Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Compiled By: Manzar Ali Khan

Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which certain unstable nuclei such as

Polonium, Radium etc. emit invisible radiations, which can effect
Photographic plates or Ionize gases.
Radioactive elements emit 3 types of radiations,
1. Alpha-------------- ά
2. Beta---------------- β
3. Gamma----------- γ Why all the Alpha particles are not emitted with the same speed?
Radioactive Decay: Whenever an unstable nucleus emits ά, β or γ rays to Answer: Since all the Alpha particles are not emitted from the surface of
become stable it is said to undergo radioactive decay. the element so some of the energy is lost to come to surface and hence
Radioactivity is a process of spontaneous, random self- disintegration of they have range of Kinetic Energy and velocities.
the unstable nuclei to become stable. Deflection in Electric Fields
Spontaneous: Decay is not affected by physical changes such as
Temperature, Pressure etc. or Chemical combinations or reactions.
Random: It has a constant probability of decay but we cannot predict
which nuclei will decay next.
It is Random over space and time.
Properties Alpha Beta Gamma
Nature Helium Nucei Fast moving High energy/ High
4
2He electrons /Positron frequency Deflection in Magnetic Fields
1 1 0
1 p, = 0n , ++1e ,
2p,2n electromagnetic
0 1 0 waves
1n , = 1 p, +−1e ,
Emission Nucleus Nucleus Nucleus
Charge +2e -1e or +1e Neutral
Speed 1 2 Speed of light (3x108
speed of Speed of light
200 3 m/s) (Range of
light (Range (Range of energies) energies)
of speeds)
• Deflection can be explained according to Fleming’s Left hand
Ionization Maximum Less than Alpha Least
rule
and
Fluorescence • Current in the same direction for Alpha and in opposite
Range in air 3-5 cm in air Few meters in air Few 100m in air direction for Beta
• Gamma No Deflection as neutral

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 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Compiled By: Manzar Ali Khan
Power of Penetration radiation. There may be slight fluctuation in its reading due to “Random”
nature of Radioactive Decay.
200 25
A 226
600 Nuclear Notation XZ Ra 88
A=Mass Number (Nucleon Number) = 226
Z= Atomic Mass (Proton Number) = 88
800
n= Number of Neutrons= A-Z = 226-88= 138
Isotope
Nuclei of same Elements with same number of protons (Z) but different
number of Neutrons or Mass number
1
H1, 2H1, 3H1 or 235U92, 236U92, 238U92
Alpha Decay
A
XZ =4He2 + A-4YZ-2
238
U 92 = 4He2 +238-4 Th 92-2 +γ
230
Th 90 = 4He2 +230-4 Ra 90-2 +γ
(i) Alpha stopped by thin sheet of paper. 226
Ra 88 = 4He2 +222 Rn 86
(ii) Beta can pass through Paper but stopped by 5mm thick
Beta Decay (β-)
Aluminum.
(iii) Gamma can pass through Paper and Aluminum but stopped by 1
n0= 0e-1+1p1+ (Anti-Neutrino)
Lead (2cm) or thick Concrete.
(Neutron) = (Beta) + (Proton) + Anti-Neutrino
Initial activity was 800 after thin sheet of paper Alpha was stopped so
we have 600, after Aluminum Beta is also stopped therefore 200 and A
XZ = 0β-1 + AYZ+1+
Lead Stops Gamma thus 25. This is due to “Background Radiation”. 24
Na11 = 0β-1+ 24Mg11+1 +Energy
Background Radiation
It is due to contamination of Air, Water and Soil in the surroundings or due 234
Th90 =0β-1 + 234Pa90+1 +γ
to ‘Cosmic Radiations’ coming from outer space.
Effect of Background radiation 234
Pa91 =0β-1 + 234U91+1 +γ
When the GM-Counter is switched on without any source, still it gives a Positron decay (β+)
radiation in between 20 to 50 counts/min. This is due to background
1
p1= 0e+1+1n0+Neutrino)
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 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Compiled By: Manzar Ali Khan
Proton=Beta + Neutron + Neutrino −dN
dt
∝N
XZ = 0β+1 + AYZ-1+Neutrino)
A
dN
Negative shows that Activity ( =A ) is decreasing
15
O8 = β+1 + N7 +
0 15 dt
22
O11 =0β+1 + 22Ne10 + Half-life (T½) of the Radioactive Source

N7 =0β+1 + 14C6 +
14
Defined as “the time taken for the half of the unstable nuclei to decay”.
β+ + β- = 2 γ Photons (production of High energy Gamma Photons)

Gamma Decay
A
XZ * = AXZ + γ
(Unstable Nuclei) = (Stable Nuclei)
234
Th90 = 0β-1 + 234Pa91 +γ
230
Th 90 = 4He2 +226 Ra 88 +γ
What is conserved during a nuclear reaction?

t = 0, N= No
• Mass Number “A” or the Nucleon number is conserved in a reaction. N0 N0
t = T½ , N= = 1
235 +1 = 141 + 92 + x or x = 3 2 2
N N0
• Atomic Number “Z” or Proton number is conserved. 92 = 56 + Z or t = 2T½ , N= 0 = 2
Z = 36
4 2
N N0
•
t = 3T½ , N= 0 = 3
Mass and energy of the system is conserved 8 2
N0
Mass deficit/ defect = ∆m, Energy released= ∆mc 2 t = nT½ N= 2n
Rate of decay and Half-life (T1/2 ) of source

Radioactive Decay is a random and spontaneous process but the rate of

−dN
Decay is directly proportional to the number (N) of unstable nuclei.
dt

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 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Compiled By: Manzar Ali Khan
3. It is a Decay Process.

The count rate or the activity of the source is decreasing with

time.
4. With reference to Radioactivity what is meant by ‘Random
Process’.
It means that there is a constant Probability of decay per unit time
but we cannot predict which nuclei will decay next.
Geiger and Marsden Gold Foil Experiment

The two assistants of Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden bombarded a Gold

foil with Alpha particles and observed the deviation in an evacuated
container and gave the following observations:

State the evidence provided from the graph

1. Random Nature of radioactive Decay.

The fluctuation indicates Random nature of radioactive decay as
there will be slight fluctuation in the value if we take the reading
within short intervals of time.
2. Spontaneous Nature of Radioactive Decay

Even if the physical conditions such as Temperature etc. are

changed, still the Half-Life and the shape of the graph will
remain same.
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 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Compiled By: Manzar Ali Khan
 Most of the α-particles were un-deviated or only deflected by small 1
Atomic mass unit: it is defined as mass of an atom of Carbon- 12.
angles as they pass through the core of the atom. As if the atom 12
has large empty spaces. 1
1mu = 12 (mass of 1mole of Carbon) = 1.67 x 10-27 kg.
 1% was deflected to angles greater than 90⁰. As if the nucleus is Example: mass of one atom of Uranium-235
positive, these deflections can be explained by law of electrostatic Mass of atom = 235 x 1.67 x 10-27 kg
repulsion. Mass of 1 mole of U-235 = 235 g
Number of Molecules of the source
 Very few out of these were deflected to 180⁰ or near to it. As if they
mass of the source 23
have collided with some massive core. mass of 1mole of source
x 6.02x 10
Rutherford Atomic model Determine the no. of nuclei of Ra-224 of mass 2.4 μg
 Atom consist of a large massive core called ‘NUCLEUS’. Almost all
2.4 x 10−6
of the mass of the atom lies in the nucleus and it carries a = x 6.02x 1023 = 6.45x 1015
224
POSITIVE charge. The nucleus is positive due to particles called
‘Proton’. Radioactive Decay probability
 This is explained by inverse square law of electrostatics and the fact
We plot the graph of the Neutron number (N) and Atomic
that most of the α particles pass un-deviated through the Atom.
 The size of the Nucleus is very small as compare to the size of the number (Z). For small nuclei N˂ 20, N=Z, the nuclei are stable.
Atom i.e. diameter of the Atom is 10-10 m and that of the nucleus is The value of this ratio increases to 1.5 for larger values of N.
10-14 m or a ratio of 10000 to 1.
 This is explained by the result that most of the Alpha particles pass
un-deflected.
 There is equal number of negatively charged particles called
‘Electrons’ revolving around the nucleus in orbits.
 The atom is neutral so there must be equal number of positive and
negative charges in the atom. The nucleus is positive so electrons
cannot lie in nucleus or stay stationary outside. They do not change
orbit or radiate energy.
 Later another particle was discovered in the nucleus called
‘Neutron’, they have almost same mass as the Proton but they are
Neutral i.e. carry no charge.
Atomic Mass Unit
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 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Compiled By: Manzar Ali Khan

GM tube is made up of Aluminum Cylinder (Cathode), whereas

The nuclei which lie above the belt of stable nuclei are unstable
and disintegrate by emission of β (excess of neutrons) and nuclei
below the belt emit α as they have excess of Protons.
Detection of Radiation
Geiger Muller Counter
there is a thin metal wire (Anode) in the center. The tube is
closed by a thin Mica Sheet to keep the Argon Gas inside the
tube at Low Pressure.
Working
When the Ionizing radiation enters the tube through Mica
window, the argon atom is ionized into an electron and an argon
ion pair. The electron accelerates towards Anode and argon ion
(+) towards Cathode.

Avalanche Effect

The accelerated electrons cause further ionization of the atoms

of the argon by collision. This results into an avalanche of

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 Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics Compiled By: Manzar Ali Khan
electrons reaching the anode at the same time. The collection of
electrons and argon ions produces a pulse of current. This is
amplified by the amplifier and given to the counter/rate meter.

Activity/ Count Rate

The activity of the source is number of counts per min. or sec.

Greater the activity stronger is the source. The source is placed
in front of the GM Counter and the reading is recorded for one
minute and the value is called ‘Count Rate’.

Background Count

When the G.M. Tube is switched on without any source, it gives

a reading of about 20 to 50 counts /min. This is due to
Background Radiation.

Background radiation

It is Contamination of air, water and soil and also due to cosmic

radiation coming from outer space.

SOURCE Reading:

Actual reading =GM reading- Background count

=270 -30= 240 counts / min.

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