EY8152 FLUID MECHANICS & HEAT

TRANSFER

Unit II
Compressible and Incompressible flows
Incompressible flows : Constant density
It is true for liquids
(i) Density of liquid decreases slightly with temperature
(ii) Moderately with pressure over a broad range of operating conditions

Compressible flows : Variable density flows (Gas dynamics= FM +TD + CK)

Applicable only for gases p + (1/2)ρV2= constant

where as incompressible/compressible,
depending on the conditions of operation

High speed flows : Density changes are significant

Typical Applications If Δρ/ρ is very small, the flow of gases can be

• Design of a building/tower to withstand winds, treated as incompressible
• High speed flow of air over cars/trains/airplanes

Gas dynamics is the study of fluid flows where the compressibility and the temperature
changes become important
Entire flow field is dominated by Mach waves and shock waves (Most of the flow properties
change across these waves from one state to other)
Laminar & Turbulent flow
•Laminar – Smooth streamline and highly ordered motion
•Turbulent – More velocity fluctuation and highly disordered motion (chaotic
flow)
Laminar & Turbulent flow
Inertia force ud ud
•Reynolds number Re   
Viscous force  
uD h 4A c
for non-circular ducts, Re  , where D h 
 P
Pipe : Circular (fluids)
Duct : Non circular (gas) , Building less delP,
Manufac & Install cost low, Less space

Hydraulic radius?!

Under most practical conditions, the

flow in a circular pipe is,
Fully developed flow
•Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform velocity.
•Because of no-slip condition, the fluid particles in the layer in contact with the
surface of the pipe come to a complete stop.
•This layer also causes the fluid particle in the adjacent layers to slow down
gradually as a result of friction.
•To make up for this velocity reduction, the velocity of the fluid at the
midsection of the pipe has to increase to keep the m.f.r through the pipe
constant.
•As a result, a velocity gradient develops along the pipe.
•The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces
caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called the velocity boundary layer or
boundary layer
T1 : Why does football do not have dimples like golf ball?
T2 : Why golf ball have dimples?
Fully developed flow
•The thickness of the BL increases in the flow direction until the BL reaches the
pipe center and thus fills the entire pipe.
•The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the BL merges as the
centerline is called the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of this is
called the hydrodynamic entry length.
•Flow in the entrance region is called hydrodynamically developing flow. The
region beyond the entrance region in which the vel. Profile is fully developed
and remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully developed region.
Fully developed flow

Lh, Laminar Lh, Turbulent

 0.05Re;  1.359 Re0.25
D D
Introduction – Navier Stokes Eqn.
•All real fluids are viscous in nature; the fluid viscosity produces tangential or
shear stresses in a moving fluid.
NS only for Newtonian fluids & Laminar. Turbulent with some assumptions
•These tangential forces act as a friction force and tend to retard the motion of
fluid particles.
•The loss is irrecoverable and represents the degradation of mechanical energy

into wasteful heat.

•Influence of viscosity is more pronounced near the boundary of a solid body
immersed in a fluid in motion.
•The relationship between stress and rate of strain for the motion of real fluid
was first put forward by Sir Isaac Newton.
•Later on G.G Stokes and Navier derived the exact solutions that govern the
motion of real fluids. These eqns. are in general for compressible or
incompressible laminar flows and known as Navier-Stokes equations.
Euler Equation
# For high speed flows, Viscosity negligible.
# Euler equation often used to study compressible flow at high Mach numbers. (Study
whole aircraft)

Relationship b/w pressure and velocity field for an inviscid fluid flow is found by Newtons
second law of motion.
The resulting equation in differential form is Euler equation.

NS equation based on law of conservation of momentum

Typical Applications
• Design of a building/tower to withstand winds,
• High speed flow of air over cars/trains/airplanes

Gas dynamics is the study of fluid flows where the compressibility and the temperature
changes become important
Entire flow field is dominated by Mach waves and shock waves (Most of the flow properties
change across these waves from one state to other)
Forces acting on Fluid in motion
The various forces that may influence the motion are due to gravity, pressure,
viscosity, turbulence, surface tension and compressibility.
Alike mechanics of solids, dynamics of fluid is also governed by Newton’s
second law of motion. It states that the resultant force on any fluid element
must be equal to the product of mass and the acceleration of the element. In
Mathematical form the law is expressed as
 F  ma
Therefore if the mass of fluid is influenced by all the above mentioned forces
then we can write the equation as
Fg  Fp  Fv  Ft  Fs  Fc  ma
By resolving the various forces and acceleration in x, y and z directions, the
following equations of motion may be obtained
 Cont..
Fg x  Fpx  Fvx  Ft x  Fs x  Fcx  ma x
Fg y  Fp y  Fv y  Ft y  Fs y  Fcy  ma y
Fg z  Fpz  Fvz  Ft z  Fsz  Fcz  ma z

In most of the fluid flow cases, the surface tension forces & the compressibility
forces are not significant. Hence they may be neglected. Then the equations
becomes
Fg x  Fpx  Fvx  Ft x  ma x
Fg y  Fpy  Fvy  Ft y  ma y
Fgz  Fpz  Fvz  Ft z  ma z

The equations are known as Reynold’s equation of motion which is useful in

turbulent flow analysis.
 Cont..
For Laminar or viscous flows, turbulent forces become less significant and
hence these may be neglected. Thus the eqn . can be modified as

Fg x  Fpx  Fvx  ma x
Fg y  Fp y  Fv y  ma y
Fg z  Fpz  Fvz  ma z
The above equation are known as Navier stoke’s equation which are useful in
viscous flows.
Further if viscous forces considered as little significant, then the equations can
be modified as
Fg x  Fpx  ma x
Fg y  Fp y  ma y
Fgz  Fpz  ma z
The above equation are known as Euler’s equation of motion.
Navier-Stokes equations
•The differential eqns. of motion of an ideal, inviscid fluid
were derived by presuming that the fluid element is
acted upon by body forces, and Surface forces
(hydrostatic pressure force).
•However, the tangential (shear) stresses arise during
the motion of a real viscous fluid.
•Accordingly the viscous tangential forces also need to
be considered along with pressure and gravity forces
while setting up the differential eqns. of motion for a
viscous liquid.
 Cont..

Let Tx, Ty, Tz be the components of shear force per unit mass set up by the
viscous effects. Then considering the elementary parallelopiped of fluid dx dy dz,
we can rewrite the equation of motion as
 Cont..

From Euler’s eqn.

X, Y, Z are body force/unit mass

(3.1)
Shear force

The shear stress arising due to viscosity on a particular surface equals

the rate of change of velocity in a direction normal to that surface. (i.e)
dv

dn
 Cont..
Let us consider two by two of the six faces of the parallelopiped. The resistance
force acting on the face AEHD is
u
   dy dz 
x
The resistance force acting on the face BFGC is
  u   u  2 u 
   dy dz   u  dx     dy dz    2 dx 
x  x   x x 
The resultant resistance force along the x-axis (the algebraic sum of forces acting
on faces AEHD and BFGC) is
 Cont..

Incorporating this eqn. in 3.1

and making the substitution

  , we obtain

 Cont..
Surface force Momentum convection Viscous force
Mass force

These eqns are called

Navier-Stokes eqns.
and are fundamental
to general analysis of
a viscous flow
(3.2)

In vector form, the N-S eqns. may be written as

This equation used for
DV 1 constant density and
 R  grad P+ 2 V constant viscosity fluids
Dt 
NS + Continuty
where  2 denotes the Laplace operator, i.e equation solved
 2 simultaneously to get
2 2 
  2  2  2
2 flow characteristics
 x y z 
 Cont..

Relationship between Shear Stress and Pressure Gradient

•Consider the free body diagram of any fluid element having the form of an
elementary parallelopiped of length dx, thickness dy and width dz as shown in fig.
•Because of viscous effects, the velocity distribution is non-uniform, i.e., there
exists a relative velocity between any two adjacent layers.
•These velocity gradients across the 2 layers setup shear stresses.
 Cont..

Let  represent the shear stress on the lower face AA'BB'

and that on the upper face DD'CC' be given by ( +(  y)  dy)
For a steady 2-D flow there will not be any shear stress on the vertical faces of the
element.
 Cont..
Shearing force on the element =
  + ( y)  dy  dx dz - dx dz

= dx dy dz
y
If p is the intensity of pressure on the face ADD’A’, then the pressure intensity on the
face BCC’B’ will be p+(p x)  dx . Thus
Pressure force on the element is

=p dy dz -  p+ (p x)  dx dy dz

p
= - dx dy dz
x
For equilibrium in steady flow, the acceleration is zero and hence the summation of
the pressure and viscous forces in the x-direction must vanish.
 p  p
dx dy dz - dx dy dz =0 or =
y x y x
 Cont..
Since we are concentrating on pressure gradient only in the direction of flow, the
partial derivatives can be replaced by total derivatives. Thus

d dp
=
dy dx

Evidently the pressure gradient along the direction of flow equals the shear
gradient in the direction normal to flow. This aspect is applicable to both laminar
and turbulent flows, and holds good for all types of boundary geometry.
Recalling that for a Newtonian fluid

du
 , the pressure gradient can also be exprressed as
dy
dp d  du  dp d 2u
     2 (3.3)
dx dy  dy  dx dy
Laminar Uni-Directional flow between stationary parallel plates
Consider the flow field between two stationary (fixed) parallel plates separated
by a small gap b. The flow investigations shall be made here by assuming that:
* there is no variation in the fluid properties in the y-direction, i,.e.,
 ( ) y  0
* for the flow to remain parallel, the plates are of infinite extent in the
z-direction and long enough in the x-direction
* the flow has a zero velocity relative to an adjacent solid surface giving
the boundary conditions: (i) u=0 at y=0; (ii) u=0 at y=b

The characteristics of flow are then governed by the differential equation,

dp d 2u
 2
dx dy
dp
With the knowledge that is independent of y, the above differential eqn. can be
dx
twice integrated w.r.t ‘y’ to give
 Cont..

Substituting the b.c’s in the above eqn, the integration constants are obtained as

(3.4)

The –ve sign for pressure gradient is indicative of the fact that there is pressure drop
in flow direction.
Evidently the velocity profile is parabolic with its vertex at the centre line of the flow
passage [refer fig. (a)].
This type of flow is generally referred to as Plane Poiseuille flow.
 Cont..

Maximum velocity: for velocity to be maximum

du dy  0, i.e.,
du 1  dp  b
     
dy 2  dx 
b 2y 0 or y=
2
i.e., max. velocity occurs at the centre of the flow passage
1  dp   b 2 b 2  b 2  dp 
       
4  8  dx 

Vmax
2  dx   2
 Cont..
Average velocity: Let Q be the discharge per unit width (i.e. ‘dz’) of the flow
passage. Then
dQ=udy

Shear stress: The shear stress distribution is closely linked to the velocity distribution;
to determine the shear stress distribution substitute eqn (3.4) in Newton’s law of
viscosity.
 Cont..
Pressure drop in terms of average velocity: Rewriting Vav in terms of pressure
gradient, we have:

Note: When the flow passage is inclined to the horizontal, the

term (-dp/dx) is to be replaced by (-dp*/dx) where dp* is the
piezometric pressure given by: p* = p+wy.
Problem
Cont..
Laminar flow in Circular Pipes- Hagen Poiseuille Law
Velocity Profile
G. Hagen (1797-1884) & J. Poiseuille (1799-1869)

R   P 
 P  x  dx Vmax
P  
Flow Flow
r
 u
y
dx

Vmax
Vav 
2
For equilibrium, the summation of the pressure and viscous forces in the x direction
must be equal to zero.
pr 2  p   p x  dx  r 2  2r dx  =0
   p x  dx  r 2  2r dx  =0

Dividing throughout by the volume of the fluid element π r2 dx,

 Cont..
p 2 dp 2
 or 
x r dx r
This eqn. is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow.
Furthur, invoking Newton's law of viscosity for laminar flow
du du y  Rr
 =  
dy dr dy  dr , R=constant

dp  du
2 (3.5)
dx r dr
Velocity Distribution across the pipe
Eqn. 3.5 rewritten as
du r dp
 ( ); 
dr 2 dx  the eqn to get 'u'
1  dp  2
u   r  C; apply the B.C u=0 at r=R
4  dx 
1  dp  2
C     R , and hence
4  dx 
 Cont..
1  dp  2 1  dp  2 1  dp  2
u
4  dx 
r 
4  dx 
R   
4  dx 
R  r 2
 (3.6)

du
Position of max. velocity obtained by putting the derivative 0
dr
du 1  dp 
    ( 2r)  0; r=0
dr 4  dx 
Thus the max. velocity occurs at the centre of the pipe, its value is given by
1  dp  2
Vmax =    R (3.7)
4  dx 
Fromeqn. 3.6 and 3.7
u  Vmax 1   r R  
2

 
 Cont..
For estimating the volume flow rate, consider the flow dQ through an elementary ring
area

Elementary ring flow -dQ

Ring thickness -dr

dQ  (2rdr)u; substitute eqn 3.6

1  dp  2
dQ= (2rdr)     (R  r 2
); Integration gives
4  dx 
(R 2  r 2 ) R 4
R

Q = 2    dp dx  r dr =   dp dx  (3.8)
0
4 8
The average velocity is defined as the flow divided by the area through which it
occurs: Flow rate,(Q)
Vav 
C.S.Area,(A)
 Cont..
Q Q 1  dp  2
Vav       R (3.9)
A R 2
8  dx 
1
Comparison of eqn. (3.7) and (3.9) reveals that Vav  Vmax
2
Let ‘r’ determine the location where the local velocity u equals the Vav , now


u  Vmax 1  r R
 2 
  1
and Vav  Vmax
2

Since u=Vav we have: Vmax 1  r R

2  1
 V
 2 max
or 

1 r R 2

1
2
or r = 0.707 R

Evidently the average flow Vav occurs at a radial distance 0.707 R from the
centre of pipe
 Cont..
Shear stress distribution:

 max
dp 2 r  dp 
  =  
2  dx 
w.k.t
R  dx r
The above eqn. reveals that value of shear stress
at the pipe centre is zero and that it varies
Shear
linearly to a max. value of  max at the pipe wall
stress
where r=R
R  dp 
 max =  
2  dx 
(3.10)

Pressure drop in terms of Vav :

Eqn. 3.9 may be rewritten in terms of pressure gradient as,
dp 8Vav
  2
for a finite length of pipe between x=x1 and x=x2
dx R
8Vav 8Vav l 8Ql
p1  p 2  (x 2  x1 )  
R 2
R 2
R 4
 Cont..
In terms of pipe diameter d,
32Vav l 128Ql  Q 
p1  p 2    Vav  & d  2R 
d 2
d 4
 R 2

Equivalent pressure head becomes:
p1  p 2 32Vav l 128Ql
  ; (3.11)
w (w)d 2 (w)d 4
where w (specific weight,N/m 3 )  g
The above eqn (3.11). is called as Hagen-Poiseuille eqn. and it is valid for a
fully developed, steady, laminar and incompressible flow.

Eqn. 3.11 can be recast as

dp 32Vav l
 hf  2
; (3.12)
w (w)d
w.k.t w=g
Comparing it with the Darcy-weisbach eqn. for head loss due to friction
through a pipe line
 Cont..
l Vav2
hf  4f (3.13) equate (3.12) and (3.13) for ‘f’
d 2g
32Vav l l Vav2 16 16
 4f  f= 
(g)d 2
d 2g Vav d  Re
The above expression gives a relationship between friction coefficient ‘f’
and the Reynolds number Re for laminar flow through a circular pipe.
Note:
(i) Flow in pipe, where, shear stress varies linearly with radial distance from the
pipe axis  o
 ; max stress  o also denoted as  max
r R
(ii) Frictional drag calculated as FD  o (dl)
(iii) Power required to maintain the flow calculated as
Power  FD  Vav or Power = Q  P ; where P - pressure drop
p1  p 2
Alternatively; Power= Sp. weight  Q  hf ; where hf 
Sp.weight
Problem 1
A horizontal pipe of 5 cm diameter conveys an oil of sp. gravity 0.9 and dynamic
viscosity 0.8 kg/m-s. Measurements indicate a pressure drop of 20 kN/m2 per
metre of pipe length traversed. Make calculations for the (i) flow rate of oil and
centre line velocity (ii) wall shear stress and the frictional drag over 100 m of
pipe length (iii) power required to maintain the flow (iv) the velocity and shear
stress at 1 cm from the pipe surface.
Solution:
The pressure loss for laminar flow through a pipe line is given by:
32Vav l 32  0.8  Vav  1
p1  p 2  2
 20  10 
3
2
 Vav  1.95 m / s
d (0.05)
Vav  d 1.95  900  0.05
Re    109.7  2000, the flow is laminar
 0.8

Discharge, Q=AVav  (0.05)2  1.95  3.83  10 3 m 3 / s
4
Centre line velocity Vmax  2Vav  2  1.95  3.9 m / s
 Cont..
(ii) Wall shear stress

R 0.025  20  103 
 o    dp dx      250 N/m 2

2 2  1 
Frictional drag for 100 m length of pipe,
FD   o ( dl)  250     0.05  100   3925 N
(iii) Power required to maintain flow, P=FD  Vav
= 3925  1.95 = 7654 Nm/s=7.66 kW
Alternatively: P=QP =3.83  10-3  (20  1000)  7.66 kW
(iv) The velocity at any radius r is given by

u=
1
4

 dp dx  R 2  r 2
At 1 cm distance from the wall, r = R-y = 2.5-1 = 1.5 cm
 Cont..
u
1
4  0.8
 
(20  103 ) / 1 0.0252  0.0152  2.5 m/s

Shear stress varies linearly with radial distance from the pipe axis;
 o 1.5
   = 250   150 N/m 2
r R 2.5
Problem 2:
An oil having viscosity of 7 poise and sp.gravity 0.85 flows through a
horizontal 50 mm diameter pipe with a pressure drop of 18 kN/m2 per metre
length of pipe. Determine: (i) the flow rate of oil and the centre line velocity,
(ii) the total friction drag over 100 m length of pipe and the power needed to
maintain the flow, (iii) the velocity and shear stress at 8 mm from the wall.

Answer:
(i) Q= 0.00394 m3/s, Vmax = 4.02 m/s (ii) FD = 3532 N, Power= 7.1 kW
(iii) Velocity at 8 mm from the wall = 2.16 m/s,
Shear stress 8 mm from the wall = 153 N/m2
Laws of Fluid Friction
The frictional resistance offered to the flow depends on the type of
flow. As such different laws are obeyed by the frictional resistance in
the laminar and turbulent flow.
Based on the experimental observations, the laws of fluid friction for
the two types of flows may be narrated as follows:

(a)Laws of fluid friction for laminar flow

(i) proportional to the velocity of flow
(ii) independent of pressure
(iii) proportional to the area of the surface in contact
(iv) independent of the nature of the surface in contact
(v) greatly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing
fluid
Laws of Fluid Friction
(b) Laws of fluid friction for turbulent flow
(i) proportional to (velocity)n, where n – from 1.72 to 2.0
(ii) independent of pressure
(iii) proportional to the density of the flowing fluid
(iii) proportional to the area of the surface in contact
(iv) dependent of the nature of the surface in contact
(v) slightly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing
fluid

*mostly the flow of fluids in pipes is turbulent in behavior

Flow losses in Pipes
When the fluid flows through the piping system, some of the potential
energy (head) is lost to overcome hydraulic resistance which is classified
as:
(i) the viscous-friction effects associated with fluid flow – Major pipe loss
(ii) the local resistances which result from flow disturbances caused by:
Minor pipe - sudden expansion and contraction of the pipe cross-sections
loss
(or) Losses - obstructions in the form of valves, elbows and other pipe fittings
due to - curves and bends in the pipe lines
geometric
changes - entrance and exit losses
4flV 2
Darcy Weisbach eqn, h f  ; where, f-Darcy coefficient of friction
2g d (3.14) & V – ave. velocity
 2 16 Q 2
w.k.t Q= d V  V  2 4 , put V 2 in h f eqn
2

4  d
4f l 16Q 2
hf   2 4 (3.15) Eqn. (3.14) & (3.15) represent the major loss
2g d  d of head due to friction in pipes
 Cont..
Forces on C.V in a pipe flow

Flow v P1 P2

Shear stress ( o ), Friction Co-efficient (f) and Friction Velocity (u*)

Refer the above figure, an equilibrium between the accelerating force due to
pressure difference and the retarding force due to shear stress on the wall
gives
(p1  p 2 )R 2  o  2 R l
2 R l 2 o l p1  p 2
p1  p 2  o   ; w.k.t  hf  head loss
R 2
R w
 Cont..
2 o l 2 o l
hf   (i)
w R g R
4flV 2 4flV 2
From Darcy eqn. hf   (ii)
2g d 2g  2R
From expressions (i) and (ii)

2 o l 4flV 2 8o o 4f
  4f= or V (3.16)
g R 2g  2R V 2  8
This fundamental eqn. relates the wall shear stress, the coefficient of
friction and the average flow velocity. This relationship holds good for any
type of pipe whether smooth or rough
o
The quantity has the dimensions of velocity;

it's called the friction shearing velocity and is denoted by u ,
4f
u  V
8
Empirical correlations for Coefficient of Friction
•A number of empirical formula have been suggested for the friction coefficient f.
•It has been experimentally found that, f=function (Re, relative roughness of pipe
surface)
•The ‘f’ decreases with increase in Re, however, beyond a certain value of relative
roughness it becomes independent of Re.
•For a constant Re, the ‘f’ goes on increasing with relative roughness.
•For a given roughness, the variation of ‘f’ with Re. has been prescribed by the
following relations:
64
(i) 4f= for laminar flow
Re
This follows directly from the following two relations:
32Vl 32Vl
(a) For laminar viscous flow through a pipe, hf  
wd 2
gd 2 refer eqn. (3.11)
4f l V 2
(b) If Darcy eqn. is thought to hold good for viscous flow, then, hf 
2gd
From (3.11) and (3.14)
 Cont..
4f l V 2 32Vl 64 16
  or 4f= or f=
2gd gd2 Re Re
Thus the Darcy eqn. is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow; the difference lies
in the value of friction coefficient

(ii) Blasius eqn. for 20  10 3  Re  80  10 3

0.3164
4f 
(Re)0.25
(iii) Nikuradse eqn. for 4  10 3  Re  3.2  10 6
0.221
4f  0.0032 
(Re)0.237
(iv) Schiller eqn. for 2  10 4  Re  2  10 6
0.396
4f  0.005 
(Re)0.3
 Friction Coefficient
Friction factor or friction coefficient (f) for a fluid flowing
in a duct is a function of Reynolds number. It also
depends on the roughness of the pipe surface
(Nikuradse).
 vD
f  f (Re,  / D) ; (Re) Reynolds number  
 / D  relative roughness

-Absolute roughness or height of wall irregularities

& D- Pipe diameter
Material Absolute Roughness (mm)
Glass, brass, copper, lead Smooth <0.003048
Steel, wrought iron 0.04572
Galvanized iron 0.1524
Cast iron 0.25908
 Cont..
The relationship among f, Re and ε/D is determined experimentally and
plotted on a chart, which is called Moody diagram (Stanton diagram).

Rough pipes

• For small Re (<2000) , f = 64/ Re

• Re > 2000 & small ε/D, such a wall surface is said to be ultimate
smoothness
• For large Re and ε/D, friction factor is independent of Re, such a
surface is said to be wholly rough.
Moody chart - Cont..
Problem
Water flows through a 30 cm diameter pipe and the flow causes a measured
lost head of 15 m in 350 m of pipe length. Calculate: (i) the shear stress at the
walls, (ii) the shear stress at 5 cm from the centerline of the pipe, (iii) the
friction velocity (iv) the average velocity for an ‘f’ value of 0.0125 in the Darcy
equation.

Solution:

2 o l 2 o l
(i)The head loss, hf  
wR gR
gRhf (1000  9.81)0.15  15
 the shear stress at the wall is,  o    31.53 N / m 2
2l 2  350
(ii) The shear stress varies linearly from centerline to wall. Therefore, stress at 5 cm
  5
from the centerline of the wall is, = o    31.53   10.51 N/m 2
r R 15
 Cont..

 o 31.53
(iii) Friction velocity u    0.177m / s
 1000
(iv) The average velocity from Darcy eqn.
4f l V 2 4  0.0125  350  V 2
hf   15   V  2.246 m / s
2gd 2  9.81  0.3
Minor Head Losses
When the velocity of the flowing liquid changes, either in magnitude or
direction, there is a large scale turbulence generated.
The change in the magnitude of the velocity of flow of liquid is due to the
change in the cross sectional area of the flow passage, and the change in the
direction of the velocity of flow of liquid is due to change in the direction of the
flow passage.
The change in in the velocity of flow of liquid may be either gradual or sudden
and in both the cases the energy is lost in the form of heat.
The loss of energy is much more when the sudden change of velocity takes
place.
(a) Sudden Enlargement

The loss of energy that occurs when a pipe of certain diameter suddenly
expands to a large diameter.
The loss of energy can be determined by applying the impulse momentum
eqn. in addition to the Bernoulli’s eqn. and the continuity eqn.
 Cont..
2
1

1
2
From continuity Q=A1V1=A2V2 ; V2 < V1 and hence a change of
momentum takes place as the liquid flows from the narrower pipe to the
wider pipe.
This change of momentum per second will be equal to the net force
acting in the direction of flow on the liquid .

Let p1 and p2 are the respective pressure intensities at the

section 1-1 and 2-2 ; p’ is the mean pressure of the eddying fluid over the
annular face BD joining the two pipes.
 Cont..

 V2  V1 
wQ
From momentum
considerations:
p1 A1  p(A2  A1 )  p2 A2 
g
It’s experimentally found that the pressure p’ is equal to pressure p1.

 V2  V1  ; where, w-specific weight of the fluid

wQ
(p1  p 2 )A 2 
g
(p1  p 2 ) V2  V2  V1 
 V2  V1  
Q (i)
=
w A2g g
Invoking the Bernoulli's eqn.
p1 V12 p 2 V22
    hexp ;
w 2g w 2g
where, hexp  head loss due to sudden expansion
(p1  p 2 ) V12  V22
hexp   (ii)
w 2g
 Cont..
Combining expressions (i) and (ii)
V2  V2  V1   V1  V2 
2
V V 2 2
hexp    1 2

g 2g 2g
Since by continuity A1 V1  A 2 V2  V2  A1 V1 A 2 or V1  A 2 V2 A1
2
  A1   V12 V12
 hexp  1     k exp or
  A 2   2g 2g
2 Borda-Carnot equation
 A 2   V22 V22 for head loss
hexp     1  k exp
 A1   2g 2g
Note: 1)To avoid head loss due to sudden enlargement, diffusers can be
employed.
2) Low divergence angle θ (6 to 8 degrees) of diffuser preferred to delay
the flow separation in diffuser.
Problem
At sudden enlargement of a pipeline from a diameter of 0.3 m to 0.6 m, the
hydraulic gradient line rises 0.125 m. Estimate the discharge if the pipe is
horizontal.
Solution:
Let V1 and V2 be the velocities of flow in 0.3 m and 0.6 m pipes
respectively. Then by continuity equation
 
(0.3)  V1  (0.6)2  V2 ;  V1  4V2
2

4 4
Applying Bernoulli's equation between the points 1 and 2 lying on
either side of the enlargement, we have
p1 V12 p 2 V22
  z1    z 2  hL
w 2g w 2g
 p 2 p1 
From the given data, z1  z 2 and     0.125 m
w w
 V1  V2   4V2  V2 
2 2
9V22
hL   
2g 2g 2g
 Cont..
Thus by substitution, we have

16V22 V22 9V22

 0.125    V2  0.639 m/s
2g 2g 2g

Q = A 2 V2  (0.6)2  0.639  0.181 m 3 / s  0.181 lr/s
4

(b) Sudden Contraction

Acceleration Deceleration
 Cont..
•Flow leaves the surface at the corner of the junction and
attains a minimum cross-sectional area at the vena-contracta

•At v-c, the effective flow area is lesser than the cross-sectional area of the small-
diameter pipe.
•After the v-c the stream expands and ultimately assumes uniform flow over the entire
cross-section of the narrow pipe.
•During this expansion, vortices are formed between the mainstream and the wall of
the pipe
•The loss of head in a pipe contraction is thus caused mainly by the turbulence
created by abrupt expansion of the flow just after it has passed through v-c

 Vc  V2 
2

hcon  ; where Vc  velocity at v-c

2g (a)
The cross-sectional area of the jet at v-c is, A c =Cc A 2
where Cc  coefficient of contraction
 Cont..
From Continuity considerations
V2 Ac
A 2 V2  Ac Vc  Cc A 2 Vc  Vc  & Cc 
Cc A2
and hence by substitution in expression (a)
 V2 Cc   V2 
2 2
  1  V2 2 V2 2
hcon    1  k con
2g  Cc  2g 2g
where, k con  contraction loss coefficient
k con  depends on area ratio A 2 A1 and flow Reynolds number

A2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
A1

kcon 0.5 0.45 0.38 0.28 0.14 0

* In general, the value of kcon adopted as 0.5

 Cont..
(c) Loss of energy at the pipe entrance
oWhen a liquid enters a pipe from a large vessel (tank or reservoir) some loss of
energy occurs at the entrance to the pipe.
oThe flow pattern at the entrance to the pipe is similar to that in the case of a sudden
contraction.
oHence the loss of energy at the entrance to the pipe is assumed to be the same as
in the case of sudden contraction.

Refer the previous

page table
 Cont..
oAs A1 tends to , the value of ‘k’ is to be 0.5. This limiting situation corresponds to
the flow from a large reservoir into a sharp edged pipe, provided the end of the pipe
does not protrude into the reservoir.
V22
The loss of head at the entrance to the pipe is  0.5 and is known
2g
as entry loss
oA protruding (reentrant) pipe causes a greater loss of head (Fig. b) and the entry
loss is much reduced if the inlet of the pipe is well rounded (called as ‘Bell mouthed’)
(Fig. c)

(d) Loss of energy at the pipe exit

oThe outlet end of a pipe carrying a liquid may be either left free to the atmosphere
or it may be connected to a large reservoir.
oFor the first case, i.e., liquid leaving the pipe, having some kinetic energy which is
ultimately dissipated in the form of free jet.
V2
Therefore the loss of head at the exit from a pipe is equal to
2g
 Cont..
oFor the second case, i.e., when the outlet end of a pipe is connected to a large
reservoir, the flow pattern is similar to that of the sudden enlargement.
oHence, the loss of head may also be determined by using Borda-Carnot eqn. with
the condition that in this case A2   .The loss of head at the exit of the pipe is then
V2
equal to , where V is the velocity of flow of liquid in the pipe.
2g

(e) Loss of energy due to an obstruction in the flow passage

V2
hk
2g
where, V  average flow velocity
k - loss coefficient
k-f(angle of bend and r/d)
r-radius of bend
d- pipe diameter
for 90 smooth bend, r / d  2.5 to 5
Problem
Cont..
 Cont..

69 7.587 2 p 4 1.895 2
    1.651
10 2  9.81 w 2  9.81
p4
 8.1 m of water
w
 Pressure at the 50 cm enlarged section = 8.1  10 = 81 kN/m 2
Problem 2
Cont..
 Cont..

(iv) Loss of head due to sudden contraction at section 3,

k con V32 0.5  2.522
hcon    0.161 m
2g 2  9.81
(v) Loss of head due to friction in section 3-4,
4f l 3 V32 4  0.01  1.5  2.522
hf 34    0.388 m
2g d 3 2  9.81  0.05
 Total head loss hf   0.388  0.0999  0.068  0.161  0.388   1.105 m
Power loss, wQh f  9810  0.005  1.105  54.2 W
Note: Contraction loss coefficient (kcon) is different than Coefficient of
contraction (Cc)
Pipes in Series & in Parallel

In series arrangement, two or more pipes of different diameters are connected with
one another to form a single pipeline.
For such an arrangement, discharge through all the pipes is same and continuous
and the loss of head through the entire system is the sum of the losses in all the
individual pipes and fittings.
Q=Q1=Q2=Q3=……
hf=hf1+hf2+hf3+…… (neglecting minor head losses)
 Cont..

When a main pipeline divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
together downstream and continue as a main line as shown in fig. the pipes are
said to be in parallel.
The pipes are connected in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing
through the main.

Q=Q1 +Q2+Q3+……
hf=hf1=hf2=hf3=…… (neglecting minor head losses)
Problem

Solution:
 Cont..
(a) Parallel Arrangement
The head loss for each branch is same
4fLQ12
Head loss for pipe AB 
2g(  4)2 D5
4fLQ 22
Head loss for pipe AC 
2g(  4)2 d 5
2
 Q1   D 
2 2 5
4fLQ 4fLQ
 1
 2
 or  
    2 5
 32
2g(  4) D
2 5
2g(  4) d
2 5
 Q2   d 
Q1
 5.657; w.k.t in parallel Q=Q1  Q 2
Q2
Q
Q  5.657Q 2  Q 2  6.657Q 2  Q 2   0.15Q
6.657
Q1  Q  Q 2  Q  0.15Q  0.85Q
85% of the total discharge flows through the big diameter pipe and
remainder 15% flows through the small diameter pipe.
 Cont..
4fLQ 22 4fL(0.15Q)2
h  (i)
2g(  4) d
2 5
2g(  4) d
2 5

(b) Series arrangement

Total head loss = (head loss) AB pipe  (head loss)BC pipe
4fLQ12 4fLQ 22
H = 
2g(  4) D
2 5
2g(  4)2 d 5
Since Q1  Q 2  Q and d=0.5D, we obtain
4fLQ 2  1 1 4fLQ 2  1 1 
H 2 
 5   5
2g(  4)  D 5
d  2g(  4)2  (2d)
5
d 
4fLQ 2  1  4fLQ 2 33
H  1   (ii)
2g(  4)2 d 5  32  2g(  4)2 d 5 32
eqn. (ii) H 33 1
    45.83
eqn. (i) h 32 0.0225
Equivalent Pipe
Often a compound pipe (pipes in series) consisting of several pipes of varying
diameters and lengths is to be replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter, which is
known as equivalent pipe.
The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is known as the equivalent diameter
of the compound pipe.
Neglecting minor losses, total head loss in the series pipe,

4f1 L1 V12 4f 2 L 2 V22 4f 3 L 3 V32

hf     .....
2gd1 2gd 2 2gd 3
 2  2  2
By continuity, Q= d1 V1  d 2 V2  d 3 V3  .....
4 4 4
Assu min g the same friction coefficient,
4f1  4f 2  4f 3  .....  4f
 Cont..
4fL1Q 2 4fL 2Q 2 4fL 3 Q 2
hf     .....
2gd1 (  4) d1 2gd 2 (  4) d 2 2gd 3 (  4) d 3
2 4 2 4 2 4

4f Q 2  L1 L 2 L 3 
hf   5  5  5  .....
2g (  4)2  d1 d 2 d 3 
Let Le denote the length and de represent the diameter of the equivalent pipe
which carries the same discharge and experiences the same head loss. Then

4f Q 2 Le
hf   5
2g (  4) d e
2

L e  L1 L 2 L 3 
where, 5
=  5  5  5  .....  Dupuit’s eqn.
d e  d1 d 2 d 3 
The above eqn. can be used to determine the size of an equivalent pipe
Problem
A piping system consists of three pipes arranged in series:

Pipe Length Diameter

AB 2000 m 40 cm
BC 1500 m 30 cm
CD 1000 m 20 cm

Transform the system to (i) an equivalent length of 30 cm diameter pipe, and

(ii) an equivalent diameter for the pipe 4500 m long.

Solution:
Size of the equivalent pipe can be determined by using the relation,
Le  L1 L 2 L 3 
5
=  5  5  5
d e  d1 d 2 d 3 
(i) To find Le for de  30 cm
Le  2000 1500 1000 
5
=  5
 5
 5 
 Le  9568.36m
(0.3)  (0.4) (0.3) (0.2) 
 Cont…
(ii) To find de for Le  4500 m
4500  2000 1500 1000 
5
=  5
 5
 5 
de  (0.4) (0.3) (0.2) 
de  0.4089 m
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
General flow classifications
1. Hydrodynamics
– Low speed, no density change
(incompressible)
e.g. water distribution network, hydraulics, lubrications

2. Gas Dynamics
– High speed, compressible flow (appreciable
density change)
e.g. flow in ram jet, high speed turbomachinery etc

3. Aerodynamics
– Flow pass aircraft, airfoil, drag, lift etc
Distinctions: Solid, Liquid, Gas
Solid : Stress proportional to strain

   or   E Hooke’s law

Stress Strain Young’s modulus or Modulus of elasticity

Liquid : Stress proportional to rate of shear strain
u u Newton’s Law of
   viscosity
y y

Shear stress Fluid viscosity Velocity gradient

Solid is elastic ( return to original shape when stress is

removed; fluid will not recover)
Compressibility
What is Compressible Flow??

A compressible flow is a flow in which the fluid

density ρ varies significantly within the flow
field. Therefore, ρ (x,y,z) must now be treated
as a field variable rather than simply a
constant. Typically, significant density
variations start to appear when the flow mach
number exceeds 0.3 or so. The effects become
especially large when the mach number
approaches and exceeds unity.
Compressibility
Behavior of a moving Lagrangian control volume

For compressible flow, Bernoulli

eqn. is no longer valid
Compressible flow
Why Compressible flow is important??
Compressible flow appears in many natural
and many technological processes. It deals
more than air, including steam and natural
gas, nitrogen and helium, etc.
Compressible flow
How do we define flow as compressible or
Incompressible??

Mach Number, M (u/a)

M < 0.3 : Incompressible
M > 0.3 : Compressible

u – fluid velocity ; a – sound velocity

Compressible flow
When is compressible flow important??
When a fluid moves at high speed, density changes
become significant

Incompressible Compressible
Compressible flow – Equations & variables
The following table compares the variables and
equations which come into play in the two cases.

Incompressible Flow Compressible Flow

Variables: V ,p V , p, ρ, T

Equations: Mass, momentum, Mass, momentum, energy, state

Continuum
The concept of continuum is a kind of
idealization of the continuous description of
matter where the properties of the matter are
considered as continuous functions of space
variables.
Cont..
There are 2 factors which are important in
determining the validity of the continuum
model.

(i) Distance between molecules

(molecular mean free path)
(ii) Elapsed time between collisions
( this time must be small)

Note : The mean free path of atmospheric

air is 50-70 nm
Knudsen number
A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen number
( Kn = λ / L ) describes the degree of departure from
continuum.
where λ – molecular mean free path (meters)
L – characteristic length
Where
d- effective molecular
diameter
n – number of molecules/m3
* A gas may be assumed to continuum if
Cont..
 Usually when Kn > 0.01, the concept of continuum
does not hold good.
 Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the
flows are known as

slip flow (0.01 < Kn < 0.1),

transition flow (0.1 < Kn < 10) and
free-molecule flow (Kn > 10).

However, for the flow regimes considered in this

course , Kn is always less than 0.01 and it is
usual to say that the fluid is a continuum.
The Perfect Gas
A perfect gas should be thermally as well as
calorically perfect.

Thermally Perfect Gas Calorically Perfect Gas

u = u (T) , h = h (T) Cv = Cons = Cv (T)

Cp = Cons = Cp (T)
Thermal properties, eg. p, T, Sp.volme ( )
m
Thermal equation of state  p =   RT   RT
V 
Calorical properties, eg. u, h, s
Calorical equation of state  u  Cv T & h = C p T
Limitations on Air as a Perfect Gas
1) When the temperature is less than 500 K, air can be
treated as a perfect gas and γ = 1.4

2) When the temperature lies between 500 K and 2000 K,

air is only thermally perfect and calorically imperfect (i.e. γ is not
constant)

3) For temperature more than 2000 K, air becomes both

thermally and calorically imperfect.

According to kinetic theory

n2
Cp
 
Cv n
Laws of Thermodynamics- Review
First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law deals with conservation of energy, and it

can be expressed in many equivalent ways. Heat and
work are two extreme types of energy in transit.

For a closed system that executes a complete cycle,

Q - Heat transferred into the system

W - Work transferred from the system
For a closed system that executes a process,
Q = W + ΔE
E- Total Energy of the system
Energy Eqn. for a flow process
 Cont..
Energy equation for a flow process discussed with two
important classification
CASE 1 :Process involving energy transfer & transformation
CASE 2 :Process involving energy transformation only

The SFEE for some process where work transfer may

involved and heat transfer effect may be neglected (Expansion of
gases and steam in turbines or compression of gases in
compressor).
 Cont..

The SFEE for some process where work transfer is absent and
heat transfer effect also neglected (Expansion of gases and steam
in nozzles or compression of gases in compressor and in diffuser).

The above equations valid when change in elevation is

neglected
Compressibility
Attributes of Compressible Flow

Information propagates in the direction that

depend on local Mach number
Density can no longer be regarded as constant.
Bernoulli’s principle doesn’t hold for compressible
flow.
Coupling between Internal energy and Kinetic
energy can no longer be ignored.
Regions of mixed flow type including subsonic,
sonic and supersonic can be present.
Stagnation concept
The Stagnation state must be reached
(i) without any energy exchange ( Q = W = 0 ) and
(ii) without losses
1 1
2
H1  mgZ 1  mc 1  Q  H 2  mgZ 2  mc 22  w s ;
2 2
In terms of specif icvalues
1 2 1 2
h1 gZ1  c1  q  h2  gZ2  c2  ws
2 2

1 2
h0  h  c
2
Mollier diagram – Total and static state

Physical system

Thermodynamic state plot

The stagnation state is a theoretical state. This state is

very useful in simplifying the solution and treatment of
the flow.
Stagnation Properties
Total enthalpy (h0 ) h0 = h+1/2 C2

Total Temperature (T0)

1 2 1 2 c2
h0  h  c  C pT0  C pT  c  T0  T 
2 2 2C p

Static temperature Velocity temperature (or)

Dynamic temperature
T0  T  Tc
T0 c2
 1
T 2c pT
Cont..
c 2
We know that RT  a 2 and M 2 
a2
T0  1 c2  1 2
  1  1 M
T 2 a2 2

Stagnation velocity of sound (a0)

Cont..
Stagnation Pressure (P0)
It is the pressure of a fluid which is attained when it is
decelerated to zero velocity at zero elevation in an
isentropic process.
  1   1
P0  T0    1 2
     1  M 
P T   2 

Stagnation Density (ρ0)

Highlights of Static & Stagnation States

1) Static property is independent of the choice of

reference frame.
 Static property can be thought of being measured by
someone who travels with the fluid particles.
 Hence, it does not depend on the choice of reference
frame

2) Stagnation property is dependent on the choice of

reference frame
 Consider our everyday running or biking experiences.
We feel a higher pressure on our face as we
accelerate to faster speeds
Cont..

 It is because the air “appears" to travel faster with

respect to us (a moving reference frame) as we
accelerate.
 Accordingly, its stagnation pressure is higher with
respect to a moving observer. Its value is given by the
following isentropic relationship.
  1   1
P0  T0    1 2
     1  M 
P T   2 
where P = 101 kPa and M is the Mach number of the observer
Cont..

Note

 Stagnation state is the reference state that may or may

not exist in the flow system.

 Also, in general, each point in a flow system may have

different stagnation state.

 Also one must realize that when the frame of reference

is changed, total conditions change, although the static
conditions remain the same.
 Cont..

Consider still air with Earth as a reference frame. In this

case, since the velocity is zero, the static and stagnation
conditions are the same.

P=Pt = 1.013 bar

T=Tt = 30 deg. C

Earth as a reference frame

Cont..

V= 180 m/sec

P=1.013 bar = Pt
T= 30 deg.C = Tt Missile as a frame of reference

 As we look forward it appears that the air is coming at us at

180 m/sec. The static conditions of the air remain same.

 However, in this case, the air has a velocity (with respect to

the frame of reference) and thus the stagnations conditions
are different from static conditions.
Flow Regime Classification

Subsonic Flow
0.8 < M
Transonic Flow
0.8 > M > 1.2
Supersonic Flow
M > 1.2
Hypersonic Flow
M > 5

1 2
h  c  h0  cons ---------- (1)
2
 2 p
h  c pT  RT but RT  a and RT 
 1 
Cont..
a2  p
h   ---------- (2), using 1&2
 1  1 
a2 1 2
 C  cons; ---------- (3)
 1 2
At T  0, h  0 and c  cmax;Therefore from (1)
1 2
 cons  h0  cmax; At c  0, a  a 0
2
Therefore from (3)
a0 2
 cons  h0  ---------- (4); combining all
 1
2 a 2
a 1 2 1 2 0 h
 C  cmax  0
 1 2 2  1
Problems
Example 1.
The jet of a gas at 593 K ( γ = 1.3 R = 469 J/kg K) has a Mach
number of 1.2. Determine the local and stagnation conditions
velocity of sound and enthalpy.
What is the Maximum attainable velocity of this jet ?
Solution
GIVEN:
T = 593 K, γ = 1.3, R = 469 J / kg K, M = 1.2

For isentropic flow γ = 1.3, M = 1.2

T / To = 0.822 ; P / Po = 0.428

a = 601.29 m / s Ans
Cont..
T / To = 0.822 To = 593 / 0.822 = 721.41 K

a o  1.3  469  721.41 = 663.21 m / s

Ans
R
Cp  = ( 1.3 x 469) / 0.3 = 2032.333 J/kg-K
 1

ho = cp To = 2032.333 x 721.41
= 1466.15 kJ / kg Ans

h = cp T = 2023.333 x 593
= 1205.174 kJ / kg Ans
Cont..
1 2
c max  h 0  c p To
2
c max  2c p To  2  2032.333  721.41
=1712.4 m/s
Ans
Problem 2
The temperature, pressure and Mach number at the entry of a
flow passage are 300 K, 3 bar and 1.4 respectively. If the exit
Mach number is 3 determine for adiabatic flow of a perfect gas (γ
= 1.4, R=287 J/kg K):
(i) stagnation temperature (ii) temperature and velocity
of gas at exit, and (iii) the flow rate per square metre of the inlet
cross-section.

Solution:
For adiabatic flow T01  T02  T0
T01  1 2 1.4  1
 1 M1  1  (1.4)2  1.392  T01  1.392 T1
T1 2 2

p1 3  105
T01  1.392 300  417.6 K ; 1    3.484 kg / m 3
RT1 287 300
Ans
Cont..
C1  M1a1  1.4  R T1  1.4 1.4  287 300  486.06 m / s
.
. m
m  1 A1C1   1C1  3.484 486.06  1693.45 kg/s - m 2
A1
Ans

T02  1 2 1 .4  1
 1 M2  1  ( 3)2  2.8
T2 2 2
T2 T2 T02 1.392
  T2   300  149.14 K Ans
T1 T1 T01 2.8
C 2  M 2a2  3 1.4  287 149.14  734.4 m / s Ans
SONIC VELOCITY
General

 A disturbance at a given point creates a region of compressed

molecules that is passed along to its neighboring molecules and
in so doing creates a traveling wave.

 Waves are measured by the amplitude of the disturbance.

 The speed at which this disturbance is propagated through the

medium is called the wave speed.

 Wave speed = f ( type of medium, thermodynamic state &

strength of the wave)

 The stronger the wave is, the faster it moves.

Cont..
 Waves of large amplitude, which involve relatively large changes
in pressure and density – Shock waves

 Waves of very small amplitude, their speed is characteristic only

of the medium and its state- Sound waves

 The presence of an object in a medium can only be felt by the

object’s sending out or reflecting infinitesimal waves which
propagate at the characteristic sonic velocity.

 For a compressible flow, the speed of propagation of small

disturbances, called the sonic velocity (acoustic speed).

 The ratio of the flow velocity to the sonic velocity – Mach

number
MACH NUMBER
inertia force  AC 2 C 2
M2    ;  K  a 2
elastic force KA K
C 2 C2 C
   M
a 2 a2 a

V or C – velocity of the medium ; a – sonic velocity through the medium

directed kinectic energy V 2 V2

M2   
random kinectic energy a 2 RT
Effect of Mach number on Compressibility
From Bernoulli eqn w.k.t, compressibility factor is unity for
incompressible fluid.
po  p
1
1
C 2
2
For compressible flow this value deviates from unity; the
magnitude of this deviation increases with the mach number of
the flow.   1
  1
po  To    1 2
     1  M 
p  T   2 
This can be expanded by using Taylor series
1  x n  1  nx  nn  1 x 2  n( n  1)(n  2) x 3  ...
2! 3!
 1 
Here x  M2 & n 
2  1
Cont..
po  2  4  (2   ) 6
 1 M  M  M  ...
p 2 8 48
p 2 p 4  (2   )p 6
po  p  M  M  M  ...
2 8 48
p 2  M 2
(2   )M 4

po  p  M 1   ... 
2  4 24 
po  p M 2 (2   )M 4
 1   ...
 2 4 24
p M 
2 
 2 c 2
c 2
put p=RT and M  2

2 2a 2RT
Cont..
 2  c2  1 2
p  M    RT     c
2   2RT  2
Finally the above equation modified as
po  p M2 2
 1  M 4  ....
1 2 4 24
c
2
2

1.8

1.6
Po/P

Compressible
1.4 Incompressible

1.2

1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mach number
Cont..
po  2  4  (2   ) 6
 1 M  M  M  ... Compressible
p 2 8 48
po 
 1  M 2 Incompressible
p 2

Problem 1
Air (Cp=1.06kJ/kg K, γ =1.385) at p1= 3.5 bar and T1=550 K flows
with a velocity of 210 m/s in a 32 cm diameter duct. Calculate
(a) stagnation temperature (b) mass flow rate (c) mach
number (d) stagnation pressure . Also compute stagnation
pressure assuming the flow as incompressible flow
Problem Cont..
cp cp 1.06
R  c p  c v & c v   R  c p   1.06 
  1.385
R  0.294 kJ / kg K
(a ) Stagnation Temperatur e
2 2
C 210
T0  T1  1
 550   570.8 K Ans
2c p 2 x1060
p1
(b) Mass flow rate, m   1A1C1; 1   2.16 kg / m3
RT1
 2
 2.16   0.32   210  36.5 kg / s Ans
4 
Problem Cont..
(c) Mach Number
C1 210
M1    0.444 Ans
RT1 1.385  294  550
(d) Stagnation Pr essure (Compressib le )
  1 1.385 0.385
P0  T0   570.8 
     1.143  P0  4 bar
P1  T   550  Ans
Stagnation Pr essure (Incompress ible flow )
1 1
P0  P1  1C1  3.5  10  (2.16  2102 )  3.976 bar
2 5

2 2 Ans
Isentropic flow with variable area passages
Introduction
 The most important controlling factors that affect the properties
in a flow systems are

Area changes, friction and heat transfer

 Although some situations may involve the simultaneous effects

of two or more of these factors.

 The majority of engineering problems are such that only one of

these factors becomes the dominant influence for any particular
device.

 In this manner it is possible to consider only the controlling factor

and develop a simple solution that is within the realm of
acceptable engineering accuracy
Objectives- Variable area flow passages
1. To examine different scenarios of nozzle &
diffuser flows
2. To Investigate the relation of flow velocity &
pressure in subsonic & supersonic flow regimes
3. To understand how mass flow rate through a
nozzle will change with the exit pressure
4. To Determine the implications of choking

Variable
area

Nozzle Diffuser
Distinction Between True 1-D Flow & Quasi 1-D Flow

Flow x
• In “true” 1-D flow Cross sectional
area is strictly constant

• In quasi-1-D flow, cross section

varies as a Function of the
longitudinal coordinate, x

Flow • Flow Properties are assumed

constant across any cross-section
Nozzle - Function
 From an energy view point : Nozzle is a device that converts
static enthalpy into kinetic energy

Expansion process
Diffuser - Function
 From an energy view point : Diffuser is a device that converts
kinetic energy into static enthalpy

Compression process
Application

Ramjet Engine

Combustion
Diffuser(compressor) chamber Nozzle
Application – Cont..

Space Shuttle
1D Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

 Relationship between V, , and A are complex

 Derive relationship using continuity, energy, speed
of sound equations

Taking logs and differentiating

Cont..
dp  vdv
Combining this with result from continuity gives

 d dA  2  d dA 
dv   v     dp  v   
  A    A 

dP
w.k.t a
d

 The above Derived relation is the

differential form of Bernoulli’s equation.
dA dp
 2 1  M2
A v
 
Cont..

Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

Where, Ma- Mach number

This is an important relationship



 Pressure of fluid must increase as the flow area of the

duct increases, and must decrease as the flow area
decreases


 Pressure must increase as the flow area decreases, and

must decrease as the area increases
Cont…
Cont…
Comparison of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and
diffusers
 Subsonic Vs Supersonic flow

a a

Nozzle Diffuser Diffuser Nozzle

Property variation with area change
At low Mach no. density variations is
less and the velocity changes
compensate for area changes.
At M = 1.0 , we reach a situation
where density changes and velocity
changes compensate for one another
and thus dA = 0
At M > 1.0 , density decreases so
rapidly, the accompanying velocity
change can not accommodate the flow
and thus the area must increase.
The same piece of equipment can
operate as either a nozzle or diffuser. It
depends on the flow regime.
So, a device is called a nozzle or
diffuser because of what it does,
not what it looks like.
Sonic Properties

@
  1.4
 Cont..

where, k – specific heat ratio

AREA RATIO AS FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER
 For Isentropic flow, look at effect of area change on M by comparing A at any
point to area at sonic point A*

 Use mass conservation to find relation

Ac   * A *c *
A * c*
  (1)

We know that
A*  c
1
  1 2  2
 1 M  1
c* a* 1 
   2  c * 1  2  1 2  2
   M 
c c M *   1 2  c M   1  1 
 M 
 2  (2)
 Cont..
1
*  2  1  1
   (3)

    1   1
Substitute 2 and 3 in 1

 1
A 1  2  1 2  2 ( 1)
   M  (4)
A* M   1  1 
In many compressible flow calculations the function A/A* ( p/p0 )occurs frequently.
This can also be obtained as a function of Mach number from the above and
below equation.   1 2   1
1 2 
   1  
p   1 2  A P M    1
 1  M  (5) 

 
12
p0  2  A P  1 
1  M2 
0

Using 4 & 5  2 
Cont..

Acceleration

Deceleration
 Impulse Function (F)
The terms pA (pressure force) and ρAC2 (inertia force) occur
frequently in compressible flow equations. Since both these
terms have same unit, they are defined by a parameter F,
Impulse function or the wall force function

  Fnet  F2  F1

The thrust experienced by the duct in the direction shown is a

result of changes in pressure and ‘M’ between the cross
sections 1 and 2.
 Cont..

  F2  F1
  p 2 A 2 (1  M 22 )  p1A1 (1  M12 )

The thrust due to the fluid flow between two sections of a

duct can be obtained by the change of the impulse function
between these sections.

At M=1, F=F* and eqn. (4) reduces to

F  p A (1  )
Problem
The entry conditions of air for a nozzle are p₁=1.392 bar,
.
T₁=333K, M₁=0.40. If the exit pressure is 1.039 bar determine
the exit mach no and maximum specific mass flow ṁmax/A*

Solution:
Given Data
P₁=1.392 bar; T₁=333 K; M₁=0.4 ; P₂=1.039 bar

M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F* A P

A P0

0.4 0.431 0.969 0.895 1.590 1.375 1.424

T₁/T₀=0.969; T₀=333/0.969 T₀ = 343.65 K

P₁/P₀=0.895; P₀=1.392/0.895 P₀=1.5553 bar

 Cont..
Now, P₂/P₀=1.039/1.5553 P₂/P₀=0.668

A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F*
A P0

0.78 0.807 0.892 0.668 1.047 1.023 0.7

The Exit Mach number is, M2 =0.78

 max
m
wkt, m
  
   A C    C
A
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F* A P
A P0

1 1 0.834 0.528 1.000 1.000 0.528

P*/P₀=0.528 P*=0.8212
Similarly, T*/T₀=0.834 T*=343.65 / 0.834 ; T*=286.26 K
 Cont..

 p 0.8212  10 5
  
  0.999 kg / m 3

RT 287  286.26
  
M  1  c  a  RT
 1.4  287  286.26  339.1 m / s
m   2

  c  0.999  339.1  338.8 s m kg

A
 max
m 2

 338.8 kg
s m OR use the below eqn.
A
Problem
The pressure, velocity and temperature of air (γ=1.4, Cp = 1.0
kJ/kg K) at the entry of the nozzle are 2 kPa, 145 m/s and 330 K;
the exit pressure is 1.5 bar.
a) what is the shape of the nozzle?
b) Determine for isentropic flow,
i) the Mach numbers at the entry and exit and exit fluid velocity
ii) the flow rate and maximum possible flow rate
Solution:
Given Data
P₁=2bar; T₁=330 K; C₁=145 m/s ; P₂=1.5 bar

C1 145
M1    0.4
RT1 1.4  287  330

@ M1 =0.4 refer Isentropic table

 Cont..

M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F* A P

A P0

0.4 0.431 0.969 0.895 1.590 1.375 1.424

T₁/T₀=0.969; T₀=330/0.969 T₀=340.56 K

P₁/P₀=0.895; P₀=2/0.895 P₀=2.234 bar

P2/P₀=1.5/2.234=0.671 @ refer Isentropic table

A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F*
A P0

0.77 0.797 0.894 0.67 1.052 1.026 0.711

 Cont..

The inlet Mach number is less than exit Mach number. So

the given shape of the nozzle is convergent type

T2
 0.894  T2  0.894  340.56  304.457K
T02
 Cont..

m P1 2  10 5
 1C1  C1   145  306 . 2 m2 sec
kg

A RT1 287  330

 1

m max  2  2 (  1)
 P0

   
A    1 R T0
1.4 1

 2  2 (1.4 1)
1.4 2.234  10 5
     489.43 m2 sec
kg

 1.4  1  287 340.56

 Flow Through Nozzles
Convergent Nozzle
For curve a,b
Pe=Pb
For curve c
Pe  P*  Pb
For curve d and e
Pe>Pb

For curve c, Pe/P0 = 0.528

 Pe  P *
CD- Nozzle or De Laval Nozzle
 Cont..

 1 1

 max T0
m R  2   1 2 Fleigners equation


   T0
m
A P0     1 
 0.0404
A P0
Cont..
Cont..
Cont..
Convergent-Divergent Nozzle with High Back Pressure

When Pb is very nearly the same as P0 the flow

remains subsonic throughout.
The flow in the nozzle is then similar to that in a
venturi.
The local pressure drops from P0 to a minimum
value at the throat, Pthroat , which is greater than P*.
The local pressure increases from throat to exit
plane of the nozzle.
The pressure at exit side of the nozzle is equal to
the back pressure.
This trend will continue for a particular value of
back pressure.
Cont..
 Cont..

What Next?!
What happens if back pressure is
further reduced?
• Further pressure reduced at
throat!?!?!?!?
• More Mass Flow Rate!?!?!?!?
 Cont..

Answer

It is impossible to have a pressure lower than

p* at the throat.

Further lowering of the back pressure will not

alter the mass flow rate.
Cont..
Cont..
 Cont..

Shock Wave ( curve f, g )

Pe < Pb
 Cont..
Shock Wave ( curve i, j )

Pe > Pb
 Problem
A large supply chamber containing air at 6.0 bar and 300
K is connected to a converging nozzle on the left side
and a C-D nozzle on the right side. Both nozzles share
the same minimum passage area of 100 cm2. The C-D
nozzle has an exit-to-throat area ratio of 1.2

a) Consider the converging nozzle at the left and

compare the pressure level at point A, C, and D.
 Cont..
When the fluid ‘senses’ the pressure differential
between chamber(Po) and ambient (Pamb), it
accelerates from very low velocity (at chamber) to
finite velocity closed to the nozzle inlet. Due to this
there is a corresponding pressure drop from point
A to C.

Between the inlet and exit, the flow continues to

accelerates and pressure continues to drop. We
can conclude that

PA>PC>PD
 Cont..
b) If the ambient pressure is reduced to 5.0 atm.
What is the mass flow rate in the nozzle?

 In this type problem, we always need to check if

the converging nozzle is choked at Pamb = 5.0 atm

 For a converging nozzle, we learned that the

Pamb has to be lower than 52.8% of the chamber
pressure before choking occurs.
Pamb 5.0
 In this case,   0.834  0.528
Po 6.0
 Hence, the nozzle is not choked.
 Cont..
For the given pressure ratio
Pexit
 0.834;@ refer isentropic table
Po
A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F* A  P0
0.52 0.555 0.9493 0.834 1.313 1.180 1.089

From the given data, To = 300 K. Thus,

Texit = 300 x 0.9493 = 284.8 K

From Eqn. of state , P= ρ R T ρ =P/RT

 Cont..
Pexit/Po =0.834 ; Pexit = 0.834 x 6 = 5 atm

Pexit 5  10 5
exit    6.12 kg / m 3

RTexit 287  284.8

Thus m can be computed
m  exit ACexit
 6.12   0.01  M exit  1.4  287  284.8
 10.7 kg / sec
 Cont..
How much do we need to lower the ambient
pressure to reach the choking point of this
converging nozzle?
For a converging nozzle, the ambient pressure
has to be lower than 52.8% of the chamber
pressure to choke the converging nozzle. This
corresponds to an ambient pressure of

P 
amb
  0.528    3.17
Po 6.0
 Pamb  3.17 atm
 Cont..
Reference Picture
If Pamb is lowered
than 3.17 atm, the
nozzle cannot
respond furthur
because it is
choked at its
maximum throat
mass flow.

0.528
 Cont..
What is the mass flow rate at choking condition?
When Pamb = 3.17 atm, the ‘M’ at the exit plane
just reaches unity.
From Isentropic table at M = 1

A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F*
A  P0
1 1 0.834 0.528 1.000 1.000 0.528

Texit
 0.834  Texit  0.834  300  250.2K
To
 Cont..

Pexit 3.17  10
5
exit    4.415 kg / m 3

RTexit 287  250.2

Thus m  can be computed
  exit ACexit
m
 4.415  0.01  M exit  1.4  287  250.2
 14 kg / sec
 Cont..
Let us consider C-D nozzle on the right
If the ambient pressure is set at 5.0 atm, do you
expect the mass flow rate in the C-D nozzle to be
the same as that in the converging nozzle
computed before?
For this C-D nozzle case, we also need to check if
the nozzle is choked at Pamb = 5.0 atm.

The main difference between the C-D nozzle and

the converging nozzle is that the choking pr. ratio
is dependent on the exit-to-throat area ratio (not a
universal constant anymore).
 Cont..
With an area ratio of 1.20, we find from the
isentropic flow table that the subsonic solution
gives a pressure ratio

A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F* A  P0
0.59 0.625 0.935 0.790 1.200 1.113 0.948

P 5.0
 0.790 
Po 6.0
 Cont..

Hence, we conclude that

- the ambient pressure is high enough
that the flow is not choked
- the flow remains subsonic within the
C-D nozzle
- ρexit, Mexit, Texit are the same as those in
the converging nozzle
Cont..
 Cont..
to find m.f.r

Since the exit area is 1.20 times as large as

that of the converging nozzle, we expect a
20 % increase in the mass flow rate.

Hence, m.f.r is = (10.7x0.2)+10.7

= 12.84 kg/s

How much do we need to lower the ambient

pressure for the nozzle to operate at its first
critical point?
 Cont..
The first critical point corresponds to an
isentropic, subsonic solution with Mach 1.0 flow
at the throat.
We obtain from the isentropic flow table that
Pamb
 0.79  Pamb  4.74 atm
Po
What is the corresponding mass flow rate at the
first critical point?
Once this converging-diverging nozzle is choked
at its first critical point, w.k.t. Mach 1.0 is
achieved at its min. flow area, i.e. at the throat.
 Cont..
We expect that same m.f.r as that of the con.
nozzle choked case
  14 kg / sec
m

At the design point (third critical),

What is the ambient pressure, exit temperature,
exit fluid density and exit velocity?

The third critical point corresponds to an

isentropic, supersonic solution in the C-D nozzle.

For an area ratio of 1.20, we obtain a supersonic

solution from the isentropic flow table
 Cont..
A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F* A  P0

1.53 1.383 0.681 0.261 1.200 1.053 0.312

Pamb
 0.261  Pamb  1.566 atm
Po
Tamb
 0.681  Tamb  204.3 K
To
Pexit 1.566  10 5
exit    2.67 kg / m 3

RTexit 287  204.3

 Cont..
Vexit  M exit RTexit  1.53 1.4  287  204.3
 438.36 m/sec
How do you compare the ambient pressure which
is required to choke the converging and C-D
nozzle? Which one is higher? Can you explain it?
Cont..
 Cont..

How do you compare the m.f.r between the two

nozzles:
A. before choking?

Before any choking occurs, the C-D nozzle

has a higher m.f.r (20% higher) than the con.
nozzle simply because the exit area of the C-D
nozzle is 20% larger than that of the con. nozzle.
 Cont..
As the ambient pressure is reduced, the C-D nozzle
gets choked first. Once it is choked, its m.f.r is not
affected by the ambient pressure anymore.

Meanwhile the m.f.r of the con. nozzle keeps

increasing as the ambient pressure is reduced.

B. after choking?

The m.f.r is the same in both nozzles after

they are both choked.

Graphically, the m.f.r of the two nozzles can be

compared as follows:
Cont..
 Problem
The total properties of air entering a con. Nozzle
are 200 kPa and 130 deg.C. Find the m.f.r for the
following chamber pressures

(i) 105.6 kPa (ii) 92 kPa and (iii) 125 kPa

Solution:

When back (chamber) pressure =105.6 kPa

Pb 105.6
  0.528  (1)
Po 200
Eqn. 1 is equal to critical pressure ratio
 Cont..

 
2  P 
2
P
 1  
m

P0
  
     
A RT0   1  P0   0
P
 


200  103 1.4
287  403
2
0.4

0.5281.4286
 0.528
1.7143

 402.66 k g/m  sec
2

(ii) When chamber pressure = 92 kPa

Pb 92
  0.46  ( 2)
Po 200
 Cont..
Eqn. (2) < Eqn. (1); So furthur decrease in pressure
will not change the m.f.r and is constant. Therefore

m
 402.66 kg/m  sec
2

A
(iii) When chamber pressure = 125 kPa
Pb 125
  0.625  ( 3)
Po 200
2   P  
2  1 

m P0 P 
      
A RT0 
  1  P0   0
P 
 
 Cont..

 200  103 1.4

m
A

287  403
2
0.4

0.6251.4286
 0.625
1.7143

 394.25 k g/m  sec
2
 Con-Div. Diffuser

From an Energy point of view,

Diffuser is a device that converts kinetic
energy into static enthalpy.

Applications:

 Turbomachines (Compressor)
 Aircraft engines
 Supersonic wind-tunnel
 Con-Div. Diffuser

Centrifugal Compressor with Diffuser

 Inlet Diffuser

Air Compressor

Combustor

Gas Turbine
Con-Div. Diffuser

Tail Pipe
Aircraft Engine Components

Jet of Exhaust gases

Con-Div. Diffuser

Wind Tunnel
Con-Div. Diffuser

In isentropic
diffusion, there is a
continuous rise in
static pressure.

In irreversible
process, diffusion
occurs through a
shock wave.
 Limitations of Gas tables

1. They do not show trends or the

‘big picture’.
2. There is almost always the
need for interpolation.
3. They display only one or at
most a few values of γ.
4. They do not necessarily have
the required accuracy.
 Effect of  Variation

P – Static Pressure
Pt – Total Pressure

P/Pt is least sensitive to variations of 

 Cont..

T – Static Temperature
Tt – Total Temperature

T/ Tt ratio relatively insensitive to variations in 

(below M ≈ 0.8)
 Cont..

Area ratio relatively insensitive to variations in 

below M ≈ 1.5
Sketch Pressure Vs Distance along the system for the following three
cases. Assume isentropic flow except for normal shocks. Your
sketches must indicate clearly if ‘P’ is going up, down, remaining
constant. Indicate where flow must be sonic.