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K
42,2 A reliable modification of the
Adomian decomposition method
for higher-order nonlinear
282
differential equations
Randolph Rach
Hartford, Michigan, USA
Abdul-Majid Wazwaz
Department of Mathematics, Saint Xavier University,
Chicago, Illinois, USA, and
Jun-Sheng Duan
College of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Technology,
Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to propose a new modification of the Adomian decomposition
method for resolution of higher-order inhomogeneous nonlinear initial value problems.
Design/methodology/approach – First the authors review the standard Adomian decomposition
scheme and the Adomian polynomials for solving nonlinear differential equations. Next, the
advantages of Duan’s new algorithms and subroutines for fast generation of the Adomian polynomials
to high orders are discussed. Then algorithms are considered for the solution of a sequence of first-,
second-, third- and fourth-order inhomogeneous nonlinear initial value problems with constant system
coefficients by the new modified recursion scheme in order to derive a systematic algorithm for the
general case of higher-order inhomogeneous nonlinear initial value problems.
Findings – The authors investigate seven expository examples of inhomogeneous nonlinear initial
value problems: the exact solution was known in advance, in order to demonstrate the rapid
convergence of the new approach, including first- through sixth-order derivatives and quadratic,
cubic, quartic and exponential nonlinear terms in the solution and a sextic nonlinearity in the
first-order derivative. The key difference between the various modified recursion schemes is the choice
of the initial solution component, using different choices to partition and delay the subsequent parts
through the recursion steps. The authors’ new approach extends this concept.
Originality/value – The new modified decomposition method provides a significant advantage for
computing the solution’s Taylor expansion series, both systematically and rapidly, as demonstrated in
the various expository examples.
Keywords Cybernetics, Differential equations, Adomian decomposition method,
Modified decomposition methods, Adomian polynomials,
Higher-order nonlinear ordinary differential equations
Paper type Research paper

Kybernetes
Vol. 42 No. 2, 2013
pp. 282-308
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0368-492X
This work was supported in part by the Innovation Program of the Shanghai Municipal
DOI 10.1108/03684921311310611 Education Commission (No. 11YZ225).
1. Introduction Adomian
The Adomian decomposition method (Adomian, 1983, 1986, 1989, 1994) and its decomposition
modifications (Wazwaz, 1997, 2002b, 2009, 2011) are techniques that are thoroughly
used in the literature for solving a variety of linear and nonlinear equations, ordinary method
and partial differential equations or integral equations. The Adomian decomposition
method and the modified decomposition methods (Duan and Rach, 2011a; Wazwaz, 1999;
Wazwaz and El-Sayed, 2001) provide efficient algorithms for analytic approximate 283
solutions and numeric simulations for real-world applications in cybernetics analysis, the
applied sciences and engineering, e.g. as exhibited in the literature of cybernetics such
as Garcı́a-Olivares (2003), Guellal et al. (2000), Hadizadeh and Maleknejad (1998), Lesnic
(2007), Manseur and Cherruault (2005) and N’Dour and Cherruault (1997). We believe that
the paradigm of cybernetics is better framed in the shorthand of mathematical symbols
to model the complex interactions of cybernetic systems.
Our objective is to not only to qualify but to quantify possible outcomes. Most often the
cyberneticist is confronted with forecasting performance parameters of dynamic system
models, where the interactions involve stochastic, nonlinear or even nonlinear stochastic
effects. All solution procedures for systems analysis involve approximations of various
kinds, where the solution is obtained as an analytic approximation, i.e. a continuous function
with respect to time and possibly other state variables, or as a numerical approximation,
i.e. a discrete set of values, except for several well-known elementary classes of linear
deterministic problems such as the wave equation. Generally we will not know the exact
solution in advance. The paramount issue is when to introduce or accept approximations in
our modeling. The Adomian decomposition method is an analytic approximation method,
which does not require accepting a priori assumptions in our cybernetics models that
drastically alter the outcomes so that they do not faithfully replicate reality. We retain the
full nonlinear features in our solution algorithms using the Adomian decomposition
method. It permits us to solve both nonlinear initial value problems and boundary value
problems without unphysical restrictive assumptions such as required by linearization,
perturbation, ad hoc assumptions, guessing the initial term or a set of basis functions,
and so forth, most of which would change the physical behavior of the problem.
Furthermore, the Adomian decomposition method and its modifications do not
require the use of Green’s functions, which would complicate such analytic calculations
since Green’s functions are not easily determined in most cases. The accuracy of the
analytic approximate solutions obtained can be verified by direct substitution.
Advantages of the Adomian decomposition method over Picard’s iterated method were
demonstrated in Rach (1987). More advantages of the Adomian decomposition method
over the variational iteration method were presented in Wazwaz and Rach (2011). A key
notion is the Adomian polynomials, which are tailored to the particular nonlinearity to
solve nonlinear operator equations, and for which new, more efficient and convenient
algorithms have been proposed (Duan, 2010a, b, 2011). For a comprehensive bibliography
featuring many new engineering applications and a modern review of the Adomian
decomposition method (Rach, 2012; Duan et al., 2012).
Let us first recall the basic principles of the Adomian decomposition method and
two of the modified decomposition methods. Consider an ordinary differential equation
in Adomian’s operator-theoretic form:

Lu þ Ru þ Nu ¼ gðxÞ; ð1Þ
K where L is the highest order differential operator, R is the remainder linear part
containing the lower order derivative terms, N represents an analytic nonlinear
42,2 operator and g(x) is the specified analytic input function.
We assume that the p-fold differential operator is invertible, and therefore the p-fold
integral operator L 2 1 from 0 to x exists and is defined by:
Z x Z x
284 21
L ð·Þ ¼ · · · ð · Þdx· · ·dx:
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} ð2Þ
0 0
|fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl} p-fold
p-fold
This in turn means:
L 21 LuðxÞ ¼ uðxÞ 2 FðxÞ; ð3Þ
where F(x) is determined by using the given initial values. Applying L 2 1 to both sides
of equation (1) leads to:
uðxÞ ¼ FðxÞ þ L 21 ð gðxÞ 2 RuðxÞ 2 NuðxÞÞ: ð4Þ
The Adomian decomposition method defines the unknown function representing the
solution by an infinite decomposition series:
X1
uðxÞ ¼ un ðxÞ; ð5Þ
n¼0
and defines the nonlinear term by an infinite decomposition series of the Adomian
polynomials (Adomian and Rach, 1983a, b; Duan, 2010a, b, 2011; Rach, 1984, 2008;
Wazwaz, 2000):
X1
NuðxÞ ¼ Aðu0 ðxÞ; . . . ; un ðxÞÞ; ð6Þ
n¼0
where the solution components un(x), n $ 0, of the solution u(x) will be determined
recursively, and the Adomian polynomials An(x), n $ 0, are generated for any analytic
nonlinearity (Adomian, 1981; Adomian and Rach, 1983a, 1984, 1985a, b, c, 1986a, b;
Duan and Rach, 2011a, b; Wazwaz, 2002a, 2005).

The Adomian polynomials

Adomian and Rach (1983b) first published the definitional formula of the Adomian
polynomials for the one-variable simple nonlinearity Nu ¼ f(u(x)), where f is assumed
to be analytic, as:

1 ›n 
An ðxÞ ¼ n
f ðuðx; lÞÞ ; n $ 0; ð7Þ
n! ›l l¼0
where:
X
1
uðx; lÞ ¼ l n un ðxÞ; ð8Þ
n¼0
and:
X
1
f ðuðx; lÞÞ ¼ l n An ðxÞ; ð9Þ
n¼0
where l is a grouping parameter of convenience. In computational practice, we Adomian
truncate the decomposition series after n ¼ M for some finite M, since the higher order
solution components un(x) for n . M do not contribute to the calculation of the An(x)
decomposition
for n # M in practice, thus: method
!
1 ›n XM 
n 
An ðxÞ ¼ f l u n ðxÞ  ; 0 # n # M; ð10Þ
n! ›l n n¼0

l¼0
285
from which we can calculate the first (M þ 1) Adomian polynomials from A0(x) through
AM(x), inclusively, such that An(x) ¼ An(u0(x), u1(x), . . . , un(x)) for n ¼ 0, 1, . . . , M. We list
the corresponding MATHEMATICAw code AP1[f, M] in Appendix 1 as programmed
according to equation (10), which generates the first 30 Adomian polynomials within
13.65 s; the benchmark computer has an Intel Coree i5-650 processor with a clock
frequency of 3.20 GHz and a RAM capacity of 4.00 GB using Microsoft’s Windowsw 7 OS.
Note that we have used the following relations:
  
› ›u › ›n 
ð·Þ ¼ ð · Þ; and n
uðx; lÞ ¼ n!un ðxÞ; ð11Þ
›l ›l › u ›l l¼0
to calculate the formulas of the Adomian polynomials An(x) in terms of explicit instead
of implicit differentiations so as to interpret the results in terms of the solution
components u0(x), u1(x), . . . , un(x).
We list the formulas of the first several Adomian polynomials for the one-variable
simple analytic nonlinearity Nu ¼ f(u(x)) from A0(x) through A5(x), inclusively, for
convenient reference:
A0 ðxÞ ¼ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ;
›
A1 ðxÞ ¼ u1 ðxÞ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ;
›u 0
› 1 ›2
A2 ðxÞ ¼ u2 ðxÞ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ þ u21 ðxÞ 2 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ;
›u 0 2! ›u 0
› ›2 1 ›3
A3 ðxÞ ¼ u3 ðxÞ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ þ u1 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ 2 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ þ u31 ðxÞ 3 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ;
›u 0 ›u 0 3! ›u 0
  2
› 1 2 ›
A4 ðxÞ ¼ u4 ðxÞ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ þ u þ u1 ðxÞu3 ðxÞ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ
›u 0 2! 2 ›u20 ð12Þ
1 ›3 1 ›4
þ u21 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ 3 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ þ u41 ðxÞ 4 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ;
2! ›u0 4! ›u0
› ›2
A5 ðxÞ ¼ u5 ðxÞ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ þ ðu2 ðxÞu3 ðxÞ þ u1 ðxÞu4 ðxÞÞ 2 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ
›u 0 ›u 0
  3
1 1 ›
þ u1 ðxÞ u22 ðxÞ þ u21 ðxÞu3 ðxÞ f ðu0 ðxÞÞ
2! 2! ›u30
1 3 ›4 1 ›5
þ u1 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ 4 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ þ u51 ðxÞ 5 f ðu0 ðxÞÞ:
3! ›u0 5! ›u0
K Recently Duan (2010a, b, 2011) has developed several new, efficient algorithms for fast
generation of the one-variable and multi-variable Adomian polynomials. For the case
42,2 of the one-variable Adomian polynomials, we favor Duan’s (2011) Corollary 3 algorithm
as it does not involve the differentiation operator, but only requires the operations of
addition and multiplication, which is eminently convenient for computer algebra
systems such as MATHEMATICAw, MAPLEw or MATLABw:
286 Xn
A0 ¼ f ðu0 Þ; An ¼ C kn f ðkÞ ðu0 Þ; for n $ 1; ð13Þ
k¼1
where the coefficients C nk are defined recursively as:

C 1n ¼ un ; n $ 1;
1X
n2k ð14Þ
C kn ¼ k21
ð j þ 1Þujþ1 C n212j ; 2 # k # n;
n j¼0

from which we can calculate the first (M þ 1) Adomian polynomials. We list the
corresponding MATHEMATICAw code AP2[f, M] for Duan’s Corollary 3 algorithm in
Appendix 2, which generates the first 30 Adomian polynomials within 0.90s. We remark
that it has been timed in speed tests to be one of the fastest on record using a
commercially available laptop computer (Duan, 2011).
Adomian and Rach (1983b) also published the definitional formula of the Adomian
polynomials for the multi-variable differential nonlinearity:
NuðxÞ ¼ f ðuðxÞ; u ð1Þ ðxÞ; . . . ; u ð p21Þ ðxÞÞ; ð15Þ
as used in pth-order nonlinear differential equations, where f is assumed to be
analytic, as:

1 ›n  
An ðxÞ ¼ f uðx; lÞ; u ð1Þ
ðx; lÞ; . . . ; u ð p21Þ
ðx; lÞ  ; n $ 0; ð16Þ
n! ›l n 
l¼0

where:
›i
u ði Þ ðx; lÞ ¼ uðx; lÞ; 0 # i # p 2 1; ð17Þ
›x i
X 1
uðx; lÞ ¼ l n un ðxÞ; ð18Þ
n¼0

X
1
u ði Þ ðx; lÞ ¼ l n uðin Þ ðxÞ; 0 # i # p 2 1; ð19Þ
n¼0

and:
  X1
f uðx; lÞ; u ð1Þ ðx; lÞ; . . . ; u ð p21Þ ðx; lÞ ¼ l n An ðxÞ: ð20Þ
n¼0

We observe that this has the same form as the case of multi-variable nonlinearities
f(u1(x), u2(x), . . . , um(x)) as used in systems of m-coupled nonlinear differential
equations, where the uk’s are the unknown solution functions for 1 # k # m. Thus, we Adomian
can simply replace the u (k2 1)’s with the uk’s, i.e. by the correspondence uk $ u (k2 1),
k ¼ 1, 2, . . . , m, where the corresponding definitional formula for the multi-variable
decomposition
Adomian polynomials for m-coupled nonlinearities is: method

1 ›n  
An ðxÞ ¼ f u1 ðx; lÞ; u2 ðx; lÞ; . . . ; um ðx; lÞ  ; n $ 0; ð21Þ
n! ›l n l¼0 287
where:
X
1
uk ðx; lÞ ¼ l n uk;n ðxÞ; k ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; m; ð22Þ
n¼0

and:
  X1
f u1 ðx; lÞ; u2 ðx; lÞ; . . . ; um ðx; lÞ ¼ l n An ðxÞ: ð23Þ
n¼0

The notation representing the single solution components un is not to be misconstrued

for the notation representing the multiple coupled solutions um and is readily distinguished
by context. We can readily calculate the first (M þ 1) multi-variable Adomian polynomials
using Duan’s (2010a) Corollary 1 algorithm and debut a new MATHEMATICAw code
APmulti[f, m, M] for Duan’s Corollary 1 algorithm in Appendix 3, which generates the
first 15 three-variable Adomian polynomials within 4.15 s.
On using one of Duan’s fast subroutines from any one of the three appendices, the
reader may simply copy the code from the PDF file and paste it directly into the
MATHEMATICAw application. For example, first run the code APmulti[f, m, M] in
Appendix 3, where f can be defined for any analytic multi-argument function, then
running APmulti[f, 3, 5] will generate the first six three-variable Adomian polynomials;
running APmulti[f, 6, 11] will generate the first 12 six-variable Adomian polynomials,
and so on.
Substituting equations (5) and (6) into equation (4) yields:
! !
X1 X
1 X1
21 21
un ðxÞ ¼ FðxÞ þ L gðxÞ 2 L R un ðxÞ þ An ðxÞ : ð24Þ
n¼0 n¼0 n¼0

In what follows we briefly outline the basic steps of the Adomian decomposition
method and the two valuable modifications developed in Wazwaz (1999) and Wazwaz
and El-Sayed (2001).

The Adomian decomposition method

Identifying the initial solution component as:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ FðxÞ þ L 21 gðxÞ; ð25Þ

then the standard Adomian recursion scheme:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ FðxÞ þ L 21 gðxÞ;

ð26Þ
unþ1 ðxÞ ¼ 2L 21 ðRun ðxÞ þ An ðxÞÞ; n $ 0;
K will lead to the complete determination of the solution components un(x), n $ 0, of the
solution u(x). The solution series follows immediately (Adomian, 1983, 1986, 1989,
42,2 1994; Wazwaz, 1997, 2002b, 2009, 2011).

The modified decomposition method by Wazwaz

Wazwaz (1999) introduced a modified recursion scheme to the Adomian decomposition
288 method. Assume that:

g ðxÞ ¼ FðxÞ þ L 21 gðxÞ: ð27Þ

Based on the assumption that g(x) can be divided into two parts g0(x) and g1(x), then
only g0(x) is assigned to the zeroth-order solution component u0(x), whereas the part
g1(x) may be combined with the other terms given earlier in equation (26) to comprise
the first-order solution component u1(x), while the subsequent solution components
un(x), n $ 2, remain the same in form as defined before. In other words, the modified
recursion scheme reads:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ g0 ðxÞ;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ g 1 ðxÞ 2 L 21 ðRu0 ðxÞ þ A0 ðxÞÞ; ð28Þ
21
unþ2 ðxÞ ¼ 2L ðRunþ1 ðxÞ þ Anþ1 ðxÞÞ; n $ 0:

The new modified decomposition method by Wazwaz and El-Sayed

Wazwaz and El-Sayed (2001) introduced a new modification to the Adomian
decomposition method. Using the Taylor series expansion for g(x) as:
X
1
g ðxÞ ¼ gn ðxÞ: ð29Þ
n¼0

Consequently, the new modified recursion scheme can be set in the form:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ g0 ðxÞ;
ð30Þ
unþ1 ðxÞ ¼ gnþ1 ðxÞ 2 L 21 ðRun ðxÞ þ An ðxÞÞ; n $ 0:
It is to be noted that these two modifications (Wazwaz, 1999; Wazwaz and El-Sayed,
2001) were developed to facilitate the computational work although both modified
recursion schemes introduce a slight variation to the standard Adomian decomposition
method (Adomian, 1983). In point of fact, the Adomian decomposition series is found to
be a computationally advantageous rearrangement of the Banach-space analog of the
Taylor expansion series about the initial solution component function (Duan and Rach,
2011a; Rach, 2008), which permits solution by recursion. Furthermore, convergence of
the Adomian decomposition method is not limited to cases when only the fixed-point
theorem applies, which is far too restrictive for most physical applications (Duan and
Rach, 2011a; Rach, 2008).
It is the purpose of this work to introduce a new reliable modification of the Adomian
decomposition method. We aim to examine higher-order inhomogeneous nonlinear
differential equations, with constant system coefficients, in order to compute the
solution’s Taylor expansion series about the initial point without using differentiation Adomian
operators in the modified recursion schemes. decomposition
2. Analysis of the new reliable modification method
We illustrate the steps of our new modification by considering the first-order initial
value problem (IVP), second-order IVP, third-order IVP, fourth-order IVP, and move to
generalize to the pth-order IVP. 289
2.1 First-order inhomogeneous nonlinear IVP
We first consider the first-order inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equation:

u0 ðxÞ þ a0 uðxÞ þ bf ðuðxÞÞ ¼ gðxÞ; uð0Þ ¼ C 0 ; ð31Þ

or equivalently:

LuðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ 2 RuðxÞ 2 NuðxÞ; ð32Þ

where:

d
L¼ ð · Þ; RuðxÞ ¼ a0 uðxÞ; NuðxÞ ¼ bf ðuðxÞÞ: ð33Þ
dx
We assume that g(x) is analytic, and hence has the Taylor expansion series:
X
1
xn
gðxÞ ¼ gn : ð34Þ
n¼0
n!

Assuming that the differential operator L is invertible, and hence the inverse operator
L 2 1 exists and is given by:
Z x
21
L ð·Þ ¼ ð · Þdx: ð35Þ
0

Notice that:

L 21 LuðxÞ ¼ uðxÞ 2 C 0 ; ð36Þ

and:
Z !
x X
1
xn X1
x nþ1 X
1
xn
21
L gðxÞ ¼ gn dx ¼ gn ¼ g n21 : ð37Þ
0 n¼0
n! n¼0
ðn þ 1Þ! n¼1 n!

Applying the onefold integral operator L 2 1 to both sides of equation (32) and using
equations (34)-(36), we obtain:
X
1 Z x Z x
xn
uðxÞ ¼ C 0 þ g n21 2 a0 uðxÞdx 2 b f ðuðxÞÞdx: ð38Þ
n¼1
n! 0 0
K Using equations (5) and (6), equation (38) becomes:
42,2 X1 X1 Z xX 1 Z xX1
xn
un ðxÞ ¼ C 0 þ g n21 2 a0 un ðxÞdx 2 b An ðxÞdx: ð39Þ
n¼0 n¼1
n! 0 n¼0 0 n¼0

Consequently, we set the following modified recursion scheme:

290
u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ;
Z x Z x ð40Þ
x nþ1
unþ1 ðxÞ ¼ gn 2 a0 un ðxÞdx 2 b An ðxÞdx; n $ 0;
ðn þ 1Þ! 0 0

for the determination of the solution components un(x), n $ 0.

In view of this, the solution approximant fmþ 1(x) is given by:
X
m
fmþ1 ðxÞ ¼ un ðxÞ; ð41Þ
n¼0

that gives:
X
1
lim f ðxÞ ¼
m!1 mþ1
un ðxÞ ¼ u * ðxÞ: ð42Þ
n¼0

In the sequel, whenever a nonlinearity involves derivatives of the solution, then the
nonlinearity is decomposed according to formulas (62) and (66) based on our new
paradigm.

2.2 Second-order inhomogeneous nonlinear IVP

We next consider the second-order inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equation:
u00 ðxÞ þ a1 u0 ðxÞ þ a0 uðxÞ þ bf ðuðxÞ; u0 ðxÞÞ ¼ gðxÞ;
ð43Þ
uð0Þ ¼ C 0 ; u0 ð0Þ ¼ C 1 ;
or equivalently:
LuðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ 2 RuðxÞ 2 NuðxÞ; ð44Þ
where in this case:
d2
L¼ ð · Þ; RuðxÞ ¼ a1 u0 ðxÞ þ a0 uðxÞ; NuðxÞ ¼ bf ðuðxÞ; u0 ðxÞÞ; ð45Þ
dx 2
and the inverse operator L 2 1 exists and is given by:
Z xZ x
L 21 ð · Þ ¼ ð · Þdxdx: ð46Þ
0 0

Notice that in this case:

L 21 LuðxÞ ¼ uðxÞ 2 C 0 2 C 1 x; ð47Þ

and: Adomian
Z xZ ! decomposition
x X
1
xn X1
x nþ2 X
1
xn
L 21 gðxÞ ¼ gn dxdx ¼ gn ¼ g n22 ; ð48Þ method
0 0 n¼0
n! n¼0
ðn þ 2Þ! n¼2 n!

Applying the twofold integral operator L 2 1 to both sides of equation (44) and using
equations (46)-(47), we obtain: 291
X1 Z x
xn
uðxÞ ¼ C 0 þ ða1 C 0 þ C 1 Þx þ g n22 2 a1 uðxÞdx
n¼2
n! 0
Z xZ x Z xZ x ð49Þ
0
2 a0 uðxÞdxdx 2 b f ðuðxÞ; u ðxÞÞdxdx:
0 0 0 0
Using equations (5) and (6), equation (49) becomes:
X1 X1 Z xX 1
xn
un ðxÞ ¼ C 0 þ ða1 C 0 þ C 1 Þx þ g n22 2 a1 un ðxÞdx
n¼0 n¼2
n! 0 n¼0
Z xZ xX 1 Z xZ xX
1
ð50Þ
2 a0 un ðxÞdxdx 2 b An ðxÞdxdx:
0 0 n¼0 0 0 n¼0

Consequently, we set the following modified recursion scheme:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ;
Z x
u1 ðxÞ ¼ ða1 C 0 þ C 1 Þx 2 a1 u0 ðxÞdx ¼ C 1 x;
0
Z x ð51Þ
x nþ2
unþ2 ðxÞ ¼ gn 2 a1 unþ1 ðxÞdx
ðn þ 2Þ! 0
Z xZ x Z xZ x
2 a0 un ðxÞdxdx 2 b An ðxÞdxdx; n $ 0;
0 0 0 0

for the determination of the solution components un(x), n $ 0.

In view of this, the solution approximant fmþ 1(x) is given by:
X
m
fmþ1 ðxÞ ¼ un ðxÞ; ð52Þ
n¼0
that gives:
X
1
lim f ðxÞ ¼
m!1 mþ1
un ðxÞ ¼ u * ðxÞ: ð53Þ
n¼0

2.3 Third-order inhomogeneous nonlinear IVP

We now consider the third-order inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equation:
u000 ðxÞ þ a2 u00 ðxÞ þ a1 u0 ðxÞ þ a0 uðxÞ þ bf ðuðxÞ; u0 ðxÞ; u00 ðxÞÞ ¼ gðxÞ;
ð54Þ
uð0Þ ¼ C 0 ; u0 ð0Þ ¼ C 1 ; u00 ð0Þ ¼ C 2 :
K Proceeding as before, we can establish the following new modified recursion scheme:
42,2 u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x;
x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ C 2
;
292 2!
Z x Z xZ x
x nþ3
unþ3 ðxÞ ¼ g n 2 a2 unþ2 ðxÞdx 2 a1 unþ1 ðxÞdxdx
ðn þ 3Þ!
Z xZ xZ x 0 Z x Z0 x Z0 x ð55Þ
2 a0 un ðxÞdxdxdx 2 b An ðxÞdxdxdx; n $ 0;
0 0 0 0 0 0

for the determination of the solution components un(x), n $ 0.

2.4 Fourth-order inhomogeneous nonlinear IVP

Before we turn to the generalized conclusion, we now consider the fourth-order
inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equation:

u ðivÞ ðxÞ þ a3 u000 ðxÞ þ a2 u00 ðxÞ þ a1 u0 ðxÞ þ a0 uðxÞ

þ bf ðuðxÞ; u0 ðxÞ; u00 ðxÞ; u000 ðxÞÞ ¼ gðxÞ; ð56Þ
uð0Þ ¼ C 0 ; u0 ð0Þ ¼ C 1 ; u00 ð0Þ ¼ C 2 ; u000 ð0Þ ¼ C 3 :

Proceeding as before, we can establish the following new modified recursion scheme:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x;
x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ C 2 ;
2!
x3
u3 ðxÞ ¼ C 3 ;
3!
Z x Z xZ x
x nþ4
unþ4 ðxÞ ¼ g n 2 a3 unþ3 ðxÞdx 2 a2 unþ2 ðxÞdxdx
ðn þ 4Þ!
Z xZ xZ x 0 Z0 x Z0 x Z x Z x
2 a1 unþ1 ðxÞdxdxdx 2 a0 un ðxÞdxdxdxdx ð57Þ
Z 0x Z 0x Z 0x Z x 0 0 0 0

2b An ðxÞdxdxdxdx; n $ 0;
0 0 0 0

for the determination of the solution components un(x), n $ 0.

2.5 pth-order inhomogeneous nonlinear IVP

In a like manner, we examine the pth-order inhomogeneous nonlinear differential
equation:
 X
p21
Adomian
u ð pÞ ðxÞ þ ap212n u ð p212nÞ ðxÞ þ bf ðuðxÞ; u0 ðxÞ; . . . ; u ð p21Þ ðxÞÞ ¼ gðxÞ;
n¼0 ð58Þ decomposition
u ð jÞ
ð0Þ ¼ C j ; 0 # j # p 2 1:
method
Proceeding as before, we can establish the new generalized modified recursion scheme:
u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ;
293
u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x;
2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ C 2 x2! ;
ð59Þ
..
.;
p21
up21 ðxÞ ¼ C p21 ð xp21Þ! ;

X p22 Z x Z x
x nþp
unþp ðxÞ ¼ g n 2 ap212n · · · unþp212n ðxÞ dx· · ·dx
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
ðn þ pÞ! n¼0 0 0
|fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl} ðnþ1Þ-fold
ðnþ1Þ-fold
Z x Z x Z x Z x
2 a0 · · · un ðxÞ dx· · ·dx
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} 2 b · · · An ðxÞ dx· · ·dx; n $ 0:
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
0 0 0 0
|fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl} p-fold |fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl} p-fold
p-fold p-fold

Consequently, the solution approximant fmþ 1(x) is given by:

X
m
fmþ1 ðxÞ ¼ un ðxÞ; ð60Þ
n¼0

that gives:
X
1
lim f ðxÞ ¼
m!1 mþ1
un ðxÞ ¼ u * ðxÞ: ð61Þ
n¼0

Notice that our motivation is to generate the Taylor series for the solution of higher-order
inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equations by our new modified recursion scheme
for the sake of trivial integrations, where we have designed the pattern as:
X
1
uðxÞ ¼ cn x n ;
n¼0
ð62Þ
X
1
ði Þ
u ðxÞ ¼ cðin Þ x n ;
n¼0

for 0 # i # p 2 1, where the convenient notation cðin Þ designates coefficients of

the Taylor expansion series for the ith-order derivative u (i )(x). Since we have delayed
the various contributions and concomitantly decelerated the potential rate of
K convergence as a compromise, we always achieve the following computationally
convenient advantage:
42,2
An ðxÞ ¼ An ðu0 ðxÞ; u1 ðxÞ; . . . ; un ðxÞÞ
ð63Þ
¼ An ðc0 ; c1 x; . . . ; cn x n Þ ¼ x n An ðc0 ; c1 ; . . . ; cn Þ:

294 Thus, the one-variable Adomian polynomials, for the case of first-order inhomogeneous
nonlinear IVPs with constant system coefficients a0, a1, . . . , ap2 1 and b comprise the
simple nonlinearity as:
X
1
f ðuðxÞÞ ¼ x n An ðc0 ; c1 ; . . . ; cn Þ; ð64Þ
n¼0

from applying our new modified recursion scheme for higher-order inhomogeneous
nonlinear differential equations. Thereby we have rederived the Adomian-Rach Theorem
for the nonlinear transformation of series (Adomian and Rach, 1991, 1992) in this special
case. We also obtain similar results for multi-variable differential nonlinearities for
pth-order inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equations with constant system
coefficients as:
 
An ðxÞ ¼ An u0 ðxÞ; u1 ðxÞ; . . . ; un ðxÞ; . . .; uð0 p21Þ ðxÞ; uð1 p21Þ ðxÞ; . . . ; uðnp21Þ ðxÞ
 
¼ An c0 ; c1 x; . . . ; cn x n ; . . .; cð0 p21Þ ; cð1 p21Þ x; . . . ; cðnp21Þ x n ð65Þ
 
¼ x n An c0 ; c1 ; . . . ; cn ; . . .; cð0 p21Þ ; cð1 p21Þ ; . . . ; cðnp21Þ ;

and:
 
f uðxÞ; u ð1Þ ðxÞ; . . . ; u ð p21Þ ðxÞ
X1   ð66Þ
¼ x n An c0 ; c1 ; . . . ; cn ; . . .; cð0 p21Þ ; cð1 p21Þ ; . . . ; cðnp21Þ ;
n¼0

We remark that in equation (65), we have assigned:

di
uðin Þ ðxÞ :¼ unþi ðxÞ;
dx i
a new paradigm, hence:

di
uðin Þ ðxÞ :– un ðxÞ;
dx i
to compute the solution’s Taylor expansion series through our new modified recursion
scheme.
To generate the Taylor series for the solution of higher-order inhomogeneous
nonlinear differential equations for multi-variable nonlinearities for systems of
m-coupled higher-order inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equations with constant
system coefficients, we have designed the pattern as:
 X
1
Adomian
uk ðxÞ ¼ ck;n x n ; ð67Þ
n¼0 decomposition
method
for 1 # k # m, where the notation ck,n designates coefficients distinct from the cn. Since
we have delayed the various contributions and concomitantly decelerated the potential
rate of convergence as a compromise, then we always achieve the following
computationally convenient advantage: 295
 
An ðxÞ ¼ An u1;0 ðxÞ; u1;1 ðxÞ; . . . ; u1; n ðxÞ; . . .; um;0 ðxÞ; um;1 ðxÞ; . . . ; um; n ðxÞ
 
¼ An c1;0 ; c1;1 x; . . . ; c1;n x n ; . . .; cm;0 ; cm;1 x; . . . ; cm;n x n ð68Þ
n
¼ x An ðc1;0 ; c1;1 ; . . . ; c1; n ; . . .; cm;0 ; cm;1 ; . . . ; cm;n Þ;

where we have similarly delayed the various contributions and concomitantly

decelerated the potential rate of convergence as a compromise so that we always
achieve the following computationally convenient advantage:

f ðu1 ðxÞ; u2 ðxÞ; . . . ; um ðxÞÞ

X 1
ð69Þ
¼ x n An ðc1;0 ; c1;1 ; . . . ; c1;n ; . . .; cm;0 ; cm;1 ; . . . ; cm;n Þ:
n¼0

3. Numerical examples
In what follows, we will illustrate the new reliable modification of the Adomian
decomposition method for higher-order inhomogeneous nonlinear differential equations
that we previously established in this work. The following expository examples confirm
the strength of the new modified recursion scheme.
Example 1. Consider the first-order inhomogeneous nonlinear IVP with a
quadratic nonlinearity:

u0 ðxÞ 2 uðxÞ þ u 2 ðxÞ ¼ e 2x ; uð0Þ ¼ 1: ð70Þ

We note that:

a 0 ¼ 21;
b ¼ 1; ð71Þ
C 0 ¼ 1;

and the inhomogeneous term:

X
1
xn
gðxÞ ¼ 2n : ð72Þ
n¼0
n!

Note also that the first few Adomian polynomials for the nonlinear term u 2(x) are
given by:
K A0 ðxÞ ¼ u20 ðxÞ;
42,2 A1 ðxÞ ¼ 2u0 ðxÞu1 ðxÞ;
A2 ðxÞ ¼ 2u0 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ þ u21 ðxÞ; ð73Þ
A3 ðxÞ ¼ 2u0 ðxÞu3 ðxÞ þ 2u1 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ;
296 ..
.:

Applying the new modified recursion scheme (40) gives:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ¼ 1;
Z x Z x
x1
u1 ðxÞ ¼ þ ð1Þdx 2 ð1Þdx ¼ x;
1! 0 0
Z x Z x
x2 x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ 2 þ ðxÞdx 2 ð2xÞdx ¼ ;
2! 0 0 2! ð74Þ
3 Z x 2 Z x
x x x3
u3 ðxÞ ¼ 4 þ dx 2 ð2x 2 Þdx ¼ ;
3! 0 2! 0 3!
Z x 3 Z x 3
x4 x 8x x4
u4 ðxÞ ¼ 8 þ dx 2 dx ¼ ;
4! 0 3! 0 3! 4!
and so on for other subsequent solution components. Using the Adomian assumption
for u(x), we find:

x2 x3 x4
uðxÞ ¼ 1 þ x þ þ þ þ · · ·; ð75Þ
2! 3! 4!
which converges to the exact solution:
uðxÞ ¼ e x : ð76Þ
Example 2. Consider the forced Duffing equation with a cubic nonlinearity:

u00 ðxÞ 2 uðxÞ þ 2u 3 ðxÞ ¼ 2sinðxÞsinð2xÞ; uð0Þ ¼ 1; u0 ð0Þ ¼ 0: ð77Þ

We note that:

a0 ¼ 21;
a1 ¼ 0;
b ¼ 2; ð78Þ
C 0 ¼ 1;
C 1 ¼ 0;
and the inhomogeneous term:
gðxÞ ¼ 2sinðxÞsinð2xÞ; ð79Þ
where the first few coefficients gn, n $ 0, are given by: Adomian
g 0 ¼ 0;
decomposition
method
g 1 ¼ 0;
g 2 ¼ 24; ð80Þ
g 3 ¼ 0; 297
g 4 ¼ 40:

Note also that the first few Adomian polynomials for the nonlinear term u 3(x) are given
by:

A0 ðxÞ ¼ u30 ðxÞ;

A1 ðxÞ ¼ 3u20 ðxÞu1 ðxÞ;
A2 ðxÞ ¼ 3u20 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ þ 3u0 ðxÞu21 ðxÞ; ð81Þ
A3 ðxÞ ¼ 3u20 ðxÞu3 ðxÞ þ 6u0 ðxÞu1 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ þ u31 ðxÞ;
..
.:

Applying the new modified recursion scheme (51) gives:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ¼ 1;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x ¼ 0;
Z xZ x Z xZ x
x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ ð1Þdxdx 2 2 ð1Þdxdx ¼ 2 ;
0 0 0 0 2! ð82Þ
u3 ðxÞ ¼ 0;
Z xZ x 2 Z xZ x 2
x4 x x x4
u4 ðxÞ ¼ 24 2 dxdx þ 6 dxdx ¼ ;
4! 0 0 2! 0 0 2! 4!

and so on for subsequent solution components. Using the Adomian assumption for
u(x), we find:

x2 x4
uðxÞ ¼ 1 2 þ 2 · · ·; ð83Þ
2! 4!
which converges to the exact solution:

uðxÞ ¼ cosðxÞ: ð84Þ

Example 3. In this example we consider the second-order homogeneous nonlinear

IVP with an exponential nonlinearity:

u00 ðxÞ þ e 22uðxÞ ¼ 0; uð0Þ ¼ 0; u0 ð0Þ ¼ 1: ð85Þ

K We note that:
42,2 a0 ¼ 0;
a1 ¼ 0;
b ¼ 1; ð86Þ
C 0 ¼ 0;
298
C 1 ¼ 1;
and:
gðxÞ ¼ 0: ð87Þ
2 2u(x)
Note also that the first few Adomian polynomials for the nonlinear term e
are given by:
A0 ðxÞ ¼ e 22u0 ðxÞ ;
A1 ðxÞ ¼ 22u1 ðxÞe 22u0 ðxÞ ;
A2 ðxÞ ¼ 22u2 ðxÞe 22u0 ðxÞ þ 2u21 ðxÞe 22u0 ðxÞ ; ð88Þ
A3 ðxÞ ¼ 22u3 ðxÞe 22u0 ðxÞ þ 4u1 ðxÞu2 ðxÞe 22u0 ðxÞ 2 43 u31 ðxÞe 22u0 ðxÞ ;
..
.:

Applying the new recursion scheme (51) gives:

u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ¼ 0;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x ¼ x;
Z xZ x
x2 ð89Þ
u2 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ð1Þdxdx ¼ 2 ;
0 0 2
Z xZ x
x3
u3 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ð22xÞdxdx ¼ ;
0 0 3
Z xZ x
x4
u4 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ð3x 2 Þdxdx ¼ 2 ;
0 0 4
and so on for subsequent solution components. Using the Adomian assumption for
u(x), we find:
x2 x3 x4
uðxÞ ¼ x 2 þ 2 þ · · ·; ð90Þ
2 3 4
which converges to the exact solution:
uðxÞ ¼ lnð1 þ xÞ: ð91Þ
Example 4. In this example we consider the third-order inhomogeneous nonlinear
IVP with a quartic nonlinearity:
u000 ðxÞ þ u0 ðxÞ þ u 4 ðxÞ ¼ ð1 þ sinð2xÞÞ2 ; uð0Þ ¼ 1; u0 ð0Þ ¼ 1; u00 ð0Þ ¼ 21: ð92Þ
We note that: Adomian
a0 ¼ 0; decomposition
a1 ¼ 1; method
a2 ¼ 0;
b ¼ 1; ð93Þ
C 0 ¼ 1;
299
C 1 ¼ 1;
C 2 ¼ 21;
and:
gðxÞ ¼ ð1 þ sinð2xÞÞ2 ; ð94Þ
such that:
gn ¼ g ðnÞ ð0Þ; ð95Þ
that gives the first few coefficients:
g0 ¼ 1;
g1 ¼ 4;
ð96Þ
g2 ¼ 8;
g3 ¼ 216:
Note also that the first few Adomian polynomials for the nonlinear term u 4(x) are given
by:
A0 ðxÞ ¼ u40 ðxÞ;
A1 ðxÞ ¼ 4u30 ðxÞu1 ðxÞ;
A2 ðxÞ ¼ 4u30 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ þ 6u20 ðxÞu21 ðxÞ; ð97Þ
A3 ðxÞ ¼ 4u30 ðxÞu3 ðxÞ þ 12u20 ðxÞu1 ðxÞu2 ðxÞ þ 4u0 ðxÞu31 ðxÞ;
..
.:
Applying the new modified recursion scheme (55) gives:
u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ¼ 1;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x ¼ x;
x2 x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ C 2 ¼2 ;
2! 2!
Z xZ x Z xZ xZ x
x3 x3
u3 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ðxÞdxdx 2 ð1Þdxdxdx ¼ 2 ; ð98Þ
3! 0 0 0 0 0 3!
4 Z xZ x 2 Z xZ xZ x
x x x4
u4 ðxÞ ¼ 4 þ dxdx 2 ð4xÞdxdxdx ¼ ;
4! 0 0 2! 0 0 0 4!
5 Z xZ x 3 Z xZ xZ x
x x x5
u5 ðxÞ ¼ 8 þ dxdx 2 ð4x 2 Þdxdxdx ¼ ;
5! 0 0 3! 0 0 0 5!
K and so on for subsequent components. Using the Adomian assumption for u(x), we
find:
42,2    
x3 x5 x2 x4
uðxÞ ¼ x 2 þ 2 · · · þ 1 2 þ 2 · · · ; ð99Þ
3! 5! 2! 4!
which converges to the exact solution:
300 uðxÞ ¼ sinðxÞ þ cosðxÞ: ð100Þ
Example 5. In this example we consider the fourth-order inhomogeneous linear IVP:

u ðivÞ ðxÞ 2 uðxÞ ¼ 4sinðxÞ; uð0Þ ¼ u0 ð0Þ ¼ 1; u00 ð0Þ ¼ 21; u000 ð0Þ ¼ 23: ð101Þ
We note that:
a0 ¼ 21;
a1 ¼ a2 ¼ a3 ¼ 0;
b ¼ 0;
ð102Þ
C 0 ¼ C 1 ¼ 1;
C 2 ¼ 21;
C 3 ¼ 23;
and:
gðxÞ ¼ 4sinðxÞ; ð103Þ
hence:
g n ¼ g ðnÞ ð0Þ; ð104Þ
that gives the first few coefficients:
g 0 ¼ 0;
g 1 ¼ 4;
g 2 ¼ 0;
ð105Þ
g 3 ¼ 24;
g 4 ¼ 0;
g 5 ¼ 4:
Applying the new modified recursion scheme (57) gives:
u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ¼ 1;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x ¼ x;
x2 x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ C 2 ¼2 ;
2! 2!
3
x x3
u3 ðxÞ ¼ C 3 ¼ 2 ;
3! 2!
Z xZ xZ xZ x
x4
u4 ðxÞ ¼ ð1Þdxdxdxdx ¼ ;
0 0 0 0 4!
 Z xZ xZ xZ x
x5 x5 Adomian
u5 ðxÞ ¼ 4 þ ðxÞdxdxdxdx ¼ ;
5! 0 0 0 0 4! decomposition
method
Z xZ xZ xZ x 2
x x6
u6 ðxÞ ¼ 2 dxdxdxdx ¼ 2 ; ð106Þ
0 0 0 0 2! 6! 301
Z xZ xZ xZ x 3
x7 x x7
u7 ðxÞ ¼ 24 2 dxdxdxdx ¼ 2 ;
7! 0 0 0 0 2! 6!

and so on for subsequent solution components. Using the Adomian assumption for
u(x), we find:

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
uðxÞ ¼ 1 þ x 2 2 þ þ 2 2 þ · · ·; ð107Þ
2! 2! 4! 4! 6! 6!
or equivalently:
 
x2 x4 x6
uðxÞ ¼ ð1 þ xÞ 1 2 þ 2 þ · · · ; ð108Þ
2! 4! 6!

which converges to the exact solution:

uðxÞ ¼ ð1 þ xÞcosðxÞ: ð109Þ

Example 6. In this example we consider the fifth-order homogeneous nonlinear IVP

with an exponential nonlinearity:

u ðvÞ ðxÞ 2 24e 25uðxÞ ¼ 0; uð0Þ ¼ 1; u0 ð0Þ ¼ e 21 ;

ð110Þ
u00 ð0Þ ¼ 2e 22 ; u000 ð0Þ ¼ 2e 23 ; u ðivÞ ð0Þ ¼ 26e 24 :

We note that:
aj ¼ 0;
0 # j # 4;
b ¼ 224;
C 0 ¼ 1;
ð111Þ
C 1 ¼ e 21 ;
C 2 ¼ 2e 22 ;
C 3 ¼ 2e 23 ;
C 4 ¼ 26e 24 ;
K and:
42,2 gðxÞ ¼ 0; g n ¼ 0; n $ 0: ð112Þ
Applying the new modified recursion scheme (59) gives:
u0 ðxÞ ¼ C 0 ¼ 1;
302 u1 ðxÞ ¼ C 1 x ¼ e 21 x;
x2 x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ C 2 ¼ 2e 22 ;
2! 2
x3 x 3
u3 ðxÞ ¼ C 3 ¼ e 23 ;
3! 3 ð113Þ
x4 x4
u4 ðxÞ ¼ C 4 ¼ 2e 24 ;
4! 4
Z xZ xZ xZ xZ x
x5
u5 ðxÞ ¼ 24 ðe 25 Þdxdxdxdxdx ¼ e 25 ;
0 0 0 0 0 5
Z xZ xZ xZ xZ x
x6
u6 ðxÞ ¼ 24 ð25e 26 xÞdxdxdxdxdx ¼ 2e 26 ;
0 0 0 0 0 6
and so on for subsequent solution components. Using the Adomian assumption for
u(x), we find:
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
uðxÞ ¼ 1 þ e 21 x 2 e 22þ e 23 2 e 24 þ e 25 2 e 26 þ · · ·; ð114Þ
2 3 4 5 6
and this converges to the exact solution:
uðxÞ ¼ lnðe þ xÞ: ð115Þ
Example 7. In this example we consider the sixth-order inhomogeneous nonlinear
IVP with a sextic nonlinearity in the first-order derivative u0 (x) and an exponential
nonlinearity in the solution u(x):

u ðvi Þ ðxÞ þ 120ðu0 ðxÞÞ6 þ e uðxÞ ¼ 1 2 x;

uð0Þ ¼ 0; u0 ð0Þ ¼ u00 ð0Þ ¼ 21; u000 ð0Þ ¼ 22; u ðivÞ ð0Þ ¼ 26; u ðvÞ ð0Þ ¼ 224:
ð116Þ
We note that:
aj ¼ 0; 0 # j # 5;
b1 ¼ 120; b2 ¼ 1;
C 0 ¼ 0; C 1 ¼ C 2 ¼ 21; ð117Þ
C 3 ¼ 22; C 4 ¼ 26;
C 5 ¼ 224;
and:
gðxÞ ¼ 1 2 x; ð118Þ
hence: Adomian
decomposition
g0 ¼ 1; g 1 ¼ 21; gn ¼ 0; n $ 2: ð119Þ
method
Note that the first few Adomian polynomials for the nonlinear term (u0 )6 are
given by:
303
A0 ðxÞ ¼ ðu00 ðxÞÞ6 ;
A1 ðxÞ ¼ 6ðu00 ðxÞÞ5 u01 ðxÞ;
A2 ðxÞ ¼ 6ðu00 ðxÞÞ5 u02 ðxÞ þ 15ðu00 ðxÞÞ4 ðu01 ðxÞÞ2 ; ð120Þ
A3 ðxÞ ¼ 6ðu00 ðxÞÞ5 u03 ðxÞ þ 30ðu00 ðxÞÞ4 u01 ðxÞu02 ðxÞ þ 20ðu00 ðxÞÞ3 ðu01 ðxÞÞ3 ;
..
.:

By our paradigm, we assign:

d
u0n ðxÞ :¼ unþ1 ðxÞ;
dx

thus:
d 6
A0 ðxÞ ¼ dx u1 ðxÞ
;
d 5  d 
A1 ðxÞ ¼ 6 dx u1 ðxÞ dx u2 ðxÞ ;
d 5  d  d 4  d 2
A2 ðxÞ ¼ 6 dx u1 ðxÞ dx u3 ðxÞ þ 15 dx u1 ðxÞ dx u2 ðxÞ ;
d 5  d  d 4  d  d  ð121Þ
A3 ðxÞ ¼ 6 dx u1 ðxÞ dx u4 ðxÞ þ 30 dx u1 ðxÞ dx u2 ðxÞ dx u3 ðxÞ
d 3  d 3
þ20 dx u1 ðxÞ dx u2 ðxÞ ;
..
.:

Note that the first few Adomian polynomials for the nonlinear term e u(x) are
given by:

A0 ðxÞ ¼ e u0 ðxÞ ;
A1 ðxÞ ¼ u1 ðxÞe u0 ðxÞ ;
A2 ðxÞ ¼ u2 ðxÞe u0 ðxÞ þ 2!1 ðu1 ðxÞÞ2 e u0 ðxÞ ;
ð122Þ
u0 ðxÞ u0 ðxÞ 1 3 u0 ðxÞ
A3 ðxÞ ¼ u3 ðxÞe þ u1 ðxÞu2 ðxÞe þ 3! ðu1 ðxÞÞ e ;
..
.:
K Applying the generalized modified recursion scheme (59) gives:
42,2 u0 ðxÞ ¼ 0;
u1 ðxÞ ¼ 2x;
x2
u2 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ;
2
304 x3
u3 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ; ð123Þ
3
x4
u4 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ;
4
x5
u5 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ;
5
where the solution components u0(x) through u5(x), inclusively, are computed from
the specified initial conditions. Continuing, we readily compute additional solution
components:
Z xZ xZ xZ xZ xZ x
x6
u6 ðxÞ ¼ ð1Þ 2 ð120Þ ð21Þ6 dxdxdxdxdxdx
6! 0 0 0 0 0 0
Z xZ xZ xZ xZ xZ x
x6
2 ð1Þ ð1Þdxdxdxdxdxdx ¼ 2 ;
0 0 0 0 0 0 6
7 Z xZ xZ xZ xZ xZ x
x
u7 ðxÞ ¼ ð21Þ 2 ð120Þ ð6xÞdxdxdxdxdxdx
7! 0 0 0 0 0 0
Z xZ xZ xZ xZ xZ x
x7
2 ð1Þ ð2xÞdxdxdxdxdxdx ¼ 2 ;
0 7
Z x0Z x0Z x0Z x0Z x0Z x
u8 ðxÞ ¼ 2ð120Þ ð21x 2 Þdxdxdxdxdxdx
0 0 0 0 0 0
Z x Z x Z x Z x Z x Z x   
x2 ð2xÞ2 x8
2 ð1Þ 2 ð1Þ þ ð1Þ dxdxdxdxdxdx ¼ 2 ;
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 8
ð124Þ
and so on for subsequent solution components. Using the Adomian assumption for
u(x), we find:

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
uðxÞ ¼ 2x 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 · · ·; ð125Þ
2 3 4 5 6 7
which converges to the exact solution:
uðxÞ ¼ lnð1 2 xÞ: ð126Þ

4. Conclusion
We have developed a new modified recursion scheme for the Adomian decomposition
method to systematically solve homogeneous and inhomogeneous, linear and nonlinear
ordinary differential equations with constant system coefficients. Our new approach Adomian
provides a significant computational advantage for computing the solution’s Taylor decomposition
expansion series without using differentiation operators. We presented the analysis of
several cases beginning from the first-order through the fourth-order inhomogeneous method
nonlinear differential equations, inclusively, seeking a possible pattern so as to develop
the new modified recursion scheme for the general pth-order differential case.
The overall efficiency of our new approach is further enhanced by the efficient 305
algorithms and fast subroutines crafted by Duan (2010a, b, 2011) for easy and convenient
generation of the Adomian polynomials quickly and to high orders. We remark that
because of the usual rapid convergence of the Adomian decomposition series, we often
only require a low-stage approximation for high accuracy (Duan and Rach, 2011a, b).
The new modified recursion scheme yields an analytic, readily verifiable, rapidly
convergent series. We have demonstrated both the practicality and efficiency of the
new modification of the Adomian decomposition method by seven numerical
examples, including homogeneous and inhomogeneous, linear and nonlinear cases.
These illustrative examples, that we examined, show that the new modification is
reliable and efficient over existing techniques.

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Further reading

Bellomo, N. and Riganti, R. (1987), Nonlinear Stochastic System Analysis in Physics and
Mechanics, World Scientific, Singapore.
Cherruault, Y. (1998), “Modèles et méthodes mathématiques pour les sciences du vivant”, Presses
Universitaires de France, Paris, Vol. 119-61, pp. 256-64.
Grzymkowski, R. (2010), “Nieklasyczne metody rozwie˛zywania zagadnień przewodzenia ciepła”,
Wydawnictwo Politechniki Śle˛skiej, Gliwice, pp. 142-87.
Grzymkowski, R., Hetmaniok, E. and Słota, D. (2002), “Wybrane metody obliczeniowe w
rachunku wariacyjnym oraz w równaniach różniczkowych i całkowych”, Wydawnictwo
Pracowni Komputerowej Jacka Skalmierskiego, Gliwice, pp. 173-246.
Serrano, S.E. (2010), Hydrology for Engineers, Geologists, and Environmental Professionals:
An Integrated Treatment of Surface, Subsurface, and Contaminant Hydrology, 2nd revised
edition, HydroScience, Inc., Ambler, PA.
Serrano, S.E. (2011), Engineering Uncertainty and Risk Analysis: A Balanced Approach to
Probability, Statistics, Stochastic Processes, and Stochastic Differential Equations,
2nd revised edition, HydroScience, Inc., Ambler, PA.

Appendix 1. MATHEMATICAw code for the one-variable Adomian polynomials

AP1[f_, M_]: ¼ Module[{F}, Subscript[F, 0] ¼ f[Sum[Subscript[u, k] *s^k, {k, 0, M}] ];
For [i ¼ 0, i , ¼ M, iþ þ , A[i] ¼ Collect[Expand[1/i! * (Subscript[ F, i]/. s - . 0)],
Derivative[_][f ][_]]; Subscript[F, i þ 1] ¼ D[Subscript[F, i], s]]; Table[A[i], {i, 0, M}]]

Appendix 2. MATHEMATICAw code for the one-variable Adomian polynomials

AP2[f_, M_]: ¼ Module[{c, n, k, j, der}, Table[c[n, k], {n, 1, M}, {k, 1, n}];
der ¼ Table [ D[f [Subscript[u, 0]], {Subscript[u, 0], k}], {k, 1, M}]; A[0] ¼ f [Subscript[u, 0]];
For[n ¼ 1, n , ¼ M, nþþ , c[n, 1] ¼ Subscript[u, n]; For[k ¼ 2, k , ¼ n, kþþ,
c[n, k] ¼ Expand[1/n * Sum[(j þ 1) *Subscript[u, j þ 1] * c[n 2 1 2 j, k 2 1],{j, 0, n 2 k}]]];
A[n] ¼ Take[der, n].Table[c[n, k], {k, 1, n}]]; Table[A[n], {n, 0, M}] ]
K Appendix 3. MATHEMATICAw code for the multi-variable Adomian polynomials
APmulti[f_, m_, M_]: ¼ Module[{i, j, r}, Subscript[u, 0] ¼ Table[Subscript[u, i, 0], {i, 1, m}];
42,2 A[0] ¼ f@@Subscript[u, 0]; Table[T[i, j], {i, 1, M}, {j, 1, i}]; se ¼ Table[_, {m}]/. List - .
Sequence; For[r ¼ 1, r , ¼ M, rþ þ,
T[r, 1] ¼ Table[Subscript[u, i, r] *D[f@@Subscript[u, 0], Subscript[u, i, 0]], {i, 1, m}];
For[k ¼ 2, k , ¼ r, kþþ ,
T[r, k] ¼ Union[Flatten[Table[D[Map[# * Subscript[u, i, 1]/(Exponent[#, Subscript[u,
308 i, 1]] þ 1)&, T[r 2 1, k 2 1]], Subscript[u, i, 0]], {i, 1, m}]]]];
For[k ¼ 2, k , ¼ Floor[r/2], kþ þ,
T[r, k] ¼ T[r, k] \[Union](T[r 2 k, k]/.Flatten[Table[Subscript[u, i, j] - . Subscript[u, i, j þ 1],
{i,1,m}, {j, 1, r 2 2 *k þ 1}]])];
A[r] ¼ Sum[Total[T[r, k]], {k, 1, r}]; If [EvenQ[r], Do[T[r/2, k] ¼ ., {k, 1, r/2}] ] ];
Table[A[r], {r, 0, M}] ]

About the authors

Randolph Rach is retired and formerly a Senior Engineer at Microwave Laboratories Inc.
His experience includes research and development in microwave electronics and travelling-wave
tube technology, and his research interests span nonlinear system analysis, nonlinear ordinary
and partial differential equations, nonlinear integral equations and nonlinear boundary value
problems. He has both authored and co-authored 78 papers in Applied Mathematics and is an
early contributor to the Adomian decomposition method.
Abdul-Majid Wazwaz is a Professor of Mathematics at Saint Xavier University in Chicago,
Illinois, USA. He has both authored and co-authored 333 papers in Applied Mathematics and five
books on the subjects of Discrete Mathematics, Integral Equations and Partial Differential
Equations. Furthermore, he has contributed extensively to theoretical advances in the Adomian
decomposition method and their physical applications.
Jun-Sheng Duan is a Professor in the College of Sciences at the Shanghai Institute of
Technology in Shanghai, PR China. He has both authored and co-authored 52 papers in Applied
Mathematics and has contributed notably to theoretical advances in the Adomian decomposition
method, including new efficient algorithms leading to fast computer subroutines. Jun-Sheng Duan
is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: duanjssdu@sina.com

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