Optical Measurements

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●
The fiber measurements are generally performed in the laboratory and
techniques have been developed accordingly.
●
This information is essential for the optical communication system
designer in order that suitable choices of fibers, materials and devices
may be made with regard to the system application.
●
There is a requirement for field measurements in order to evaluate
overall system performance, and for functions such as fault location.
●
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), formerly known as the
International Telephone and Telegraph Consultative Committee (CCITT),
has recommended several standards for fiber transmission systems and
fiber measurements.
●
These are known as Fiber Optic Test Procedures (FOTPs) and Optical
Fiber System Test Procedures (OFSTPs).
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●
The fiber transmission characteristics of greatest interest are those of
attenuation and dispersion.
●
For multimode fibers the dispersion enables the bandwidth to be
determined, whereas with single-mode fibers it is the intramodal or
chromatic dispersion which is generally provided by manufacturers.
●
Furthermore, the important geometrical and optical characteristics for
multimode fibers are size (core and cladding diameters), numerical
aperture and refractive index profile, but for single-mode fibers they are
the effective cutoff wavelength of the second-order mode and the mode-
field diameter.

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●
Fiber attenuation measurements
●
Fiber attenuation measurement techniques have been developed in
order to determine the total fiber attenuation of the relative contributions
to this total from both absorption losses and scattering losses.
●
The overall fiber attenuation is of greatest interest to the system
designer, but the relative magnitude of the different loss mechanisms is
important in the development and fabrication of low-loss fibers.
●
Measurement techniques to obtain the total fiber attenuation give either
the spectral loss characteristic or the loss at a single wavelength.

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●
Total fiber attenuation
●
A commonly used
technique for
determining the total
fiber attenuation per
unit length is the cut-
back or differential
method.
●
Figure 14.3 shows a
schematic diagram of
the typical experimental
setup for measurement
of the spectral loss to
obtain the overall
attenuation spectrum
for the fiber. 5 / 33
●
It consists of a ‘white’ light source, usually a tungsten halogen or xenon
are lamp.
●
The focused light is mechanically chopped at a low frequency of a few
100Hz.
●
This enables the lock-in amplifier at the receiver to perform phase-
sensitive detection.
●
The chopped light is then fed through a monochromator which utilizes a
prism or diffraction grating arrangement to select the required wavelength
at which the attenuation is to be measured.
●
Hence the light is filtered before being focused onto the fiber by means of
a microscope objective lens.
●
A beam splitter may be incorporated before the fiber to provide light for
viewing optics and a reference signal used to compensate for output
power fluctuations. 6 / 33
●
When the measurement is performed on multimode fibers it is very
dependent on the optical launch conditions.
●
Therefore the launch optics are arranged to give the steady-state mode
distribution at the fiber input by providing a mode scrambling device
attached to the fiber within the first meter.
●
The fiber is also usually put through a cladding mode stripper, which may
consist of an S-shaped groove cut in the Teflon and filled with index-
matched liquid like glycerine.
●
This device removes light launched into the fiber cladding through radiation
into the index-matched (or slightly higher refractive index) liquid like
glycerine.
●
A mode stripper can also be included at the fiber output end to remove any
optical power which is scattered from the core into the cladding down the
fiber length.
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●
The optical power at the receiving end of the fiber is detected using a p–i–n
or avalanche photodiode.
●
In order to obtain reproducible results the photodetector surface is usually
index matched to the fiber output end face using epoxy resin or an index-
matching gell.
●
Finally, the electrical output from the photodetector is fed to a lock-in
amplifier, the output of which is recorded.
●
The cut-back method involves taking a set of optical output power
measurements over the required spectrum using a long length of fiber
(usually at least 1 km).
●
This fiber is generally uncabled having only a primary protective coating.
●
The fiber is then cut back to a point 2 m from the input end and, maintaining
the same launch conditions, another set of power output measurements is
taken. 8 / 33
● The following relationship for the optical attenuation per unit length αdB for
the fiber may be obtained : 10 P
α dB= log10 02 Eq 1
L1 − L2 P 01
● L1 and L2 are the original and cut-back fiber lengths respectively, and P01
and P02 are the corresponding output optical powers at a specific
wavelength from the original and cut-back fiber lengths.

● Hence when L1 and L2 are measured in kilometers, αdB has units of dB/km.

●
Furthermore Eq. (1) may be written in the form
10 V
α dB= log10 2 Eq 2
L1 − L2 V1
● where V1 and V2 correspond to output voltage readings from the original
fiber length and the cut-back fiber length respectively.
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● The electrical voltages V1 and V2 may be directly substituted for the optical
powers P01 and P02 of Eq. (1) as they are directly proportional to these
optical powers.
● The accuracy of the results obtained for αdB using this method is largely
dependent on constant optical launch conditions and the achievement of
the equilibrium mode distribution within the fiber.
●
Laser source is only suitable for making a single-wavelength (spot)
measurement as it does not emit across a broad band of spectral
wavelengths.
●
Spot measurements may be performed on an experimental setup similar to
that shown in Figure 14.3.

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●
A typical optical configuration
for spot attenuation
measurements is
shown in Figure.
●
The interference filters
are located on a wheel to
allow measurement at a
selection of different
wavelengths.
●
Source spot size
is defined by a pinhole and
the beam angular width is
varied by using different
diaphragms.

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●
The electronic equipment utilized with this setup is similar to that used for
the spectral loss measurements.
●
Therefore determination of the optical loss per unit length for the fiber at a
particular wavelength is performed using the cut-back method.
●
Spot attenuation measurements are sometimes utilized after fiber cabling in
order to obtain information on any degradation in the fiber attenuation
resulting from the cabling process.
●
Although widely used, the cut-back measurement method has the major
drawback of being a destructive technique.
●
Several nondestructive techniques exist which allow the fiber losses to be
calculated through a single reading of the optical output power at the far
end of the fiber after determination of the near-end power level.
●
The simplest is the insertion or substitution technique, which utilizes the
same experimental configuration as the cut-back method.
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●
The fiber to be tested is spliced, or connected by means of a
demountable connector to a fiber with a known optical output at the
wavelength of interest.
●
When all the optical power is completely coupled between the two
fibers, or when the insertion loss of the splice or connector is known,
then the measurement of the optical output power from the second
fiber gives the loss resulting, from the insertion of this second fiber
into the system.
●
Hence the insertion loss due to the second fiber provides
measurement of its attenuation per unit length.
●
Unfortunately, the accuracy of this measurement method is
dependent on the coupling between the two fibers and is therefore
some what uncertain.
13 / 33
●
Fiber absorption loss measurement
●
Material absorption loss measurements allow the level of impurity
content within the fiber material to be checked in the manufacturing
process.
●
The measurements are based on calorimetric methods which
determine the temperature rise in the fiber or bulk material resulting
from the absorbed optical energy within the structure.
●
The apparatus shown in Figure 14.5, is used to measure the
absorption loss in optical fibers.

14 / 33
●
This temperature measurement technique, illustrated in Fig (b) has been
widely adopted for absorption loss measurements.
●
The two fiber samples shown in Figure 14.5(b) are mounted in capillary
tubes surrounded by a low-refractive-index liquid (e.g. methanol) for good
electrical contact, within the same enclosure of the apparatus shown in
Figure 14.5(a). 15 / 33
●
A thermocouple is wound around the fiber containing capillary tubes using
one of them as a reference junction (dummy fiber).
●
Light is launched from a laser source through the main fiber and the
temperature rise due to absorption is measured by the thermocouple and
indicated on a nanovoltmeter.
●
Electrical calibration may be achieved by replacing the optical fibers with
thin resistance wires and by passing known electrical power through one.
●
Independent measurements can then be made using the calorimetric
technique and with electrical measurement instruments.
●
The calorimetric measurements provide the heating and cooling curve for
the fiber sample used.
●
A typical example of this curve is illustrated in Figure 14.6(a).
● The attenuation of the fiber due to absorption αabs may be determined from
this heating and cooling characteristic. 16 / 33
● A time constant tc can be obtained from a plot of (T∞ − Tt ) on a logarithmic
scale against the time t
● T∞ corresponds to the maximum temperature rise of the fiber under test
and Tt is the temperature rise at a time t
17 / 33
● The time constant tc may be obtained from the slope of the straight line
plotted in Figure 14.6(c) as: t = t 2− t1
c Eq 3
ln(T ∞ −T t 1 )− ln(T ∞ − T t 2 )

● where t1 and t2 indicate two points in time and tc is a constant for the
calorimeter which is inversely proportional to the rate of heat loss from the
device.
CT ∞
●
The fiber attenuation due to absorption is given by α abs = dB / km Eq 4
P opt t c
●
where C is proportional to the thermal capacity per unit length of the silica
capillary and the low-refractive-index liquid surrounding the fiber, and Popt is
the optical power propagating in the fiber under test.
● Usually the time constant for the calorimeter tc is obtained using a high-
absorption fiber which gives large temperature differences and greater
accuracy.
18 / 33
●
OTDR Filed Applications
●
OTDR technique was proposed in 1976 by Barnoski and Jensen,
described back-scattering in optical fibers and illustrated its potential
for characterizing fibers.
●
The OTDR is now one of the fundamental instruments for making
single-ended measurements of optical link characteristics such as
fiber attenuation, connector and splice losses, reflectance levels from
link components and chromatic dispersion.
●
OTDRs are used for link maintenance to locate fiber beaks quickly
and accurately.

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●
OTDR Trace
●
Fig. shows a typical trace of
the display screen of an OTDR

●
The scale of the vertical axis is logarithmic and measures the
returning (back-reflected) signal in dB.
●
The x-axis denotes the distance between the instrument and the
measurement point in the fiber.
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●
OTDR Trace
●
The back scattered waveform has four distinct features.

1. large initial pulse resulting from Fresnel reflection at the input

end of the fiber.
2. A long decaying tail resulting from Rayleigh scattering in the
reverse direction as the input pulse travels along the fiber.
3. A burst shifts in the curve caused by optical loss at joints or
connectors in the fiber line.
4. Positive spikes arising from Fresnel reflection at the far end
of the fiber, at fiber imperfections.

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●
Fresnel reflection and Rayleigh scattering principally produce the
back-scattered light.
●
Fresnel reflection occurs when light enters a medium that has a
different index of reflection.

● For glass-air interface, when light of power Po is incident

perpendicular to the interface, the reflected power Pref is
2
η fiber −η air
P ref = P o
(η fiber +η air )
● where ηfiber and ηair are the refractive indices of the fiber core and air,
respectively.
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●
Two important performance parameter of an OTDR are
●
dynamic range and
●
measurement range.
●
Dynamic range is defined as the difference between the initial back
scatter power level and the noise level after 3 minutes of
measurement time.
✔
It is expressed in dB of one-way fiber loss.
✔
Provides information on the maximum fiber loss that can be
measured and denotes the time required to measure a given
fiber loss.
●
Measurement range deals with the capability of identifying events in
the link, such as splice points, connection points, or fiber breaks.

23 / 33
●
Attenuation measurements :
●
Rayleigh scattering reflects light in all directions throughout the length
of the fiber.
●
This factor is the dominant loss mechanism in most high-quality fibers.
●
The optical power that is Rayleigh-scattered in the reverse direction
inside the fiber can be used to determine attenuation.

●
The optical power at a distant x from the input coupler can be written
as x

P ( x)= P (0) exp[−∫ β ( y) dy ] Eq 1

0
●
Here, P(0) is the fiber input power and β(y) is the fiber loss coefficients
in km, which is position dependent.
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●
The parameter 2β can be measured in natural units called nepers,
which are related to the loss α(y) in dB/km
α(dB) α (dB)
Eq 2
−1
β (km )=2 β (nepers)= log e=
10 4.343
●
Under the assumption that the scattering is the same at all points
along the optical wave guide and is independent of the modal
distribution, the power PR(x) scattered in the reverse direction at that
point x is
P R ( x)=SP ( x) Eq 3

●
Here, S is the fraction of the total power that is scattered in the
backward direction and trapped in the fiber.

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●
Thus the backscattered power from point x that is seen by
photodetector is x

P D ( x )=P R ( x) exp[−∫ β R ( y )dy ] Eq 4

0

● where βR(y) is the loss coefficient for the reverse-scattered light.

●
Substituting Eqs 1,2 and 3 into 4 yields
−2 ᾱ ( x) x
P D ( x )=SP (0)exp [ 10 loge ] Eq 5

●
where average attenuation coefficient α(x) is defined as
x
1
ᾱ ( x)= ∫ [α ( y)+α R ( y )]dy Eq 6
2x 0
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●
EYE Patterns:
●
The eye-pattern technique is a simple but powerful
measurement method for assessing the data-handling ability of
digital transmission system.
●
This method has been used extensively for evaluating the
performance of wire systems and can also be applied to optical
fiber data links.
●
The eye-pattern measurements are made in the time domain
and allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown
immediately on an oscilloscope.

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●
Fig shows a basic equipment setup for making eye-pattern
measurements.
●
The output from a pseudorandom data pattern generator is
applied to the vertical input of an oscilloscope and the data
rate is used to trigger the horizontal sweep.
●
This result in the type of display shown fig 13-20 which is
called the eye pattern.
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●
An eye pattern as shown in Fig 13-20 is formed when the eight
possible 3bit-long NRZ combination (as shown in Fig 13-21) are
superimposed simultaneously.
●
The basic upper and lower bounds are determined by the logic one
and zero levels, shown as bon and boff , respectively. 30 / 33
●
A great deal of system-performance information can be deduced
from the eye-pattern display.
●
The simplified eye-pattern as shown in Fig 13-22 is considered for
deriving different parameter information

31 / 33
●
The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over
which the received signal can be sampled without error from
intersymbol interference.
●
The height of the eye opening at the specified sampling time
shows the noise margin or immunity to noise.
●
Noise margin is the percentage ratio of the peak signal voltage
V1 to the maximum signal voltage V2 measured from threshold
level.
●
The rate at which the eye closes as the sampling time is varied
determines the sensitivity of the system to timing errors. The
possibility of timing errors increases as the slope becomes more
horizontal.
32 / 33
●
Timing jitter (or phase distortion) in an optical fiber system arises
from noise in the receiver and pulse distortion in the optical fiber.
T
Timing jitter =
Tb
● where Tb is a bit interval
●
The rise time is defined as the time interval between the point
where the rising edge of the signal reaches 10% of its final
amplitude and the time it reaches 90% of its final amplitude.
●
Any nonlinearities of the channel transfer characteristics will
create as asymmetry in the eye pattern.

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