Mechanics of Machines

BNJ 20303
Application Of Friction (Part 1)
By,
Rohani Rahmad
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM),
Faculty of Engineering Technology,
Department of Mechanical Engineering Tecnology
APPLICATION OF FRICTION (PART I)
Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to:
1. understand the characteristics of dry friction
2. solve problems involving dry friction

Learning topics:

• Introduction
• Application
• dry friction
• angles of friction

2
INTRODUCTION

Friction is defined as a force of resistance acting on a body which

prevents or retards slipping of the body relative to a second body.

FRICTION

THEORY APPLICATION

TYPE OF FRICTION
WEDGES

DRY FLUID JOURNAL & THRUST BEARING

ANGLE OF FRICTION
SCREW & NUT

STATIC FRICTION
CLUTCH

KINETIC FRICTION
3
APPLICATIONS

In designing a brake system for a

bicycle, car, or any other vehicle, it is
important to understand the frictional
forces involved.

For an applied force on the brake

pads, how can we determine the
magnitude and direction of the
resulting friction force?

4
Objectives

• Introduce the concept of dry friction

• To present specific applications of frictional force
analysis on wedges, screws, belts, bearings &
disks/clutch
• To investigate the concept of rolling resistance
Characteristics of Friction

Friction
• Force that resists the movement of two contacting
surfaces that slide relative to one another
• Acts tangent to the surfaces at points of contact with
other body
• Opposing possible or existing motion of the body
relative to points of contact
• Two types of friction – Fluid and Coulomb Friction
Characteristics of Friction

• Fluid friction exist when the contacting surface are

separated by a film of fluid (gas or liquid)
• Depends on velocity of the fluid and its ability to resist
shear force
• Coulomb friction occurs
between contacting surfaces
of bodies in the absence of a
lubricating fluid
Theory of Dry Friction

• Consider the effects caused by pulling horizontally on

a block of uniform weight W which is resting on a
rough horizontal surface
• Consider the surfaces of contact to be nonrigid or
deformable and other parts of the block to be rigid
Theory of Dry Friction

• Normal force ∆Nn and frictional force

∆Fn act along the contact surface

• For equilibrium, normal forces act upward to balance

the block’s weight W, frictional forces act to the left to
prevent force P from moving the block to the right
Theory of Dry Friction

• Many microscopic irregularities exist between the two

surfaces of floor and the block
• Reactive forces ∆Rn developed at each of the
protuberances
• Each reactive force consist of both a frictional
component ∆Fn and normal component ∆Nn
Theory of Dry Friction
Equilibrium
• Effect of normal and frictional loadings are indicated
by their resultant N and F
• Distribution of ∆Fn indicates that F is tangent to the
contacting surface, opposite to the direction of P
• Normal force N is determined from the distribution of
∆Nn
Theory of Dry Friction
Equilibrium
• N is directed upward to balance W
• N acts a distance x to the right of the line of action of
W
• This location coincides with the centroid or the
geometric center of the loading diagram in order to
balance the “tipping effect” caused by P
Theory of Dry Friction
Impending Motion
• As P is slowly increased, F correspondingly increase
until it attains a certain maximum value F, called the
limiting static frictional force
• Limiting static frictional force Fs is directly proportional
to the resultant normal force N

Fs = μsN
Theory of Dry Friction

Theory of Dry Friction: Impending Motion

• Constant of proportionality μs is known as the coefficient
of static friction
• Angle s that Rs makes with N is called the angle of static
1   s N 
friction : 1  Fs 
s  tan    tan    tan  s
1

N  N 
This concludes that;
• Friction force is independent of shape and area of the contacting surface.
• The friction force directly proportional to normal force between surfaces of
contact.
• The friction force depends on the nature of the surfaces of contact (µ). Some
of the values of µ between various surfaces.
 Theory of Dry Friction

Typical Values of μs
Contact Materials Coefficient of Static Friction μs

Metal on ice 0.03 – 0.05

Wood on wood 0.30 – 0.70

Leather on wood 0.20 – 0.50

Leather on metal 0.30 – 0.60

Aluminum on aluminum 1.10 – 1.70

Theory of Dry Friction

Material µ Surfaces µ

Wood on wood 0.45 Steel on steel 0.74

Leather on metal 0.3 – 0.5 Glass on glass 0.4

Cast iron on cast iron 0.16 Ice on ice 0.10

Metal on wood 0.2 – 0.6 Teflon on Teflon 0.04

Glass on glass 0.4 Tire on concrete 1.00

Mild steel on cast iron 0.24 Tire on wet road 0.60

Tire on snow 0.30
Theory of Dry Friction

Motion
• When P is greater than Fs, the frictional force is
slightly smaller value than Fk, called kinetic frictional
force
• The block will not be held in equilibrium (P > Fk) but
slide with increasing speed
Theory of Dry Friction

Motion
• The drop from Fs (static) to Fk (kinetic) can by
explained by examining the contacting surfaces
• When P > Fs, P has the capacity to shear off the
peaks at the contact surfaces
Theory of Dry Friction
• Resultant frictional force Fk is directly proportional to
the magnitude of the resultant normal force N
Fk = μkN
• Constant of proportionality μk is coefficient of kinetic
friction
• μk are typically 25% smaller than μs
• μk ≈ 0.75 μs
• Resultant Rk has a line of action defined by k, angle
of kinetic friction

 Fk  1   k N 
k  tan 
1
  tan    tan  k
1

N   N 
 The Limiting Angle of Friction
RN
R
RN

P

A F  R N
B
W=mg W=mg

• In the case where the surface of contact between A and B is without any fluid or
lubricant (dry friction), body A of weight W is at rest on horizontal plane B as shown
above.
• Let P the force applied on block A.
• There will be no relative motion until magnitude of acting opposite to the direction
of motion.
• In the limiting case, when motion is just about to start, body A will be in equilibrium
under action of three forces and i.e the reaction of B on A. The inclination
F F F RN
tan      
RN W mg RN ….(1)
• Where is the limiting angle of friction.
If , tan    body A will start to move over the surface of B.
If , tan    body A will not move over the surface B.
 The Limiting Angle of Friction
R
RN


F  R N
A


 W=mg

• For an inclined plane as shown above, weight of body A can be resolved into
components:
W sin   mg sin  and W cos  mg cos
• The body A will begin to slide down the plane only when:

mg sin   R N  mg cos 

tan    but from (1)

tan    thus
tan   tan 
  …….(2)
THEORY OF DRY FRICTION

• Block of weight W placed on horizontal

surface. Forces acting on block are its weight
and reaction of surface N.

• Small horizontal force P applied to block. For

block to remain stationary, in equilibrium, a
horizontal component F of the surface reaction
is required. F is a static-friction force.

• As P increases, the static-friction force F

increases as well until it reaches a maximum
value Fm.
Fm   s N

• Further increase in P causes the block to begin

to move as F drops to a smaller kinetic-friction
force Fk.
Fk   k N 22
THEORY OF DRY FRICTION (Cont.’d)

• Four situations can occur when a rigid body is in contact with

a horizontal surface:

• No friction, • No motion, • Motion impending, • Motion,

(Px = 0) (Px < Fm) (Px = Fm) (Px > Fm)

23
ANGLE OF FRICTION

• Consider block of weight W resting on board with

variable inclination angle 
• The value of  when slip is impending is called the angle
of static friction s , and its value when the surfaces are
sliding relative to each other is called the angle of kinetic
friction k.

• we can express the angles of static and kinetic friction in

terms of the coefficients of friction.
tan s = μs , tan k = μk

24
 ANGLE OF FRICTION

• In some situations it is more convenient to express the

reaction in terms of its magnitude R and angle of friction 
between the reaction and the normal to surface.

25
PROBLEM INVOLVING DRY FRICTION

• All applied forces known • All applied forces known • Coefficient of static
friction is known
• Coefficient of static friction • Motion is impending
is known • Motion is impending
• Determine value of coefficient
• Determine whether body of static friction. • Determine magnitude or
will remain at rest or slide direction of one of the
applied forces

26
The Inclined Plane
• Some of the various forces acting on a body on an inclined plane are
examined;
a) Motion Up the Plane b) Motion Down the Plane

(i)Neglecting friction
(ii)Considering Friction

• Let ϕ = limiting angle of friction for the contact surface

α = Angle of inclination of plane to the horizontal
θ = Inclination of applied force to the vertical (W)
po = Force required to move the body up/down the plane (neglecting friction)
P = Force acting on the body parallel to the plane with uniform velocity (up/down)
R = Resultant reaction force
RN = Normal reaction force
W = Weight of the body
µ = Coefficient of friction
 a) Motion Up the Plane
(i) Neglecting friction

RN P0

Direction of P0
motion

A W
  


W=mg  RN


• The body is in equilibrium under the force triangle in Figure above. Applying sine
rule from Figure above;
P0 W

sin  sin    
(ii) Considering Friction

RN P

R

Direction of
motion P
A  W

F  R N      

W=mg   
 R

• The friction force is acting in the direction opposite the direction of motion of body
as shown in Figure left. The resultant force is inclined at angle with normal
reaction . From triangle of forces in Figure right, applying sine rule thus

P W

sin     sin     
 b) Motion Down The Plane
. • For the Figure below, a case is taken, where, so that additional force (when
considering friction) or (when neglecting friction) has to be applied to initiate the
down-sliding of the body with uniform velocity. The force polygon for motion down
the plane without friction is shown in below.
RN
P0
Po

A  
Direction of W
motion 
RN 

W=mg


• If neglecting friction force, applying sine rule; P0 sin 

180        
sin    
R
RN
W
P
P

F  R N
R
A
Direction of   
motion W

W=mg 


• From Figure 4.6(b), by considering friction force, the sine rule is;
Note: For the case    the
P ca sin     direction of P is such that it lowers the
 
ab sin 180       
body down the plane at uniform speed
W since W  P
 Mechanics of Machines
BNJ 20303
Application of Friction (Part 2)
By,
Rohani Rahmad
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM),
Faculty of Engineering Technology ,
Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology
 APPICATION OF FRICTION (PART II)
Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to:
1. understand the concept of friction on screw & clutch
2. solve problems involving friction on screw & clutch

Learning topics:

• Introduction
• Application
• Frictional Force on Screws
• Frictional Force on Clutch

2
APPLICATION

Square-threaded screws find

applications on valve, jacks and vises,
where particularly large forces must
be developed along the axis of the
screw

3
 APPLICATION OF FRICTION ON SCREW THREADS
• the screw - a generic name applied to a setscrew, leadscrew, bolt, stud or
other component equipped with an external thread,

Figure 1

• The distance between similar points on adjacent threads is the thread's

pitch (p` or l ).
Figure 2

• the nut - refers to any component whose internal thread engages the
screw, such as the nut of a nut & bolt or a large stationary casting with a
tapped hole into which a stud is screwed,

Figure 3
 FRICTIONAL FORCES ON SCREWS

• In most cases screws are used as fasteners

• Sometimes used to transmit power or motion from one part of the
machine to another
• A square-ended screw is commonly used for the latter purpose,
especially when large forces are applied along its axis
• A screw is thought as an inclined plane or wedge wrapped around a
cylinder

5
 FRICTIONAL FORCES ON SCREWS (Cont.’d)

• A nut initially at A on the screw will move up

to B when rotated 360º around the screw
• This rotation is equivalent to translating the
nut up an inclined plane of height l and
length 2πr, where r is the mean radius of the
head
• The rise l for a single revolution is referred
to as the lead of the screw, where the lead
angle is by α = tan-1(l/2πr)

6
 SCREW THREADS ANALYSIS
• Consider a screw thread system in Figure 3 where the nut rotates and the
screw is fixed. Let W the axial force against which the screw is turned. Let P
the tangential force at the mean thread radius to turn the nut. The thread is
the plane inclined at angle .
• Let d = mean thread diameter
l = pitch
Then, tan   l Typically : tan  
l
d 2r
• Turning the nut on the screw is equivalent to moving the load W up or down
the inclined plane by means of horizontal force P applied at the mean
thread radius.
(i) Motion Up the Plane
• Motion up the plane is done by raising the nut up the screw. The triangle
force is : tan   tan 
R P  W tan     W
Torque, T F d⁄2  1  tan  tan 

T M P r Since : tan   
P=Wtan(α φ P tan   
P r W r tan α φ  P W
1   tan 
M W r tan α φ W
 SCREW THREADS ANALYSIS
(ii) Motion Down the Plane (case    )
• Motion down the plane is done by lowering the nut down the screw. The
forces at the thread are; tan   tan 
P  W tan     W
RN 1  tan  tan 

Since : tan   
R

  tan 
P P W
 1   tan 
d 
Torque is given by : T  P 
W 2

EFFICIENCY OF SCREW THREADS

• For motion up the plane, efficiency is the ratio of work done by W to the work done by P:
W l W tan  d tan 
  
P  d W tan    d tan    

• For motion down the plane : P  d tan    

 
W l tan 
• For maximum efficiency, then : d
 0
d
 FRICTION IN VEE THREADS
RN
W
• Figure beside shows a section of a Vee Thread
Screw type. In Vee Thread screw, the normal
reaction force is increased due to the axial
Screw
 component of the weight W: R  W
cos 
N

Nut
• This increased the friction force at ratio of sec   1
between a Vee Thread and a flat surface.
W W tan  tan 
From the relation of F  RN and tan   thus, F  RN    So  
cos  cos  cos 

• Let P be the force applied at the mean radius of a screw thread. For motion up the
plane thus from equation;
tan   
P  W tan     W
1   tan 
tan 
tan  
P  W tan     W
cos 
W
cos  tan   tan  
 tan   cos   tan  tan 
1  tan   
 cos  
•The procedure is similar for motion down the plane:
tan 
 tan 
P  W tan     W
cos  tan   cos  tan     tan 
W P  W tan     W
 tan   cos   tan  tan  1   tan 
1    tan 
 cos  
 EXAMPLE OF FRICTIONAL ANALYSIS IN SCREW JACK
• When a screw is subjected to large axial loads, the
frictional forces developed on the thread become
important to determine the moment M* needed
to turn the screw.
• Consider the square-threaded jack which supports
vertical load W.
• The reactive forces of the jack to this load are
actually distributed over the circumference of the
screw thread in contact with the screw hole in
the jack, that is within region h.
• For simplicity, this portion of thread can be
imagined as being unwound from the screw and
represented as a simple block resting on an
inclined plane having the screw’s lead angle α.
• The inclined plane represents the inside supporting
thread of the jack base. 10
 FRICTIONAL ANALYSIS (Cont.’d)
• Three forces act on the block or screw.
• The force W is the total axial load applied to the
screw.
• The horizontal force S is caused by the applied
moment M, such that by summing moments about
the axis of the screw, M = Sr, where r is the screw’s
mean radius.
• As a result of W and S, the inclined plane exerts
a resulting force R on the block, which is shown
to have components acting normal, N, and
tangent, F, to the contacting surfaces

11
 UPWARD SCREW MOTION

• Provided M is great enough, the screw (and hence

the block) can either be brought to the verge of
upward impending motion or motion can be occurring.
• Under these conditions, R acts at an angle (α + ϕ) from
the vertical as shown in the figure.
• Applying the two force equations of equilibrium to
the block, we obtain

  Fx  0; S  R sin(   )  0
  Fy  0; R cos(   )  W  0
• Eliminating R and solving for S, the
substituting this value into the equation
M = Sr, yields

M  Wr tan(   ) Upward screw motion

12
 UPWARD SCREW MOTION (Cont.’d)

M  Wr tan(   )

• As indicated, M is the moment necessary to cause

upward impending motion of the screw provided
ϕ = ϕs = tan-1 μs (the angle of static friction)
• If ϕ is replaced by ϕk = tan-1μk (the angle of kinetic
friction) a smaller value M will be get to maintain
uniform upward motion of screw.

13
Upward screw motion
 DOWNWARD SCREW MOTION (α > ϕ)
• If the surface of the screw is very slippery, the screw
may rotate downward if the magnitude of the moment
is reduced to say M’ < M
• This caused the effect of M’ to become S’
• It requires the angle ϕ to lie on the opposite side
of the normal n to the plane supporting the block
such as α > ϕ.
• The equation of moment then become,

M  Wr tan(   )

Downward screw motion (α > ϕ) 14

 SELF-LOCKING SCREW

• If the moment M (or its effect S) is removed, the screw

will remain self-locking.
• It will support the load W by friction forces alone
provided ϕ ≥ α.
• To show this, consider the necessary limiting case
when ϕ = α .
• Vertical equilibrium is maintained since R is
vertical and thus balances W.

Upward screw motion (α = ϕ)

(on the verge of rotating downward) 15
 DOWNWARD SCREW MOTION ( α < ϕ)

• When the surface of the screw is very rough, the screw

will not rotate downwards.
• Instead, the direction of the applied moment must be
reversed in order to cause the motion
• S” is caused by the applied (reverse) moment M”

M "  Wr tan(   )

16
Upward screw motion (α < ϕ)
 Mechanics of Machines
BNJ 20303
Application Of Friction (Part III)
By,
Rohani Rahmad
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM),
Faculty of Engineering Technology ,
Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology
 Application of Friction in Disk/Clutch
• Clutch is a mechanical device used in automobiles to engage or disengaged the
driving and driven shaft instantaneously using a clutch pedal operated by the
driver. Clutch is situated between the engine crankshaft and gearbox. The
stopping of vehicles can be done with the use of clutch even when the engine still
running. This permits the changing of gears since the engine crankshaft and
transmission system can be disconnected.
• There are different types of clutch used today such as Friction clutch, Centrifugal
clutch, Conical Spring Clutch, Electromagnetic clutch, Vacuum Clutch and
Hydraulic Clutch. However, in this section, discussions are limited to Friction
Clutch type only. Friction clutch can be classified as plate, cone or centrifugal
clutch type.
i) Single Plate Clutch. It is the most common type of clutch used in automobiles. It
consists of only one plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch shaft.

Clutch dis-engage:
Clutch engage:
ii) Multi Plate Clutch
• Multi plate clutch is a clutch that consists of multiple clutch discs and
plates. Friction between clutch plates will increase with the number
of contact surface of clutch plate, thus higher torque can be
transmitted to the driven shaft. Applications of multi plate clutch are
such as in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars, trucks and
cranes. Multi plate clutch normally assembled in a drum and the
driver and driven plate clutch are firmly pressed by a strong coil
springs. An example of a multi plate clutch.

In a multi clutch plate the number of

contact surface of the clutch plate is given by
n  n1  n2  1

Where n1 = number of disc at the driving shaft

n2 = number of disc at the driven shaft
 Analysis of Clutch
• Consider two flat annular surfaces as
shown, maintained in contact by a thrust
force W. Let T is the torque transmitted, r1
is the outer radius and r2 is the inner
radius of the surfaces.
W W
r1

r2

dr
r

4
 Analysis of Clutch

• Consider an elemental ring of radius r and

thickness dr;
Area of elemental ring = 2rdr
Load on the ring = P2rdr 
r

Total load on the disc = W  r 2r.P.dr

1

Friction force on the ring =RN   2r.P.dr 

Moment on the ring =  2r.P.dr r 
 
r
  
1
Total moment on the disc = T  .P 2 r 2
dr
r 2
 • Assume uniform pressure at all contact surface (new clutch plate):
r1  r12  r22   r12  r22  r1  r13  r23 
W   2 . Pr .dr  2P   P   T   2Pr dr  2P
2

r2  2   1  r2  3 

T 3
2
 
P r13  r23 2  r13  r23 
   2 2 
  W P r1  r2
2 2
3  r1  r2 

• The total torque transmitted at the clutch plate

 r13  r23 
before it slips is; T  3 W  r 2  r 2 
2
1 2 
• For a worn clutch plate, a uniform wear theory
can be applied, that is wear condition =
pressure x radius =constant( pr  k )
W   2kdr  2k r1  r2   
r1 r1
 T   2krdr  k r1
2
 r2
2

r2 r 2

•The total torque transmitted at the clutch plate before it slips is;
W
T  r1  r2 
2
 Wedges

• A simple machine used to transform an

applied force into much larger forces,
directed at approximately right angles to
the applied force
• Used to give small displacements or
adjustments to heavy load
• Consider the wedge used to lift a block
of weight W by applying a force P to the
wedge
 Wedges
• FBD of the block and the wedge

• Exclude the weight of the wedge since it

is small compared to weight of the block
 Frictional Forces on Collar Bearings, and
Pivot Bearings

• Pivot and collar bearings

are used to support axial
load on a rotating shaft
• Laws of dry friction is
applied to determine the
moment M needed to turn
the shaft when it supports T= M= .
an axial force P
• If uniform wear is consider T= M= . . .
T= M= . . T= M= . . 2 1)
Frictional Forces on Collar Bearings, Pivot
Bearings and Disks

T=
 Frictional Forces on Journal Bearings

• When a shaft or axle is subjected to lateral

loads, a journal bearing is used for support
• Well-lubricated journal bearings are subjected
to the laws of fluid mechanisms
• When the bearing is not lubricated, analysis of
the frictional resistance can be based on the
laws of dry friction
• If the lateral load is P, the bearing
reactive force R acting at A is
equal and opposite to P
 Frictional Forces on Journal Bearings
• Moment needed to maintain constant
rotation of the shaft can be found by the
summation of moments about the z axis
of the shaft,
 M z  0;
M  ( R sin k )r  0
M  Rr sin k

• If the bearing is partially lubricated, μk is

small, μk = tan ϕk ≈ sin ϕk ≈ ϕk
• Frictional resistance
T=M ≈ Rrμk
 Rolling Resistance
• A rigid cylinder of weight W rolls at
constant velocity along a rigid surface,
the normal force is at tangent point of
contact
• Hard material cylinder will compresses
the soft surface underneath it
Rolling Resistance