-explosive, non-
flammable biodegradable, non-toxic, renewable and environment
friendly [41,42]. Compared to diesel fuel it has almost similar
operational properties (such as cetane number, viscosity, heating
value, and flash point) [43]. The main advantage of using biodiesel
is that it is biodegradable, can be used in unmodified engine, and
produces less harmful gas emissions to the environment such as
sulfur oxide, carbon dioxide etc. [44].

3.1. Feedstocks of biodiesel available in Bangladesh

Bangladesh, one of the world’s forward movement countries,

Fig. 3. Year-wise electricity Demand Projection curve for Bangladesh [33,34].
Table 1
Installed capacity and maximum generation [34,35].
emits one tenth of the world’s CO2 [6]. The consumption of fossil
fuel has been growing by more than 5 percent per year [38]. So
biodiesel production may be an alternative energy for fossil fuel in
the accessibility of biodiesel feedstocks worldwide. This may
reduce the country’s fossil fuel consumption which is also a
burning issue for increasing global warming. There are more than
350 potential oil-bearing crops, among which mustered, J. curcas,
rapeseed, soybean, palm, sunflower, sesame, castor, cottonseed
and groundnut oils can be regarded as potential alternative feed-
stocks in Bangladesh [45,46]. Already Malaysia, India, Indonesia,
and China are producing biodiesel successfully from J. curcas
and oil palm. Many others indigenous plant seeds available in

FY Installed Growth Maximum Growth

capacity (MW) rate (%) generation (MW) rate (%)

2000–01 4005 – 3033 –

2001–02 4230 5.62 3218 6.10
2002–03 4710 11.35 3458 7.46
2003–04 4710 0 3622 4.74
2004–05 5025 6.69 3751 3.56
2005–06 5275 4.98 3812 1.63
2006–07 5262  0.25 3718  2.47
2007–08 5262 0 4130 11.08
2008–09 5803 10.28 4162 0.77
2009–10 5978 3.02 4606 10.67
2010–11 6658 11.38 4699 2.02
(13 June, 2011)
Fig. 4. Total installed electricity capacity by fuel type (2010).

Table 2
Import of fuel in fiscal year (FY) [2].

FY Crude oil Kerosene, octane & diesel Lubricating oil Furnace oil

Quantity (MT) Price (crore tk.) Quantity (MT) Price (Crore tk.) Quantity (MT) Price (Crore tk.) Quantity (MT) Price (Crore tk.)

2004–05 1063,208 2261.98 2691,750 7,213.88 10,189 38.14 39,935 61.53

2005–06 1253,285 3901.16 2380,582 9,382.77 5,137 35.53 – –
2006–07 1211,037 4196.85 2536,535 10,443.20 4,277 25.13 – –
2007–08 1040,084 5288.85 2227,753 14,343.04 5,006 29.94 – –
2008–09 860,877 3431.40 2507,819 10,945.24 4,828 23.63 29,959 60.38
2009–10 1136,567 4491.41 2634,212 12,024.18 7,262 52.03 – –
2010–11 1409,302 7037.00 2488,456 21,403.69 4,749 43.75 230,524 1123.17
2011–12 1550,232 7740.70 2737,301 23,544.06 4,986 45.94 253,576 1235.49
 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834 823

Bangladesh and these should be investigating for their potentiality

to produce oil. Generally, feedstocks have been divided into 4 main
categories as follow [46–52].

a. Edible vegetable oil: mustered, cottonseed, ground nut, mosna,

sesame, rapeseed, sunflower, coconut, palm and soybean oil.
b. Non-edible vegetable oil: J. curcas, karanja, castor, rubber,
neem, linseed and algae.
c. Waste or recycled oil.
d. Animal fats-tallow, yellow grease and chicken fat.

Fig. 6 shows some common biodiesel feedstock available in

Bangladesh. The available edible feedstock in Bangladesh are
mustered, cottonseed, ground nut, sesame, rapeseed, sunflower,
Fig. 5. Fossil fuel energy consumption curve (% of total) [38]. palm and coconut oil and some available non edible feedstock n
Bangladesh are J. curcas, karanja, castor, rubber, neem, linseed and
algae. Among all the feedstocks Mustard oil biodiesel can be the
Table 3
most feasible, economic and clean feedstock in Bangladesh. Table 4
Recent trend of production (Natural gas).
Source: Petrobangla (2011), Bangladesh. shows the oil yield of available feedstock in Bangladesh and
compared with from Malaysia.
FY mmcm BGFC SGF BAPEX Domestic IOC Total
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
3.2. Conventional production of biodiesel
2005– 14,921 52 12 4 68 32 100
2006 The problems of using vegetable oil can be overcome by four
2006– 15,921 49 12 3 64 36 100 methods; pyrolysis, dilution with hydrocarbons blending, micro-
2007 emulsion, and transesterification [70–72]. Transesterification process,
2007– 17,015 43 10 2 55 45 100
amongst the four processes, is the most assuring and conventional
2008
2008– 18,511 39 9 2 50 50 100 process to reduce the viscosity in order to overcome the high viscosity
2009 problem. This process refers to a catalyzed chemical reaction invol-
2009– 19,919 37 8 2 47 53 100 ving vegetable oil and an alcohol to yield fatty acid alkyl esters (i.e.
2010
biodiesel) and glycerol [73]. Furthermore, this process has many
2010– 16,690 38 8 2 48 52 100
2011
advantages over other processes as shown in Table 5. It is performed
under normal conditions and can assure production of better quality

Mustered oil plant Sesame oil plant Groundnut Algae

Coconut Jatropha curcas soybean Neem

Cottonseed Karanja Rapeseed Rubberseed

Castor Linseed Oil palm Callophyllum

Fig. 6. Some common biodiesel feedstock available in Bangladesh.
824 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

biodiesel [74,75]. It involves three reversible reactions, whereby the
triglyceride is converted successively to diglyceride, monoglyceride
and glycerol, consuming one mole of alcohol in each step and
liberating one mole of ester [76–78] named as biodiesel.
This process consists of consecutive reversible processes as
shown below [79–82].
triglyceride þmethanol ¼ diglcyeride þester
diglyceride þ methanol ¼ monoglyceride þ ester
monoglyceride þ methanol ¼ glycerol þ ester
The only by-product of transesterification is glycerol. In this
process a catalyst is needed to complete the reaction, most of the
time either sodium hydroxide or sodium methoxide is used,
sometimes other base and acid catalysts are used. Methanol must
be removed from the product to increase flash point and cetane
number. This recovery is also essential for economic reasons.
Methanol is removed by flash or water washing or by combination
of both [61]. Generally, removing reaction is done at a temperature
of 50–75 1C and the time taken is around 15 min to 2 h [83].
Biodiesel is separated from glycerol gravitationally or centrifugally
[84,85]. This process is mostly used process in Bangladesh. Table 6
shows the summary of different biodiesel production by using
transesterification process in Bangladesh. The basic flow diagram
of biodiesel production is shown in Fig. 7. Details schematic of
biodiesel processing flow diagram has shown in Fig. 8 [86,87].
Where R1, R2, and R3 are long hydrocarbon chains, sometimes
called fatty acid chains.
4. Potentiality of various biodiesel feedstocks in Bangladesh
Different types of oil seed crops or trees available in Bangladesh
ð1Þ may be used to produce biodiesel as alternative to diesel as
follows:
ð2Þ
4.1. Mustard oil
ð3Þ
In Bangladesh mustard oil is used as edible oil throughout the
country. Mustard plants grow widely all over the country, and the
production of mustard seed exceeds the demand every year [91].
This endeavor aims to use the surplus mustard oil as an alternative
to diesel fuel. A number of studies indicated that mustard oil can
be a potential source of biodiesel [23,92,93]. Mustard oil contains
high amounts of uric acid that can harm human health. For this
reason, many countries consider mustard oil as unsuitable for
human consumption. Though mustard seed oil is not considered as
a common biodiesel feedstock, it may become famous in the near
future as it is cheaper than other common oil seeds used for
biodiesel. Hasib et al. [23] studied the potential of biodiesel
production from mustard oil using the transesterification process
and reported that the properties of biodiesel from mustard oil
meet the ASTM standards and are comparable with other biodie-
sels. They found that the calorific value and viscosity (at 40 1C) of

Table 4
Oil yield of biodiesel feedstock.

Oil yield(kg/ha) Percentage of oil yield % Percentage of Biodiesel yield % References

BD MY BD MY BD MY

Mustard oil 91.5 300 39–44 42 – [17,53,54]

Ground nut 156.0 1,059 48–50 45–55 – [17,55]
Sesame 55.2 696 42.5–46 82.64 [17,24,55]
Soybean 52.0 450 19–20 15–20 89.75 [17,55,56]
Sunflower 91.0 500 42–44 25–35 – [17,55,56]
Microalgae 58,700 97,800 50 50 – [17,55]
Neem 2670 2670 45 25–45 94 – [22,54,57,58]
Rubber 217 80–120 49 40–50 86 [56,59,60]
Jatropha curcas 2,000 1,590 30–40 35–40 96 96–98 [60,61]
Karanja 225–250 225–250 31 30–40 97 [60,62,63]
Oil palm 3,850 46–50 79–99 [56,64,65]
Castor 450 1,188 37–50 53 – [60,66,67]
Cottonseed oil – 325 – 18–25 77 [55,68]
Linseed oil – 402 – 35–45 88 88–98 [54,69]

Table 5
Comparison of different biodiesel production methods [55].

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

Transesterification  Fuel properties is closer to diesel  Low free fatty acid and water content are required (for base catalyst)
 High conversion efficiency  Pollutants will be produced because products must be neutralized and washed
 Low cost  Accompanied by side reactions
 It is suitable for industrialized production  Difficult reaction products separation
Pyrolysis  Simple process  High temperature is required
 No-polluting  Equipment is expensive
 Low purity
Dilution with hydrocarbons blending  Simple process  High viscosity
 Bad volatility
 Bad stability
Micro-emulsion  No catalyst  High temperature and pressure are required
 Short reaction Time  Equipment cost is high
 High conversion  High energy consumption
 Good adaptability
 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834 825

Table 6
Summary of biodiesel production from transesterification process [17,18,22,59,61,68,69].

No. Sample Catalyst Alcohol Temperature (1C) Ration of alcohol to oil Yields (%)

1 Microalgae NaOH Methanol 80 3:1 60

2 Karanja oil H2SO4 (1%, w/w) Methanol 50 5:1 97
3 Soybean oil NaOH Methanol 45–55 3:1 89.75
4 Coconut oil NaOH Methanol 65 – –
5 Cottonseed oil NaOH Methanol 55–60 3.5:1 86.67
6 Sesame oil NaOH Methanol 45–55 3:1 82.64
7 Linseed oil NaOH (0.5%, v/v) Methanol 20% 55 – 88
8 Rubber seed oil H2SO4 (0.5%, v/v) Methanol 45 5:1 98
9 Neem NaOH (1%, w/w) Methanol 55–61 5:1 95
10 Mustard oil NaOH Methanol 55 4:1 –
11 Jatropha curcas oil NaOH (0.6%, w/w) Methanol 60 6:1 96

transesterification process. They found that soybean biodiesel has a

calorific value of 41.57 MJ/kg and a viscosity of 2.068 m2/s at 40 1C,
which is very similar to conventional diesel fuel. The production
cost of biodiesels from soybean oil is Tk. 296.8 per liter. This oil or
any of its blends could be used as an alternative in case of a crisis.
Roy et al. [97] reported that the B20 soybean oil biodiesel has
similar thermal efficiency compared to diesel fuel.

Fig. 7. Transesterification of vegetable oils [88,89]. 4.3. Cottonseed oil

Cottonseed oil is a vegetable oil extracted from the seeds of the

Fig. 8. Schematic flow chart of biodiesel production [90].
mustard biodiesel are 39.51 MJ/kg and 10.1 m2/s, respectively. The
researchers also mentioned that the production cost for the blend
of B20 mustered oil biodiesel is 76 TK/L, which is slightly higher
compared with conventional diesel fuel.
4.2. Soybean oil
Every year, Bangladesh produces about 0.16 million tons of
edible oil, whereas the demand is 0.5 million tons. Soybean is a
high quality crop. It contains a high quantity of protein (its seed
contains approximately 40% protein) per unit area [91]. Although
soybean cultivation in Bangladesh is quite limited, an ample scope
exists on increasing its cultivation through the use of integrated
nutrient management. Approximately 7 to 8 Lakh ha of lands in
char areas could be brought under soybean cultivation if govern-
ment support is available, where 17 to 18 Lakh metric tons of
soybean could be produced and approximately 40% of soybean oil
demand could be met [94]. The oil content of soybean is about 20%,
whereas all other pulses contain only approximately 1% to 2% oil
[95]. Soybean is considered as a minor crop in terms of area and
production in Bangladesh, concentrated only in a few distinct
locations. The total production of the country stands at 4000 t of
soybean over a total cropped area of 5000 ha [96]. Abdullah et al.
[18] studied the potential of biodiesel from soybean oil using the
cotton plant after the cotton lint has been removed. It contains
high levels of saturated fat and pesticide residue as well, hence, it
is not considered as healthy for human consumption [24]. Cotton-
seeds have little use except for producing oil. Three alternatives
are considered to increase the production of cottonseed in Ban-
gladesh: increase the total amount of land used to raise cotton,
increase seed-lint ratios to obtain a greater seed yield (mass per
unit area), and/or increase the proportion of cotton land that is
irrigated. Cottonseed oil is non-edible oil, so the food versus fuel
conflict will not arise if this is used for biodiesel production.
However, the optimum conditions for biodiesel production are
suggested in this paper. A maximum of 77% biodiesel may be
produced with 20% methanol [68]. Wakil et al. [24] studied the
potential of biodiesel from cottonseed oil using the transesterifica-
tion process. They found that cottonseed biodiesel has a calorific
value of 38.51 MJ/kg and viscosity of 7.2 m2/s at 40 1C, which is
very similar to conventional diesel fuel. The production cost of
biodiesels from cottonseed oil is Tk. 210 per liter. This oil or any of
its blends could be used as an alternative in case of a crisis.
4.4. Coconut
Coconut is one of the important nut crops in Bangladesh, whose
oil is edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured
coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. In Bangladesh, 907255
metric tons of coconut is produced from 12825 ac of land in 2004 to
2005 [98]. It is mostly grown in the southern part of the country such
as St. Martin’s Island in cox’s bazar. Hossain et al. [21] produced
coconut biodiesel using the transesterification process and compared
the properties of different biodiesel blends with diesel fuel that met
the ASTM standards. Their coconut biodiesel producing cost was 124
TK/L, which is quite high for small production, but the cost will be
drastically decreased if largely produced. Besides, this coconut
biodiesel has a much better lubrication property, and it flash point
is similar to that of diesel fuel.
4.5. Micro algae
Algae grow abundantly as the climate of Bangladesh is perfect
for production. Bangladesh has many ponds and canals that are
826 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834
suitable for algal growth. With these large amounts of algae, we can
easily produce biodiesel that may be used in power plants instead
of diesel fuel to generate electricity. Microalgae appear to be good
sources of renewable biodiesel that may be able to meet the global
demand for transport fuels. The cultivation of microalgae needs
fewer lands compared with that of terraneous plants [17]. They can
contain up to 70% of their weight as lipid oil, and the oil yield per ha
is extremely high compared with other oil sources. Oil content of
microalgae varies according to the species, but most of them
contain enough lipid oil to produce biodiesel. Space is another
requirement for algae production, which is largely available in
Bangladesh. At present, 0.73 million ha of land (Table 7) are not
suitable for any crop production, but can instantly be used for algae
production. The saline lands can also be used for algae production.
Kais et al. [17] studied the potential of biodiesel from microalgae
oil using the transesterification process and found that microalgae
biodiesel have a calorific value of 35 MJ/kg and viscosity of 5 m2/s at
40 1C, which is quite similar to diesel fuel. Hence, microalgae oil
biodiesel can be used instead of diesel. Extensive research needs to
be carried out to decrease the price to as low as diesel fuel. The
production costs of biodiesels from microalgae oil is Tk. 136 per
liter. With favorable algae growth, cheaper production cost than
other biodiesels, and more eco-friendly nature, microalgae biodiesel
can be a great source of renewable energy in Bangladesh.
4.6. Rubber seed
Rubber production is a profitable sector in Bangladesh. Rubber
plantations yield from 100 to 150 kg/ha of rubber seeds. Rubber
seeds contain approximately 49% oil [59]. Rubber seed oil (RSO) is a
semi-drying type oil [99,100] that does not contain any unusual
fatty acids, but is a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, C18:2
and C18:3, that make up 52% of its total fatty acid composition
[101]. Large areas of land for rubber plantation are already allotted
in Bangladesh, and over 92,000 ac of rubber plantation are under
the Bangladesh Forest Industries Corporation (BFIDC) and non-
governmental organizations [102]. Bangladesh already produces
more than 2000 t of seeds per year, at approximately 150 kg/ac
[103]. Currently, it has no economic use, is rather considered as
waste, and can yield more than 500 t (25%) of RSO annually. A total
of sixteen governmental rubber estates exist in 3 different zones of
Bangladesh i.e., 7 in Chittagong Zone, 4 in Sylhet Zone, and 5 in the
Madhupur Zone of Tangail District). The productivity of Rubber seed
oil per ha per annum is reported as 217 kg oil/ha [100]. Considering
the data, the expected annual RSO production in Bangladesh is 0.02
million tons. Morshed et al. [59] studied the potential of RSO as a
source for biodiesel in Bangladesh and also compared physico-
chemical properties with diesel fuel using the transesterification
process that met ASTM standards. They found that the calorific
value was 32.6 MJ/kg, specific gravity at 30 1C was 0.85, and the acid
value was 0.12 mgKOH/g. A rubber plantation can be established in
the unused lands, which accounts around 0.32 million ha [104]. RSO
provides an additional value as a potential feedstock of energy to
the original latex value of rubber plants.
Table 7
Type of land in Bangladesh
Source: 1. DAE and Agriculture Ministry, 2004 2. Fisheries Department, 2007 [17].
Type of land
Dry land
Ponds
Low marshy land
Coastal saline land
4.7. Sesame oil
Sesame is another important oil seed crop, which is the second
largest source of edible oil seed in Bangladesh [24]. The plants may
attain a height of about one meter, usually with side branches. It is
grown in almost all districts of Bangladesh, but grows well in
greater Khulna, Faridpur, Pabna, Shirajganj, Rajshahi, Rangpur,
Jessore, Barisal, Comilla, Sylhet, and Mymensingh districts as these
places have a climatic condition suitable for its cultivation. In
Bangladesh, 96,000 ha of land is cultivated for sesame production
and 25,000 metric tons is produced [94]. Sesame contains 42% to
50% oil, 25% protein and 16% to 18% carbohydrate [105]. Abdullah
et al. [18] has shown that 82.64% biodiesels were produced
experimentally from sesame oil. Produced biodiesels’ calorific
value was 41.57 MJ/kg compared with 44.5 MJ/kg of diesel fuel.
The production cost of biodiesels from sesame oil is Tk. 370 per
liter [24], which is quite high for small production. The commonly
cultivated varieties in the country are black- and white-seeded.
Presently, sesame is cultivated in both the kharif and autumn
seasons, but two-thirds sesame is produced in the kharif season.
High lands with sandy loam are best suited for sesame cultivation.
4.8. Mosna oil
Among many edible oils, Mosna is one that is mainly cultivated
in the southern part of Bangladesh such as Barisal, Comilla, and
Chittagong, and is used mainly for cooking. The cultivation starts
in Kartik and ripe at Poush (Bengali calendar month). Nowadays,
the use of mosna oil is replaced by soybean oil and mustered oil
because of similar properties and availability all over the country.
However, Mosna requires less fertile land, and cultivation is
cheaper than other kinds of vegetable oil. Hence, finding a suitable
use for this oil so that cultivation can be increased is necessary to
provide farmers with financial benefits. Wakil et al. [24] studied
the experimental production of biodiesels from Mosna oil and
reported that the obtained density was 0.875 g/cm3, which is
similar to diesel (0.84 g/cm3). Its boiling point is 198 1C, which is
quite lower than diesel (248 1C); its calorific value is obtained at
52.12 MJ/kg (diesel is at 44.5 MJ/kg), which meets the ASTM
standard and is 7 MJ/kg higher than diesel fuel. However, the
production rate is very low. The production cost of biodiesels from
Mosna oil is Tk. 285 per liter.
4.9. Jatropha
J. curcas is a renewable, non-edible plant that grows in arid and
semi-arid regions of the country on degraded soils that have low
fertility and moisture. Jatropha can be cultivated in the southern
part of Bangladesh, where large unused areas is available. The
seeds of jatropha contain 30% to 40% oil and the transesterification
result [24] shows that approximately 96% biodiesel production is
experienced with 20 vol%. The properties of jatropha biodiesel
are much closer or even better than conventional diesel fuel. By
planting jatropha, Bangladesh can save a large amount of imported
petroleum products from foreign countries. Jatropha’s oil
Amount (million ha)
0.73
0.31
3.16
0.218
 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834
properties are the most exciting in the field of biodiesel fuels. Nabi
et al. [61] demonstrated experimentally that at same power
output, J. curcas oil specific consumption and efficiencies are
higher than those of diesel fuel. Tests conducted also showed that
compared with diesel fuel, density (0.87 g/cm3), kinematic viscos-
ity (4.5 cSt at 30 1C), and heating value (39.5 MJ/kg) are very
similar, in which Jatropha biodiesel has significant potential for
use as an alternative fuel in compression-ignition (diesel) engines.
Azad [19] has observed that 75.5% biodiesel production were
obtained with 20% methanol. Jatropha plantation [106] can be
established at a spacing of 2 m  2 m in a pit filled with soil, and
the soil can be mixed with organic manure. Approximately 2500
plants per ha with the spacing mentioned above are needed. In
Bangladesh, 0.32 million ha [94] are unused land. Jatropha
plantation can be established in such a large area. The expected
jatropha oil from such land is as follows:
Plants needed per ha: 2500
Seeds expected from each plant: 2.5 kg.
The expected jatropha oil is thus approximately 2.00 t per ha
per year (considering 38% conversion from seed to jatropha oil).
Biodiesel from jatropha oil is 1.92 t per ha per year (considering
96% conversion from jatropha oil to biodiesel). In 0.32 million ha of
land, the amount of biodiesel production will thus be 0.62 million
tons per year. If jatropha plantation is successful in Bangladesh,
the country saves a large amount of currency, which is needed for
importing diesel fuel. The country can decrease importing diesel
fuel by 25% from foreign countries [61].
4.10. Karanja
Karanja is a medium-sized tree that is one of the few nitrogen-
fixing trees that produces significant oil content seeds [107–109].
Karanja seeds are heavy, contain greater food reserves, and
approximately 800 seeds to 1200 seeds are weigh 1 kg. The seeds
contain 31% oil, and a maximum of 97% biodiesel is produced from
this oil by the transesterification process. Nabi et al. [62] studied
the fuel properties of karanja oil biodiesel that is close to diesel
fuel. They tested the fuel properties in different blends where
density and viscosity are higher for B100, but within the ASTM
standard. The flash point and cetane number of karanja biodiesel
is higher than that of diesel fuel, which is helpful for safe
transportation. They mentioned that diesel imported from foreign
countries will decrease by 28% if karanja is cultivated in the
unused lands of Bangladesh. The study has enabled us to confirm
that karanja oil can be used as raw material to obtain biodiesel
that can be used as alternative fuel for diesel engine.
4.11. Castor
Castor grows almost everywhere in Bangladesh, even on gravelly,
sandy, and saline soils. The plant grows wild in forests and fields and is
considered wild or unwanted. Local people are unaware of the plant’s
life span, uses, and economic values. The plant can live for many years
and produce huge amounts of seeds every year, from which biodiesel
can be easily produced. This production will meet the increasing
demand for fuel in the country, which is currently not possible from
any other renewable energy sources. The seeds contain approximately
37% to 50% oil [67], which is combustible as fuel without being refined.
The oil burns with clear smoke-free flame and tested successfully as
fuel in diesel engines. The oil also helps provide jobs to rural men and
women and promotes their financial independence in Bangladesh.
Nabi et al. [57] mentioned the potentiality of castor oil biodiesel, as the
esters of castor has some important fuel properties that can be used as
alternative for diesel fuel. The key to the future of biodiesel is finding
827
inexpensive feedstock that farmers of Bangladesh can grow on unused
agricultural land, and castor is the important and promising alternative
crop that can reduce our future dependence on fossil fuel imports.
Castor could be introduced, as the soils of Bangladesh and its climatic
condition are suitable for commercial cultivation. Moreover, second-
generation plants will not lead to food shortages as they are inedible
by both humans and cattle and will be grown on lands that are not
suitable for traditional farming [67]. Currently, castor is cultivated in
Bangladesh on a commercialized scale for the seeds and oils, which
are less expensive vegetable oils and can be used as feedstock in the
production of biodiesel.
4.12. Neem
Neem oil is a non-edible vegetable oil, grows, plenty in various
parts of Bangladesh, as the climatic and soil condition is suitable
for the production especially in the rural areas, pressed from the
fruits and seeds of the neem tree, which is not used for cooking
purposes. The seeds have 45% oil from which maximum 94%
biodiesel can be produced by transisterification process [57] and
may be a high potential source for the production of biodiesel.
Neem oil is generally light to dark brown, bitter, and has a rather
strong odor that is said to combine the odors of peanut and garlic.
In Bangladesh, neem can play a vital role in the production of
biodiesel as an alternative to diesel fuel. Hassan et al. [22] studied
biodiesel from neem oil as an alternative fuel for diesel engine
using the transesterification process. They investigated the fuel’s
properties at different temperatures and found that density
(0.61 g/cm3), kinematic viscosity (5.96 cSt at 35 1C), calorific value
(38.15 MJ/kg) are within the standard biodiesel properties. They
also recommended that neem oil can be a potential substitute to
reduce the import burden of crude petroleum oil. Nabi et al. [57]
tested the fuel properties of NOME diesel–biodiesel blends and
compared this with neat diesel fuel by using the transesterification
process. They found that the fuel properties including viscosity
(8.8 cSt at 25 1C), density (0.82 g/cm3 at 25 1C), and cetane number
(51) are higher than those of diesel fuel, and the heating value
(40.1 MJ/kg) is lower. Absence of sulfur in the ester of this oil
makes it an environment-friendly alternative fuel for diesel engine
and thus food versus fuel conflict will not arise.
4.13. Linseed oil
Linseed oil can play an important role in the production of
alternative diesel fuel in Bangladesh, as the climatic and soil condition
of our country is convenient for the production of linseed crop.
Tropical subsistence farmers would gain cash from this crop. Nabi
and Najmul Hoque [69] investigated the fuel properties of linseed oil
and linseed oil methyl ester (shown in Table 8), which are generally
similar to those of petroleum-based diesel fuel. Heating value of
linseed biodiesel is lower, whereas viscosity and density are slightly
higher than those of petroleum-based diesel fuel. They also studied
performance and emission evaluation using the transesterification
process, and a maximum of 88% biodiesel production was found. They
also reported that thermal efficiency of biodiesel is almost similar to
that of conventional diesel fuel. Efficiency of biodiesel (B10 and B20) is
1% and 2% lower than those of diesel fuel because of low volatility,
higher viscosity, and density. CO emissions reduced with diesel–
biodiesel-blended fuel, whereas oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission
increased for the diesel–biodiesel-blended fuel compared with the
conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel (B10 and B20) reduces 9% and 23%
CO emission than diesel fuel. However, NOx level is 6% and 13%higher
than diesel fuel. The wastelands and other uplands including the huge
area of Chittagong hill tracts, low land, lake, and riverside can be easily
considered for castor cultivation. The plant-seed oil can be directly
used for engines, especially farming machinery in villages without any
828 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

Table 8
Major physical and chemical properties of biodiesel feedstock.

Feedstock Density at 151C Calorific value Viscosity at 40 1c Flash point (1C) Boiling point (1C) Cetane no. Cloud point (1C) Reference
(kg/l) (Mj/kg) (m2/s)

BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY BD MY

Fossil diesel 0.838 0.829 45.71 45.238 4.01 3.0738 98 69.5 248 47 48 – 8 [21,121]
Mustered oil 0.89 39.51 10.1 4.5 – Z120 – – 52 – [23,54]
Coconut oil – 0.858 40.37 38.284 8.34 4.0927 145.5 118.5 – – – [21,122]
Jatropha curcas 0.875 0.865 41 39.82 5.34 4.73 170 184.5 255 51.5 51 – 3 [19,123–125]
Micro algae 0.864 0.864 35 41 5.0 5.2 75 115 – – 48.31 – [17,126,127]
Soybean 0.683 0.9073 41.57 39.579 2.068 3.17 96 280.5 – – – [18,90]
Sesame 0.697 0.882 43.67 38.836 2.292 5.34 94 170 380 – –  19 [18,128,129]
Karanja 0.89 40.75 35.56 4.85 180 180 – 58 – [54,62]
Cottonseed 0.88 0.885 38.51 40.58 7.2 4 – 70 262 – 38 – [24,130]
Mosna 0.875 52.13 9.24 – 198 – – [24]
Linseed oil 0.872 0.865 37.5 8.2 4.2 86 161 – – 48 – [69,131]
Rubber seed oil 0.85 0.86 32.6 36.5 4.5 5.81 120 130 – – 3 4 [54,59]
Neem oil 0.82 0.920 40.1 39 8.8 3.8 – 245 51 47 – [57,132]

modification of the oil structure. Linseed cultivation will be more can also extend the life of diesel engines also because biodiesel has
profitable, and land productivity can be increased manifold in com- more lubricity than petroleum diesel fuel [118].
parison with other crops cultivated in Bangladesh.
5.3. Cetane number

5. Major physical and chemical properties of biodiesel
feedstocks in Bangladesh
Properties such as density, viscosity, flash point, cloud point,
pour point, higher heating value, CN, oxidation stability, water
content, sulfur content, acid value, Conradson carbon residue, and
lubricity characterize the properties of biodiesel. Engine perfor-
mance and emission significantly depend on the different biodie-
sel properties, chemical composition, and fatty acid composition
[90,110–112]. Table 8 shows the main physical and chemical pro-
perties of biodiesel from both edible and non-edible oil sources in
Bangladesh and Malaysia.
5.1. Viscosity
Viscosity is the important fuel property because it influences the
atomization of the fuel being inserted into the engine combustion
chamber. For complete combustion, a very small fuel drop is req-
uired. High viscosity causes poorer atomization of the fuel spray and
less accurate operation of the fuel injectors. Lower viscosity of the
biodiesel helps to pump and atomize easily and achieve finer
droplets [113]. The conversion of biodiesel by transesterification
reduces the molecular weight to one third that of the triglyceride
and reduces the viscosity by a factor of approximately eight, which
comes close to near the diesel fuel. High fuel viscosity is a major
problem in using pure vegetable oil as fuel for diesel engines.
Therefore, vegetable oils are converted into biodiesel by transester-
ification. The viscosity of biodiesel is determined by using ASTM
D445 (1.9 mm2/s to 6.0 mm2/s) and EN ISO 3104 (3.5 mm2/s to
5.0 mm2/s) [9,114,115].
5.2. Lubricating properties
The other main property of biodiesel fuel is its lubricating
properties, which helps in reducing fuel system wear. Compared
with diesel fuel, biodiesel fuel has much better lubrication and a
higher cetane rating [116]. The life of a fuel injection equipment
depends on the lubrication properties, which is better for biodiesel
[117]. Giving better lubricity and a more complete combustion
increases the engine energy output, thus partially balancing for
the higher energy density of petroleum diesel. The use of biodiesel
CN is the master property of the fuel for diesel engine, which is
based on two compounds: hexadecane, with a CN of 100 and
heptamethylnonane, with a CN of 15. CN is a measure of the
ignition quality of diesel fuels, and a high CN implies short ignition
delay. The CN of biodiesel is generally higher than conventional
diesel and higher than the required CN, as ASTM D975 is less than
40. The longer the fatty acid carbon chains and the more saturated
the molecules, the higher the CN [9]. Table 8 shows the CN of
various biodiesel feedstock. From the table, jatropha biodiesel has
been observed to have the lowest CN than other biodiesel and
higher properties than diesel fuel.
5.4. Cloud and pour points
A diesel fuel’s cold-weather characteristics are measured by the
two main characteristics, cloud (CP) and the pour points (PP). CP is
the temperature of the fuel at which small solid crystals can be
observed as the fuel cools, and the PP refers to the lowest tempera-
ture at which movement of the fuel is present when the container is
tipped. Compared with petroleum diesel, biodiesel tends to have
near range of temperatures between the CP and the PP whereas, a
201 difference exists between the CP and the PP of petroleum diesel,
and biodiesel may have a difference of only a few degrees [119].
5.5. Flash point
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid starts
to give off sufficient vapors to form an ignitable mixture in the air
near the surface of the liquid. The relationships between viscosity
and flash point for vegetable oil methyl esters are considerably
regular. The flash point values of biodiesel are considerably higher
than those of petroleum diesel [120]. Biodiesel has a high flash
point, usually more than 150 1C whereas diesel fuel has 98 1C. From
Table 8, micro-algae shows the lowest flash point than others.
6. Biodiesel as diesel engine fuel
Biodiesel is used in compression-ignition diesel engine, as
biodiesel has almost similar properties compared with diesel fuel.
Table 9 shows the diesel engine emission result at different
 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834 829

Table 9
Work done by various researchers on engine emissions using biodiesel feedstock as engine fuel.

Biodiesel Engine Operating condition Emission results References

feedstock

Mustard oil BD Horizontal, 1-cylinder, 4-stroke, AC, 2200 rpm and 1 kg to 3.5 kg load is used Lower all HC, PM, NOx emissions with an increase [23,136]
methyl DI in fuel blend
ester MY 1-Cylinder, 4-stroke, WC, RP: 5Hp, At different engine load and fuel blend Decreases HC, CO2, emission with an increase in
RS: 1500 rpm fuel blend and increase in NOx
Cotton seed BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1100–1800 rpm CO, PM, Smoke emission reduced, NOx increased [68,137]
oil methyl MY 1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, WC, NA, D: Different speeds and different blends (B10, 10% increase in NOx and lower CO, 24%PM, 14%
ester 553 cm3, RP: 4.476 kw, RS: 1800 rpm B20, B30) smoke compare with diesel fuel
Jatropha oil BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1000–1600 rpm and full load Lower smoke, CO, HC and higher NOx [61,138]
methyl MY 1-Cylinder, 4S, WC, DI, RP: 8.82 kw, Different speeds (1500 and 2000 rpm) and Decrease CO, HC and NOx with increase in engine
ester CR: 17:1, RS: 2000 rpm different load speed
Karanja oil BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1200 rpm Lower smoke, CO, Engine noise emission and [62,139]
methyl higher oxygen, combustion efficiency, NOx
ester MY 3 Cylinder, AVL make CI engine, CR: Full throttle at 1200 rpm, 1400 rpm and Slightly increased CO, NOx and reduce HC, PM
18.1, WC, RS: 2200 rpm, P: 44.1 kw 2200 rpm and 20%, 50% and 100% blends and smoke with an increase in blending ratio
Coconut oil BD 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, AC, DI 2600 rpm PM, Soot, CO, decrease and NOx increase [21,122]
methyl MY 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, WC, NA, DI, At full load varying speed condition Reduces CO, HC emissions and higher NOx
3
ester D:638 cm , RP: 8.8 kw, RS: 2400 rpm emission
Soy based BD 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, WC, DI 1800 rpm under various load CO, PM decrease and NOx, bsfc increase [97,140]
biodiesel MY 1-Cylinder, 4 stroke, DI, CR:16.5:1, At full load and different engine speed Decrease CO,HC, NOx and smoke by 27, 27, 5, 52%
RP: 11.03 kw, RS: 2000 rpm respectively
Linseed oil BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI 1000 rpm PM, CO, smoke lower and NOx higher [69,131]
methyl MY 1-Cylinder, 4S, DI, RP: 4.4 kw, CR: At different loads, constant speed and Decrease CO, HC and smoke emission but
ester 17.5:1, RS: 1500 rpm different injection pressure increase in NOx
Neem oil BD 1-Cylinder, WC, NA, 4 stroke, DI Various load NOx, CO, HC and smoke reduced [133,141]
methyl MY 1-Cylinder, AC, DI, CR: 17.5:1, RP: At different blends, constant speed and Lower CO, HC but increase NOx and smoke
ester 4.4 kw, RS: 1500 rpm deferent break power emission with increase in fuel blend and engine
load

AC—air cooled, WC—water cooled, NA—natural aspirates, DI—direct injection, TC—turbocharged, PM—particulate matter.

rotations per minute by various researchers using biodiesel feed-
stock in Bangladesh and Malaysia. Biodiesel can be produced from
several different feedstocks of edible and non-edible vegetable oils
or animal fats. The energy value of biodiesel varies from 39 MJ/kg
to 41 MJ/kg and slightly lower compared to those of gasoline
(46 MJ/kg), petroleum diesel (43 MJ/kg), or petroleum (42 MJ/kg)
but greater than coal (32 MJ/kg to 37 MJ/kg). Azad et al. [16] studied
biodiesel as vehicular fuel and concluded that almost all types of
vegetable oil biodiesel can be used as an alternative to the diesel oil
and recommended that rapeseed oil and palm oil can be the most
suitable, as these oils do not contain carcinogenic substances and
their sulfur content level is also lower than in petroleum diesel.
Biodiesel has the ability to be highly biodegradable and has lubricity
when used in compression ignition engine. In addition, biodiesel
has good potential and practical usability because of renewability
and almost similar operational properties as fuel for the replace-
ment of petroleum diesel in the nearest future.
Nabi et al. [62] studied the effect of karanja biodiesel on perfor-
mance and exhaust emission of a diesel engine and reported that
compared to DF, B100 reduced CO (50%), smoke (43%), and engine noise
(2.5 dB) where NOx is increased (15%) at high load condition. The
presence of oxygen is the major factor for reducing CO, smoke, and
engine noise, and increasing NOx emission and low aromatics in the
karanja biodiesel molecular structure may be an additional factor for
reducing these emissions. The authors also reported that the brake
thermal efficiency is almost similar compared to diesel fuel. Hossain
et al. [21] studied the emission of the engine fueled by coconut
biodiesel blend and concluded that the emissions produced from
biodiesel are cleaner compared to petroleum-based diesel fuel as
particulate emissions, soot, and carbon monoxide are lower, but NOx is
quite higher and the cause is being studied. Hasib et al. [23] studied
the effect of mustard oil biodiesel blend on performance and exhaust
emission of a four-stroke diesel engine and reported that at higher
load condition, B30 and B40 have lower exhaust temperature, which
reduces HC, PM, NOx, and engine efficiency compared with diesel fuel.
They also reported that the presence of oxygen in mustard biodiesel
molecular structure is reasonable. Zaglul Shahadat et al. [133] con-
ducted an experiment on combustion and exhaust emissions with
neat diesel fuel and blends of diesel–biodiesel of neem oil in a four-
stroke single-cylinder naturally aspirated (NA) diesel engine and
reported that as blend percentages increased, NOx emission increased.
However, if inlet is preheated, simultaneous reduction of NOx and CO
can be achieved. They also reported that if B20 is preheated better
emission parameters than others even to pure diesel can be achieved.
Nabi et al. [57] also investigated combustion and exhaust emissions
with neat diesel fuel and diesel–biodiesel blends for neem in a four-
stroke NA direct injection (DI) diesel engine. They reported that
compared with conventional diesel fuel, the NOx emission is increased
by 5% and the CO and smoke emissions are decreased by 4% with 15%
NOME. They concluded that NOME–diesel blend emission has no
significant difference with neat diesel fuel operation and presence of
oxygen causing a decrease in exhaust emission where the impact of
fuel injection timing may also be reasonable in higher NOx emissions,
which was also be slightly reduced when exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) was applied.
Rahman et al. [134] studied the exhaust emission of a four-stroke
DI NA diesel engine operated with the blends of linseed oil and
mustard oil of various percentages with conventional diesel fuel. They
also reported that compared with diesel fuel, the NOx emission of this
blend was a little bit higher, CO and smoke emissions were lower
because of the presence of oxygen in the biofuel, and that significant
improvement in diesel exhaust emissions was achieved with ester-
ified vegetable oils and their blends with diesel fuel, which can be
effectively used in existing diesel engine as suitable alternative fuels.
Nabi et al. [135] studied the exhaust emission for biodiesel blends in a
diesel engine based on non-edible neem oil and found that compared
with the neat diesel fuel, B50 reduced PM, smoke, and CO emissions
by 30%, 34%, 31%, respectively, whereas a 10% increase in the NOx
emission was experienced with similar blend because oxygen was
present in the molecular structure. In addition, another reason behind
the reduction is the low aromatic in biodiesel blends. Conversely, B50
has resulted in a 10% increase in NOx emission and reduced CO,
830 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

smoke, and PM emission by 31%, 34%, and 34%, respectively, com-
pared to neat diesel. They also observed that carbon deposit on the
injector nozzle was lower in all biodiesel blends. Azad et al. [19]
studied the performance and emission in the single-cylinder DI diesel
engine using Jatropha biodiesel blends. They reported that, NOx
emission for diesel is lower than that for biodiesel blends. Given that
oxygen content is higher in the biodiesel than the diesel fuel, the heat
of combustion is slightly higher. For this reason, the increasing rate of
NOx in biodiesel blends is higher than in conventional diesel. CO for
diesel is more than that for biodiesel blends. Biodiesel blends contain
more oxygen in their molecular structure; and their combustion in
engines is more complete. For this reason, the CO for biodiesel blends
is lower than that of conventional diesel.
Nabi and Najmul Hoque [69] conducted production of biodiesel
from linseed oil and studied the performance of a diesel engine
with diesel biodiesel fuels. They reported that thermal efficiency of
biodiesel is almost similar to conventional diesel fuel and efficiency
of biodiesel (B10 and B20) is 1% and 2% lower than diesel fuel
because of low volatility, higher viscosity, and density. CO emissi-
ons reduced with diesel biodiesel blended fuel, whereas NOx emi-
ssion increased for the diesel–biodiesel-blended fuel compared
with the conventional diesel fuel. Biodiesel (B10 and B20) reduces
CO emission by 9% and 23%. However, NOx level is 6% and 13%
higher than that in diesel fuel. Roy [20,97] investigated the prospect
of biodiesel operated in a DI diesel engine and reported that B100
reduced exhaust odor. However, brake thermal efficiency and
brake-specific fuel consumption were adversely affected. A signifi-
cant reduction in CO and PM was obtained with B100 and B20 with
an increase in NOx than diesel. Roy et al. [97] studied the engine
performance and emission of a DI diesel engine fueled by neat
diesel and 20% to 80% blend of soy-based biodiesel and diesel (B20)
under various load conditions and engine speeds with and without
low-percentage of EGR conditions. They showed that the brake
thermal efficiency (ηth) of B20 was almost similar or lower and at
no- or low-load conditions without EGR, CO was higher and NOx
were lower with B20 than that with diesel. They also reported that
under high load conditions, NOx became higher and CO decreased
significantly with B20. They suggested that, B20 with 10% EGR can
be used in diesel engine without any significant penalty in engine
performance and with higher NOx reductions.
biofuels in the tropics and the United States was 17 to 420 times
larger than the greenhouse gas reductions these biofuels could
provide by displacing fossil fuel use. Biodiesel reduces greenhouse
effect on our environment by reducing CO2 gas emission. Biodiesel
is very environment friendly because it increases the percentage of
O2 in exhaust gas than the ordinary diesel [124]. Biodiesel contains
virtually a trace amount of sulfur, so SO2 emissions are reduced in
direct proportion to the diesel fuel replacement. As an energy
source used in a diesel engine, biodiesel reduces the consumption
of diesel fuels and thereby reduces the greenhouse effect.
6.3. Pollution
Biodiesel has no sulfur content and reduces the particulate
emission. Small particles of solid combustion products, soot, HC,
CO, CO2, and many others clean up emissions compared to crude
petroleum diesel on vehicles, which causes pollution. Production
of particulate emissions is reduced by approximately 50% com-
pared with fossil-sourced diesel. Biodiesel is considered carbon
neutral because all the CO2 released during consumption had been
sequestered from the atmosphere for the growth of oil crops. As a
result, the combustion of biodiesel has been reported to emit
lesser pollutants in the environment compared with diesel [18].
7. Price comparison of biodiesel feedstocks
Currently, as the production cost of biodiesel is higher than that of
petro-diesel fuel, production is not going commercialized as shown
in Table 10. Some certain factors such as cost of raw materials,
process technology, chemicals, and plant [144] are involved in the
economic performance of biodiesel where the prime cost is raw
material cost according to some researchers [145,146]. Geographic
area, base stick, crude petroleum price, variability in crop production
from season to season are the factors that vary the production cost
Table 10
Cost of biodiesel production and their blends in Bangladesh.
Sl. Biodiesel Diesel B20 B40 B100 Production Reference
no. (BDT/L) (BDT/L) (BDT/L) (BDT/L) year

6.1. Environmental consideration 1. Soybean 40 – – 296.82 2010 [18]

2. Sesame 40 – – 370 2010 [18]
3. Coconut 70 – 88 124 2012 [21]
Current energy policies address environmental issues including
4. Mustard 40 58 76 – 2011 [23]
increasing renewable energy supplies and encouraging cleaner 5. Micro 55 – – 136 2011 [17]
and more efficient energy use, greenhouse effect, global warming, algae
and climate change. Renewable energy sources have the potential 6. Cottonseed 70 – – 210 2012 [24]
to provide energy services with almost zero emissions of both air 7. Mosna 70 – – 285 2012 [24]
8. Neem 85 – – 1845.78 2013 [22]
pollutants and greenhouse gases [142]. Excessive use of fossil fuel
causes CO2 increase in the atmosphere, and we are already facing a US$1 ¼BDT 77.42 (25.08.2014).
tremendous effect—vicious change of climate. Most of the CO2
emission is caused by the USA, China, and EU countries; but the
countries at high risk of the impact of this phenomenon are the
underdeveloped countries like Bangladesh [17]. Therefore, Bangla- Table 11
desh needs to take quick steps from this happening. Biodiesel production cost and it’s potential in worldwide [149–152].

Rank Country Production ($/L) Biodiesel potential (ML)

6.2. Greenhouse gas reductions
1 Malaysia 0.53 14,540
The increasing amount of greenhouse gases such as CO2, which 2 Indonesia 0.49 7,595
3 Argentina 0.62 5,255
is causing global warming and climate change, has strongly
4 USA 0.70 3,212
increased the interest in the use of biodiesel [23]. An often- 5 Brazil 0.62 2,567
mentioned incentive for using biodiesel is its capacity to eliminate 6 Netherlands 0.75 2,496
lifecycle of the CO2 gas emission compared to those of fossil fuels, 7 Germany 0.79 2,024
which is one of the major causes of greenhouse gases. One recent 8 Philippines 0.53 1,234
9 Belgium 0.78 1,213
study [143] found that the increased greenhouse gas emissions 10 Spain 1.71 1,073
from converting rainforests, peat lands, or grasslands to produce
 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834
[147]. Some researches [145,146] studied the cost of biodiesel and
concluded that, overall biodiesel cost will be reduced using the
choice of exclusive feedstock varying from area to area, estimated
process cost, also recycling methanol after transesterification process
and reached market profitability [148].
Projected costs for pure biodiesel, according to economic feasibility
studies, range from TK124/L to 1,845.78/L (US$1.6/L to 23.96/L)
compared with diesel fuel cost, which is TK55-70/L (US$0.71 to 0.91)
in Bangladesh using transisterification, but the cost will be reduced if
blending is used. Table 11 shows the biodiesel production cost per litre
for different countries such as United States of America, Malaysia,
Germany, France and other European countries. From this table, it can
be seen that the biodiesel production cost per litre for Bangladesh is
comparable and has the potential in use to other worldwide countries.
The government of Bangladesh grants a huge subsidy on diesel fuel,
which has caused the price of diesel fuel to lower. Therefore, a
thorough study is required for the feasibility analysis of biodiesel by
comparing production cost with the international market price of
diesel [21]. In the case of smaller production, biodiesel production cost
per liter is high. However, if produced in a high volume, production
cost will be much lower, as chemical cost and raw vegetable cost will
decrease. In addition, increased use of byproducts, such as soap,
glycerin, and oilcake will reduce the overall production cost of bio-
diesel. Extraction of biodiesel from plants with the use of modern
efficient techniques will decrease the use of chemical. These steps will
help make biodiesel popular among the people.
8. Recommendation
Currently, biodiesel production is expanding rapidly around the
world due to energy security and environmental concern. How-
ever, there are some challenges to produce biodiesel and use as
alternative to diesel engine fuel. These challenges include feed-
stock prices, availability, biodiesel properties, performance, emis-
sion and combustion characteristics. Significant research and
technological development are needed on combustion efficiency
of biodiesel in Bangladesh as no research found that was done on
it. As a recommendation, supporting policies are also brutally
important to make lower the biodiesel cost and effectively used as
a complement to other energy sources.
9. Conclusions
In the transport and industry sector, currently, biodiesel is rapidly
becoming popular fuel. Although biodiesels are produced and exported
by many countries around the world, these countries are not health
and environment conscious. They are not using biodiesel to a great
extent. Biodiesel produced from feedstock available in Bangladesh was
critically reviewed in this paper. From the review the following
findings are summarized:
 The crisis for energy in Bangladesh is heading towards a severe
dilemma as supply of fossil fuel will come to an end by 2050
considering a 5% flat increasing in demand. Furthermore, global
warming is threatening Bangladesh to be climate change
victim. Biodiesel can be the ultimate solution to overcome this
problem.
 CO and HC emissions from combustion of biodiesel are low
compared with diesel fuel.
 Fifty percent reduction of particulate emissions can be achieved
if biodiesels are used.
 In some cases, biodiesel emits a slightly higher amount of NOx
compared to diesel.
831
 Mustard oil biodiesel are considered the most suitable replace-
ment for diesel fuel as it is available, cheaper and economic in
Bangladesh.
 As Jatropha curcus is non-edible and has many advantageous as
a renewable feedstocks such as high oil content, Jatropha also
can be alternative to diesel fuel.
 Calorific value of biodiesel feedstock produced using transester-
ification in Bangladesh varied from 32.6 MJ/kg to 52.13 MJ/kg,
whereas that of diesel is 45.71 MJ/kg.
 The physicochemical properties such as density, CP, and PP of
biodiesel produced in Bangladesh from available feedstock
were very similar to those of diesel fuel and meets ASTM
standard. Therefore, biodiesel can be an alternative to diesel in
an unmodified diesel engine.
 Produced biodiesels do not contain any sulfur content.
 The cost of biodiesel production is also analyzed which is quite
expensive as conventional diesel fuel. This study shows the
projected cost for pure biodiesel in the range of US$1.6 to
23.96/L compared with diesel fuel cost is US$0.71 to 0.91/L,
whereas using a blend of 20% mustard biodiesel with diesel
turned to cost of US$0.77/L. Cost can be reduced by reducing
the raw material cost and the estimated process cost, and by
recycling the methanol after transesterification if commercially
produced.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to appreciate University of Malaya for
financial support through Grant no. CG060-2013 and High Impact
Research grant titled: Clean Diesel Technology for Military and
Civilian Transport Vehicles having Grant number UM.C/HIR/
MOHE/ENG/07.
References
[1] Hasan MM, Khan MF. A comparative study on installation of solar PV system
for grid and non grid rural areas of Bangladesh. In: Developments in
renewable energy technology (ICDRET), 2012 2nd international conference
on the: IEEE; 2012. p. 1–5.
[2] Bangladesh burdened with higher fuel consumption, payments exceed 3 bln
USD. 〈http://wwwxinhuanetcom/english2010/〉; 2012.
[3] Ahmed Z. Electricity crisis of Bangladesh: result of organizational ineffi-
ciency? Energy Environ Res 2011;1:p12.
[4] Abul K, Azad SWN, Sultana J. State of energy consumption and CO2 emission
in Bangladesh. R Swedish Acad Sci 2006;35:86–8.
[5] Barbir F, Veziro|glu T, Plass Jr H. Environmental damage due to fossil fuels
use. Int J Hydrog Energy 1990;15:739–49.
[6] Gunter B. The impact of development on CO2 emissions: a case study for
Bangladesh Until 2050 ; 2010.
[7] Mondal MAH, Denich M. Assessment of renewable energy resources poten-
tial for electricity generation in Bangladesh. Renewable Sustainable Energy
Rev 2010;14:2401–13.
[8] Islam M Assessment of renewable energy resources of Bangladesh. Electronic
book; 2002.
[9] Demirbas A. Progress and recent trends in biodiesel fuels. Energy Convers
Manage. 2009;50:14–34.
[10] Liaquat A, Kalam M, Masjuki H, Jayed M. Potential emissions reduction in
road transport sector using biofuel in developing countries. Atmos Environ
2010;44:3869–77.
[11] Hill J, Nelson E, Tilman D, Polasky S, Tiffany D. Environmental, economic, and
energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanol biofuels. Proc Natl Acad
Sci 2006;103:11206–10.
[12] Meher L, Vidya Sagar D, Naik S. Technical aspects of biodiesel production by
transesterification—a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev
2006;10:248–68.
[13] Gerpen JV. Biodiesel processing and production. Fuel Process Technol
2005;86:1097–107.
[14] Barnwal B, Sharma M. Prospects of biodiesel production from vegetable oils
in India. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2005;9:363–78.
[15] Altın R, Cetinkaya S, Yücesu HS. The potential of using vegetable oil fuels as
fuel for diesel engines. Energy Convers Manage 2001;42:529–38.
832 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834
[16] Azad A, Uddin SA, Alam M. Experimental study of DI diesel engine
performance using biodiesel blends with kerosene. www IJEE IEEFoundation
org. J Homepage 2013;4:265–78.
[17] Kais MI, Chowdhury FI, Shahriar KF. Biodiesel from Microalgae as a solution
of third world energy crisis. World Renewable Energy Congr 2011:192–9.
[18] AAM Bari HA, Mizanur Rahman, Roqibul Hossen. Prospect of bio-diesel
production from soybean oil and sesame oil: an alternative and renewable
fuel for diesel engine. Int J Mech Eng 2.
[19] Azad A, Islam M. A renewable alternative bio-fuel source from Jatropha
Curcus seeds oil: performance and emission study for DI diesel engine. Int J
Adv Renewable Energy Res 2012;1:126–32.
[20] Mohon Roy M, Tomita E, Kawahara N, Harada Y, Sakane A. Performance and
emission comparison of a supercharged dual-fuel engine fueled by producer
gases with varying hydrogen content. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:7811–22.
[21] Hossain MA, Chowdhury SM, Rekhu Y, Faraz KS, Islam MU. Biodiesel from
coconut oil: a renewable alternative fuel for diesel engine. In: International
conference on aerospace, mechanical, automotive and materials engineering
(ICAMAME 2012), Kualalumpur, Malaysia; 2012.
[22] Ali MH, Mashud M, Rubel MR, Ahmad RH. Biodiesel from neem oil as an
alternative fuel for diesel engine. Procedia Eng 2013;56:625–30.
[23] Hasib ZM, Hossain J, Biswas S, Islam A. Bio-diesel from mustard oil: a
renewable alternative fuel for small diesel engines. Mod Mech Eng
2011;1:77–83.
[24] Wakil MA, Ahmed Z, Rahman MH, Arifuzzaman M. Study on fuel properties
of various vegetable oil available in Bangladesh and biodiesel production. Int
J Mech Eng Educ 2012;2:10–7.
[25] Dasgupta P. The population problem: theory and evidence. J Econ Lit
1995;33:1879–902.
[26] Muhit I, Baidya D, Nahid N. Prospect of algal biodiesel production in
Bangladesh: overview from developed countries.
[27] Team BP. Japanese company to invest US$1 billion in Bangladesh Biofuels
and sugar sector. BioPact 2007.
[28] Ferdous K, Uddin MR, Islam R, Khan MR, Islam M. Potentiality of biodiesel
production from non-edible oil: Bangladesh perspective. J Chem Eng
2014;27:1–5.
[29] Islam ABMA. The potential of energy trees to produce biofuel for combating
the energy crisis in Bangladesh. Germany: SESAM: Univ of Flensburg; 2008.
[30] Sazdanoff N. Modeling and simulation of the algae to biodiesel fuel cycle:
college of engineering. Ohio State University; 2006.
[31] Anam K, Bustam H-A. Power Crisis & Its Solution through Renewable Energy
in Bangladesh. Multidisciplinary Journals in Science and Technology, Journal
of Selected Areas in Renewable and Sustainable Energy (JRSE). Cyber
J 2011;1:13–9 September Edition.
[32] Energy consumption mix of Bangladesh. 〈http://www.apolloinvestment.com/
images/Sources_BP_2010_consumption_mtoe_BD_MZM_NONE__.png〉; 2010.
[33] Khan KR, Abou-Arkoub AA, Ahsan Q. Evaluation of expected energy genera-
tion in multi-area interconnected systems with photo voltaic generating
units. Int J Environ Stud 2013:1–10.
[34] Bangladesh Country Situation. Available at: 〈https://energypedia.info/wiki/
Bangladesh_Country_Situation〉; 2012.
[35] Mozumder P, Marathe A. Causality relationship between electricity con-
sumption and GDP in Bangladesh. Energy Policy 2007;35:395–402.
[36] Mahmud K, Haque AM. Power scenario of Bangladesh and schemes of
sustainable optimal reduction in the power system loss. Global J Res Eng
2012:12.
[37] World Energy Outlook. 〈http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/publications/
weo-2012/〉; 2012. [cited 2012 10th December].
[38] International Energy Agency: Bangladesh—Fossil fuel energy consumption.
(IEA Statistics © OECD/IEA, 〈http://wwwieaorg/stats/indexasp〉).
[39] Shahabuddin M, Kalam MA, Masjuki HH, Bhuiya MMK, Mofijur M. An
experimental investigation into biodiesel stability by means of oxidation
and property determination. Energy 2012;44:616–22.
[40] Jayed MH, Masjuki HH, Saidur R, Kalam MA, Jahirul MI. Environmental
aspects and challenges of oilseed produced biodiesel in Southeast Asia.
Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2009;13:2452–62.
[41] Ribeiro NM, Pinto AC, Quintella CM, da Rocha GO, Teixeira LSG, Guarieiro
LLN, et al. The role of additives for diesel and diesel blended (ethanol or
biodiesel) fuels: a review. Energy Fuels 2007;21:2433–45.
[42] Hoekman SK, Broch A, Robbins C, Ceniceros E, Natarajan M. Review of
biodiesel composition, properties, and specifications. Renewable Sustainable
Energy Rev 2012;16:143–69.
[43] Jain S, Sharma MP. Oxidation stability of blends of Jatropha biodiesel with
diesel. Fuel 2011;90:3014–20.
[44] Atadashi IM, Aroua MK, Aziz AA. High quality biodiesel and its diesel engine
application: a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2010;14:1999–2008.
[45] Mofijur M, Atabani AE, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Masum BM. A study on the
effects of promising edible and non-edible biodiesel feedstocks on engine
performance and emissions production: a comparative evaluation. Renew-
able Sustainable Energy Rev 2013;23:391–404.
[46] Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Hazrat MA, Liaquat AM, Shahabuddin M,
et al. Prospects of biodiesel from Jatropha in Malaysia. Renewable Sustain-
able Energy Rev 2012;16:5007–20.
[47] Demirbas A. Biodiesel: a realistic fuel alternative for diesel engines. London:
Springer; 2008.
[48] Kafuku G, Mbarawa M. Biodiesel production from Croton megalocarpus oil
and its process optimization. Fuel 2010;89:2556–60.
[49] Juan JC, Kartika DA, Wu TY, Hin T-YY. Biodiesel production from jatropha oil
by catalytic and non-catalytic approaches: an overview. Bioresour Technol
2011;102:452–60.
[50] Masjuki HH. Biofuel engine: a new challenge. Kuala Lumpur: International &
Corporate relation office, University of Malaya; 2010. p. 1–56.
[51] Singh SP, Singh D. Biodiesel production through the use of different sources
and characterization of oils and their esters as the substitute of diesel: a
review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2010;14:200–16.
[52] Silitonga AS, Atabani AE, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Badruddin IA, Mekhilef S.
A review on prospect of Jatropha curcas for biodiesel in Indonesia. Renewable
Sustainable Energy Rev 2011;15:3733–56.
[53] Niemi SA, Murtonen TT, Lauren MJ, Laiho VO. Exhaust particulate emissions
of a mustard seed oil driven tractor engine. SAE Tech Pap 2002.
[54] Atabani AE, Silitonga AS, Ong HC, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Badruddina Irfan
Anjum, et al. Non-edible vegetable oils: a critical evaluation of oil extraction,
fatty acid compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine perfor-
mance and emissions production. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev
2013;18:211–45.
[55] Atabani AE, Silitonga AS, Badruddin IA, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Mekhilef S.
A comprehensive review on biodiesel as an alternative energy resource and
its characteristics. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2012;16:2070–93.
[56] Basiron Y. Palm oil production through sustainable plantations. Eur J Lipid
Sci Technol 2007;109:289–95.
[57] Nabi MN, Akhter MS, Zaglul Shahadat MM. Improvement of engine emis-
sions with conventional diesel fuel and diesel–biodiesel blends. Bioresour
Technol 2006;97:372–8.
[58] Mohibbe Azam M, Waris A, Nahar NM. Prospects and potential of fatty acid
methyl esters of some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India.
Biomass Bioenergy 2005;29:293–302.
[59] Morshed M, Ferdous K, Khan MR, Mazumder M, Islam M, Uddin MT. Rubber
seed oil as a potential source for biodiesel production in Bangladesh. Fuel
2011;90:2981–6.
[60] Gui MM, Lee K, Bhatia S. Feasibility of edible oil vs. non-edible oil vs. waste
edible oil as biodiesel feedstock. Energy 2008;33:1646–53.
[61] Nabi MN, Akhter MS, Islam KF. Prospect of biodiesel production from
Jatropha curcas, a promising non edible oil seed in Bangladesh. In: Interna-
tional conference on mechanical engineering (ICME, Dhaka, Bangladesh)
proceedings; 2007.
[62] Nabi MN, Hoque SMN, Akhter MS. Karanja (Pongamia Pinnata) biodiesel
production in Bangladesh, characterization of karanja biodiesel and its effect
on diesel emissions. Fuel Process Technol 2009;90:1080–6.
[63] Karmee SK, Chadha A. Preparation of biodiesel from crude oil of Pongamia
pinnata. Bioresour Technol 2005;96:1425–9.
[64] Singh R, Ibrahim MH, Esa N, Iliyana M. Composting of waste from palm oil
mill: a sustainable waste management practice. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol
2010;9:331–44.
[65] Ong HC, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Norhasyima RS. Comparison of palm oil,
Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum for biodiesel: a review. Renew-
able Sustainable Energy Rev 2011;15:3501–15.
[66] Duke JA. Handbook of energy crops. Purdue University, Center for New Crops
& Plants Products; 1983.
[67] Nahar DK. Prospect for second generation biofuel crops. February 23; 2013.
[68] Nabi MN, Rahman MM, Akhter MS. Biodiesel from cotton seed oil and its
effect on engine performance and exhaust emissions. Appl Therm Eng
2009;29:2265–70.
[69] Nabi Md Nurun, Najmul Hoque SM. Biodiesel production from linseed oil and
performance study of a diesel engine with diesel bio-diesel fuels. Mech Eng
2008;ME39(1):40–4.
[70] Shimada Y, Watanabe Y, Samukawa T, Sugihara A, Noda H, Fukuda H, et al.
Conversion of vegetable oil to biodiesel using immobilized Candida Antarctica
lipase. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1999;76:789–93.
[71] Tweddell RJ, Kermasha S, Combes D, Marty A. Esterification and interester-
ification activities of Lipases from Rhizopus niveus and Mucor miehei in three
different types of organic media: a comparative study. Enzyme Microb
Technol 1998;22:439–45.
[72] Watanabe Y, Shimada Y, Sugihara A, Tominaga Y. Conversion of degummed
soybean oil to biodiesel fuel with immobilized Candida antarctica lipase.
J Mol Catal B: Enzym 2002;17:151–5.
[73] Al-Zuhair S. Production of biodiesel: possibilities and challenges. Biofuels,
Bioprod Biorefin 2007;1:57–66.
[74] Yan S, Kim M, Salley SO, Ng K. Oil transesterification over calcium oxides
modified with lanthanum. Appl Catal, A: Gen 2009;360:163–70.
[75] Noureddini H, Zhu D. Kinetics of transesterification of soybean oil. J Am Oil
Chem Soc 1997;74:1457–63.
[76] Stephenson A, Dennis J, Scott S. Improving the sustainability of the produc-
tion of biodiesel from oilseed rape in the UK. Process Saf Environ Prot
2008;86:427–40.
[77] Utlu Z, Koçak MS. The effect of biodiesel fuel obtained from waste frying oil
on direct injection diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions.
Renewable Energy 2008;33:1936–41.
[78] Diya’uddeen BH, Abdul Aziz A, Daud W, Chakrabarti M. Performance
evaluation of biodiesel from used domestic waste oils: a review. Process
Saf Environ Prot 2012;90:164–79.
[79] Sinha S, Agarwal AK, Garg S. Biodiesel development from rice bran oil:
transesterification process optimization and fuel characterization. Energy
Convers Manage 2008;49:1248–57.
 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834
[80] Enweremadu C, Mbarawa M. Technical aspects of production and analysis of
biodiesel from used cooking oil—a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy
Rev 2009;13:2205–24.
[81] Freedman B, Pryde E, Mounts T. Variables affecting the yields of fatty esters
from transesterified vegetable oils. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1984;61:1638–43.
[82] Om Tapanes NC, Gomes Aranda DA, de Mesquita Carneiro JW, Ceva Antunes
OA. Transesterification of Jatropha curcas oil glycerides: theoretical and
experimental studies of biodiesel reaction. Fuel 2008;87:2286–95.
[83] Chitra P, Venkatachalam P, Sampathrajan A. Optimisation of experimental
conditions for biodiesel production from alkali-catalysed transesterification
of Jatropha curcus oil. Energy Sustainable Dev 2005;9:13–8.
[84] Ramadhas A, Muraleedharan C, Jayaraj S. Performance and emission evalua-
tion of a diesel engine fueled with methyl esters of Rubber seed oil.
Renewable Energy 2005;30:1789–800.
[85] El-Mashad HM, Zhang R, Avena-Bustillos RJ. A two-step process for biodiesel
production from salmon oil. Biosyst Eng 2008;99:220–7.
[86] Pousa GP, Santos AL, Suarez PA. History and policy of biodiesel in Brazil.
Energy Policy 2007;35:5393–8.
[87] Canoira L, Alcantara R, Jesús García-Martínez M, Carrasco J. Biodiesel from
jojoba oil-wax: transesterification with methanol and properties as a fuel.
Biomass Bioenergy 2006;30:76–81.
[88] Ali Y, Hanna M. Alternative diesel fuels from vegetable oils. Bioresour
Technol 1994;50:153–63.
[89] Vicente G, Martınez M, Aracil J. Integrated biodiesel production: a compar-
ison of different homogeneous catalysts systems. Bioresour Technol
2004;92:297–305.
[90] Mofijur M, Masjuki H, Kalam M, Atabani A, Shahabuddin M, Palash S, et al.
Effect of biodiesel from various feedstocks on combustion characteristics,
engine durability and materials compatibility: a review. Renewable Sustain-
able Energy Rev 2013;28:441–55.
[91] Wahab MA, MRI Mondal, MA Akter, F Begum. Status of oil crop production in
Bangladesh; 2002.
[92] Peterson C, Reece D, Hammond B, Thompson J, Beck SM. Processing,
characterization, and performance of eight fuels from lipids. Appl Eng Agric
1997;13:71–9.
[93] Basha SA, Gopal KR, Jebaraj S. A review on biodiesel production, combustion,
emissions and performance. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev
2009;13:1628–34.
[94] Singha AC. Statistical pocketbook of Bangladesh 2000. Dhaka: Bangladesh
Bureau of Statistics; 2002.
[95] Rahman L. Soybean: a potential oil and pulse crop in Bangladesh. soybean
marketing Seminar at BARC, Dhaka, ; 1992.
[96] Razzaque M, Satter M, Quayyum M, Alam M. Krishi Projukti Hatboi (Hand
book on agro-technology). Gajipur: Bangladesh Agricultural Research Insti-
tute; 2000. p. 1–10.
[97] Roy MM, Uddin MS. Performance and emission comparison of a DI diesel
engine fueled by diesel and diesel-biodiesel blend without and with EGR
condition.
[98] Hossain M, Naher F, Shahabuddin Q. Food security and nutrition in
Bangladesh: progress and determinants. Electron J Agric Dev Econ
2005;2:103–32.
[99] Ramadhas AS, Jayaraj S, Muraleedharan C. Biodiesel production from high
FFA Rubber seed oil. Fuel 2005;84:335–40.
[100] Aigbodion A, Bakare I. Rubber seed oil quality assessment and authentica-
tion. J Am Oil Chem Soc 2005;82:465–9.
[101] Haque M, Islam M, Hussain M, Khan F. Physical, mechanical properties and
oil content of selected indigenous seeds available for biodiesel production in
Bangladesh. Agricu Eng Int CIGR J 2010.
[102] Bangladesh forest industries development corporation (BFIDC).
[103] Ramadhas A, Jayaraj S, Muraleedharan C. Use of vegetable oils as IC engine
fuels—a review. Renewable Energy 2004;29:727–42.
[104] Aigbodion A, Pillai C. Preparation, analysis and applications of Rubber seed
oil and its derivatives in surface coatings. Prog Org Coat 2000;38:187–92.
[105] Khan M, Sultana N, Islam M, Hasanuzzaman M. Yield and yield contributing
characters of sesame as affected by different management practices. Am-
Eurasian J Sci Res 2009;4:195–7.
[106] Mangoyana RB. Bioenergy for sustainable development: an African context.
Phys Chem Earth Part A/B/C 2009;34:59–64.
[107] Kumar A, Sharma S. Potential non-edible oil resources as biodiesel feedstock:
an Indian perspective. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2011;15:1791–800.
[108] Meher LC, Kulkarni MG, Dalai AK, Naik SN. Transesterification of karanja
(Pongamia pinnata) oil by solid basic catalysts. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol
2006;108:389–97.
[109] Sharma Y, Singh B. Development of biodiesel from karanja, a tree found in
rural India. Fuel 2008;87:1740–2.
[110] Palash S, Kalam M, Masjuki H, Arbab M, Masum B, Sanjid A. Impacts of NOx
reducing antioxidant additive on performance and emissions of a multi-
cylinder diesel engine fueled with Jatropha biodiesel blends. Energy Convers
Manage 2014;77:577–85.
[111] Sanjid A, Masjuki H, Kalam M, Rahman S, Abedin M, Palash S. Production of
palm and jatropha based biodiesel and investigation of palm-jatropha
combined blend properties, performance, exhaust emission and noise in an
unmodified diesel engine. J Cleaner Prod 2013.
[112] Sajjad H, Masjuki H, Varman M, Kalam M, Arbab M, Imtenan S, et al. Engine
combustion, performance and emission characteristics of gas to liquid (GTL)
833
fuels and its blends with diesel and bio-diesel. Renewable Sustainable Energy
Rev 2014;30:961–86.
[113] Islam M, Beg M. The fuel properties of pyrolysis liquid derived from urban
solid wastes in Bangladesh. Bioresour Technol 2004;92:181–6.
[114] Sanford SD, White JM, Shah PS, Wee C, Valverde MA, Meier GR. Feedstock and
biodiesel characteristics report. Renewable Energy Group 2009:416.
[115] Masjuki H, Mofijur M, kalam M. Biofuel Engine: a new challenge. Malaysia:
University of Malaya; 2010.
[116] Jayed M, Masjuki H, Kalam M, Mahlia T, Husnawan M, Liaquat A. Prospects of
dedicated biodiesel engine vehicles in Malaysia and Indonesia. Renewable
Sustainable Energy Rev 2011;15:220–35.
[117] Fazal M, Haseeb A, Masjuki H. Investigation of friction and wear character-
istics of palm biodiesel. Energy Convers Manage 2013;67:251–6.
[118] Atadashi I, Aroua M, Aziz AA. High quality biodiesel and its diesel engine
application: a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 2010;14:1999–2008.
[119] Prakash CB. A critical review of biodiesel as a transportation fuel in Canada;
1998.
[120] 〈http://www.berkeleybiodiesel.org/useful-guide-understand.html〉.
[121] Fattah IR, Kalam M, Masjuki H, Wakil M. Biodiesel production, characteriza-
tion, engine performance, and emission characteristics of Malaysian Alexan-
drian laurel oil. RSC Adv 2014;4:17787–96.
[122] Habibullah M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Rizwanul Fattah IM, Ashraful AM,
Mobarak HM. Biodiesel production and performance evaluation of coconut,
palm and their combined blend with diesel in a single-cylinder diesel engine.
Energy Convers Manage 2014;87:250–7.
[123] Adebayo G, Ameen O, Abass L. Physico-chemical properties of biodiesel
produced from Jatropha curcas oil and fossil diesel. J Microbiol Biotechnol
Resour 2011;1:12–6.
[124] Rahman K, Mashud M, Roknuzzaman M, Galib AA. Biodiesel from Jatropha oil
as an alternative fuel for diesel engine. Int J Mech Mech (IJMME-IJENS)
2010;10:1–6.
[125] Rahman MM, Hassan MH, Kalam MA, Atabani AE, Memon LA, Rahman SMA.
Performance and emission analysis of Jatropha curcas and Moringa oleifera
methyl ester fuel blends in a multi-cylinder diesel engine. J Cleaner Prod
2014;65:304–10.
[126] Brennan L, Owende P. Biofuels from microalgae—a review of technologies for
production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and co-products. Renew-
able Sustainable Energy Rev 2010;14:557–77.
[127] Tüccar G, Aydın K. Evaluation of methyl ester of microalgae oil as fuel in a
diesel engine. Fuel 2013;112:203–7.
[128] Banapurmath NR, Tewari PG, Hosmath RS. Performance and emission
characteristics of a DI compression ignition engine operated on Honge,
Jatropha and sesame oil methyl esters. Renewable Energy 2008;33:1982–8.
[129] Bhave NA, Ugare VM, Andhare AM. Performance and emission studies of
sesame oil methyl ester in compression ignition engine.
[130] Altın R, Çetinkaya S, Yücesu HS. The potential of using vegetable oil fuels as
fuel for diesel engines. Energy Convers Manage 2001;42:529–38.
[131] Puhan S, Jegan R, Balasubbramanian K, Nagarajan G. Effect of injection
pressure on performance, emission and combustion characteristics of high
linolenic linseed oil methyl ester in a DI diesel engine. Renewable Energy
2009;34:1227–33.
[132] Prasad L, Agrawal A. Experimental investigation of performance of diesel
engine working on diesel and neem oil blends. Carbon 2012;86(78):92.
[133] Mhia Md, Zaglul Shahadat MHH. Making biodiesel and performance test of a
diesel engine using diesel-biodiesel blends as a fuel with inlet air preheating
attachment. Int Conf Mech Eng 2007:1–6.
[134] Rahman MS, Beg MRA, Nabi MN. Emission characteristics of a di diesel
engine with bio-fuel.
[135] Nabi MN, Hustad JE, Kannan D. First generation biodiesel production from
non-edible vegetable oil and its effect on diesel emissions. In: International
conference on thermal engineering; 2008.
[136] Bannikov M, Vasilev I. Combustion characteristics of the mustard methyl
esters. Key Eng Mater 2012;510:406–12.
[137] Hazar H. Cotton methyl ester usage in a diesel engine equipped with
insulated combustion chamber. Appl Energy 2010;87:134–40.
[138] Huang J, Wang Y, Qin J-b, Roskilly AP. Comparative study of performance and
emissions of a diesel engine using Chinese pistache and jatropha biodiesel.
Fuel Process Technol 2010;91:1761–7.
[139] Sahoo PK, Das LM, Babu MKG, Arora P, Singh VP, Kumar NR, et al.
Comparative evaluation of performance and emission characteristics of
jatropha, karanja and polanga based biodiesel as fuel in a tractor engine.
Fuel 2009;88:1698–707.
[140] Qi DH, Geng LM, Chen H, Bian YZ, Liu J, Ren XC. Combustion and performance
evaluation of a diesel engine fueled with biodiesel produced from soybean
crude oil. Renewable Energy 2009;34:2706–13.
[141] Elango T, Senthilkumar T. Effect of methyl esters of neem and diesel oil
blends on the combustion and emission characteristics of a CI engine. ARPN J
Eng Appl Sci 2010;5:80–5.
[142] Demirbas A. Political, economic and environmental impacts of biofuels: a
review. Appl Energy 2009;86:S108–17.
[143] Van Eijck J, Romijn H. Prospects for jatropha biofuels in developing countries:
an analysis for Tanzania with strategic niche management; 2006.
[144] Zhang Y, Dube M, McLean D, Kates M. Biodiesel production from waste
cooking oil: 2. Economic assessment and sensitivity analysis. Bioresour
Technol 2003;90:229–40.
834 M. Habibullah et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 50 (2015) 819–834

[145] Krawczyk T. Biodiesel-alternative fuel makes inroads but hurdles remain.
INFORM 1996;7:800–15.
[146] JConnemann JF. Biodiesel Eur 1998;1998.
[147] Demirbas A, Karslioglu S. Biodiesel production facilities from vegetable oils
and animal fats. Energy Sources Part A 2007;29:133–41.
[148] Balat M. Potential alternatives to edible oils for biodiesel production—a
review of current work. Energy Convers Manage 2011;52:1479–92.
[149] Sharma YC, Singh B. Development of biodiesel: current scenario. Renewable
Sustainable Energy Rev 2009;13:1646–51.
[150] Johnston M, Holloway T. A global comparison of national biodiesel produc-
tion potentials. Environ Sci Technol 2007;41:7967–73.
[151] Balat M, Balat H. Progress in biodiesel processing. Appl Energy 2010;87:1815–35.
[152] Atadashi IM, Aroua MK, Aziz AA. Biodiesel separation and purification: a
review. Renewable Energy 2011;36:437–43.