Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130

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Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol

Review papers

Modelling of sewer exfiltration to groundwater in urban wastewater

systems: A critical review
Hong Hanh Nguyen a, *, Aaron Peche b, c, Markus Venohr a
a
Department of Ecohydrology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, 12489 Berlin, Germany
b
Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, 30655 Hannover, Germany
bpi Hannover, Mengendamm 16D, 30177 Hannover, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

This manuscript was handled by Corrado Cor­ Increasing evidence from studies in urban wastewater systems proves that sewer exfiltration may present a
radini, Editor-in-Chief, with the assistance of profound threat for rising levels of toxic substances and microbial pollution in groundwater. New and innovative
Wei Hu, Associate Editor methods for monitoring sewage exfiltration are continuously developed, which provide a solicit ground for a
better understanding of key processes and influencing characteristics of sewer exfiltration to support the
Keywords:
development of mathematical equations and models worldwide. However, modelling of sewer exfiltration and its
Exfiltration rate
associated impacts on groundwater are still constrained and not fully understood in large urban systems. This
Leakage factor
Standard leakage area paper reviews the knowledge advancements and challenges of sewer exfiltration modelling. Based on the present
Colmation layer review, we define five key research domains for developing more generic framework of large-scale models. These
Private sewers domains inquire to advance the representation of hydraulic modelling (e.g. testing exfiltration models coupled
with biofilm growth models), modelling of solutes originating from sewer leakages (e.g. heavy metals), define the
practical values of key model parameters of main model components and sub-processes for calibration and
uncertainty evaluations, develop upscaling approaches for integrated multi-dimensional sewer exfiltration
models, and incorporation of sewer exfiltration from private sewers.

1. Introduction
Sewer exfiltration is the process of wastewater losses from a defective
sewer system to the environment (Rutsch et al., 2008). Sewer exfiltra­
tion is often associated with soil undermining and bedrock dissolution,
which may lead to sinkhole development, urban infrastructure damages,
and further expansions of exfiltration areas (Selvakumar et al., 2004;
Hermosilla, 2012; Harvey and McBean, 2014). An increasing number of
investigations provide solicited evidence that sewer exfiltration can be
the source of significant pollutions to groundwater (e.g., Reynolds and
Barrett, 2003; Lee et al., 2015; Grimmeisen et al., 2017). Thus, reliable
quantification of sewer exfiltration plays an important role in supporting
sewer network rehabilitation and management decision of urban areas
vulnerable to sewer exfiltration contamination (Ellis and Bertrand-
Krajewski, 2010; Karpf, 2012; Dvory et al., 2018).
Traditionally, sewer exfiltration is measured using various moni­
toring approaches, which serve as foundation for the classification of
sewer defects and exfiltration (Chisala and Lerner, 2008; Harvey and
McBean, 2014; Tscheikner-Gratl et al., 2020). Closed-Circuit Television
(CCTV) is so far the most common method to evaluate the structural
integrity and defects of sewers and has been used in major cities
worldwide (Amick and Burgess, 2000; Ellis and Bertrand-Krajewski,
2010). Techniques using sewer tracers and wastewater indicators (e.
g., sodium chloride, fluorescent dyes) are increasingly applied since
these methods can distinguish substances from sewer exfiltration with
pollutants from other sources entering groundwater (e.g., Ellis and
Revitt, 2001; Fenz et al., 2005; Rieckermann et al., 2007, 2010; Lee
et al., 2015; Roehrdanz et al., 2017; Stegeman et al., 2019). Other
techniques for in-situ measurements of sewer exfiltration include
Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) (e.g., Nienhuis et al., 2013),
Electric Resistivity Tomography (ERT) (e.g., Thompson et al., 2012),
Ground Penetrating Radar (GRP) (Hao et al., 2012), using robots for
pipe inspections (e.g., Kirkham et al., 2000), impact-echo method (e.g.,
Kang et al., 2017), or ring laser scanning (e.g., Clemens et al., 2015).
Although a variety of instruments are available to monitor and detect
leaks, they are often labor-intensive and expensive to apply on the whole
sewer network, thus can hardly represent large spatial pattern or be
applied at higher frequencies (Blackwood et al., 2005, 2006; Wolf and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hanh.nguyen@igb-berlin.de (H.H. Nguyen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126130
Received 28 October 2020; Received in revised form 21 February 2021; Accepted 23 February 2021
Available online 25 February 2021
0022-1694/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H.H. Nguyen et al.
Hötztl, 2007). Additional to field observation techniques, there is a need
to develop modeling tools to quantify emissions from sewer exfiltration
source to groundwater and to predict the structural state of sewers for
management decisions of urban wastewater systems (Yang et al., 1999;
Karpf et al., 2009; Roehrdanz et al., 2017).
Sewer exfiltration models have been developed to help identify
target areas with the highest leakage rate potentials at various temporal
and spatial scales (Yang et al., 1999; Karpf et al., 2009; Peche et al.,
2017). The general principles and approaches for sewer exfiltration
models emerged more than a decade ago (Rutsch et al., 2008; Karpf
et al., 2009; Peche et al., 2017). However, model development progress
is still slow, which is indicated by a limited number of published studies
on sewer exfiltration models when compared to models for other envi­
ronmental applications (e.g., Zoppou, 2001; Fu et al., 2019; Tscheikner-
Gratl et al., 2020). Integrated 1D-3D models were developed to simulate
sewer exfiltration dynamics but are hard to validate due to the large
number of data required for model parametrization (Rutsch et al., 2008;
Peche et al., 2017; Tscheikner-Gratl et al., 2020). Karpf (2012) and
Peche (2019) proposed simplified approaches for modeling sewer
exfiltration, but the methods have been tested only to site-specific and
pipe scales. Wolf et al. (2012) considered the temporal and spatial
variation of sewer exfiltration to groundwater by conducting sampling
for the period from 2002 to 2008 in the city of Rastatt. However, no
significant findings on lateral and horizontal fluxes of sewer exfiltration
were achieved from the limited number of wastewater indicators. Lee
et al. (2015) and Roehrdanz et al. (2017) developed a spatial model of
sewer exfiltration, which allows predicting the occurrence of exfiltration
in shallow groundwater and incorporates various wastewater indicators,
but the outputs of the model are subjected to the groundwater short-
term observations in a small region of a city. Besides, the uncertainty
of upscalling approaches in sewer exfiltration modelling remains sig­
nificant issue due to a lack of understanding of core parameters and
processes of sewer exfiltration (Wolf and Hötztl, 2007; Karpf, 2012;
Peche, 2019). So far, the studies by Rutsch et al. (2005) and Rutsch et al.
(2008) remain the only reviews that incorporate modelling aspects of
sewer exfiltration (Table 1), though many changes have occurred since
then.
In this study, we review and evaluate the current state of sewer
exfiltration models, with a particular focus on hydrological aspects of
model developments and applications. The ultimate aim is to review the
up-to-date knowledge and understanding of the whole mechanism of
wastewater exfiltration from defective sewers to groundwater and
define critical research gaps to reduce uncertainty in decision-making
relating to outputs from sewer exfiltration models. The term ‘exfiltra­
tion’ and ‘leakage’ are used interchangeably in this field, though the
latter term often includes both the infiltration of groundwater into sewer
pipes and the exfiltration of sewage into the environment, as well as
diverse types of outflows through defective canals such as drinking
water delivery (Karpf, 2012; Hatam et al., 2019). In the scope of this
review, most of our discussions are targeted explicitly on the exfiltration
from wastewater sewers due to its impacts on groundwater. The overall
scheme of the review is presented in Fig. 1.
Table 1
Papers reviewing topics relating to sewer exfiltration modelling.
Study focus References
Overview of sewer exfiltration Rutsch et al. (2005), Rutsch et al. (2008)
Sewer exfiltration rates Amick and Burgess (2000), Rutsch et al.
(2008), Ellis et al. (2009)
Colmation of sewer exfiltration Rauch and Stegner (1994); Vollertsen and
Hvitved-Jacobsen (2003); Ellis et al. (2009);
Karpf (2012)
Impacts of sewer exfiltration on Reynolds and Barrett (2003)
groundwater
Sewer exfiltration as part of urban Lerner (2002); Benedetti et al. (2013);
drainage and wastewater systems Tscheikner-Gratl et al. (2020)
2
Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
2. An overview of sewer exfiltration processes
Sewer exfiltration releases pollutants to the environment, which may
exceed emissions at background conditions and from other sources
(Wolf et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2015; Roehrdanz et al., 2017) (Fig. 2).
Untreated wastewater from sewer exfiltration has been observed to
contain high levels of suspended solids, organic pollutants, and toxic
substances (USEPA, 1989; Reynolds and Barrett, 2003; Lee et al., 2015).
Pathogenic microorganisms in sewer exfiltration may potentially impair
the recreational values of surrounding surface waters, cause risks to
public health, groundwater pollution and serious economic damages
(Burston et al., 1993; Blackwood et al., 2005; Sercu et al., 2011; Kar­
amouz et al., 2011; Harvey and McBean, 2014). However, emissions to
the environment from urban sewer leakage often perceive less attention
than those from agricultural areas and are even neglected in studies of
urban system emissions, particularly at large-scale studies (e.g., Eiswirth
and Hötzl, 1997; Burn et al., 2007; Peche et al., 2017).
Sewer exfiltration can be seen as a conditional process (Davies et al.,
2001; Rutsch, 2006; Karpf, 2012). The first condition is the existence of
a defect in the sewer, either due to aging and deterioration of materials,
poor construction of sewer pipes, physical stress (e.g., due to surface
loads or plant root intrusion), or the effect from the surrounding soil
bedding (e.g., DeSilva et al., 2005; Chisala and Lerner, 2008). Another
prerequisite condition for the occurrence of sewer exfiltration processes
is the partly or completely location of defective pipes above the
groundwater level (Ellis et al., 2009; Boukhemacha et al., 2015). Finally,
the hydraulic potential in the sewer pipe has to be higher than the hy­
draulic potential in the surrounding soil, such that gravity-induced
leakage flow can occur (Peche et al., 2017, 2019). The difference in
hydraulic heads in the sewer and groundwater governs the direction and
the rate of sewer leakage (Selvakumar et al., 2004; Roehrdanz et al.,
2017).
The process of sewer exfiltration from damaged pipes into urban
groundwater does not remain constant over time (Ellis et al., 2009;
Boukhemacha et al., 2015; Peche et al., 2017). At first, the exfiltration
rate is low when the soil environment is dry, i.e., the hydraulic potential
of the soil is small. The exfiltration rate into the soil increases with
increasing soil moisture (corresponding to increasing relative perme­
ability). At large hydraulic gradients (between the pipe and the soil in
the pipe vicinity) and soil moisture, increased sewer exfiltration leads to
downwards propagation of a wetting front and sewer outflow may
recharge groundwater. Sewer exfiltration is governed by the presence of
a colmation layer forming in the pipe defect vicinity (Karpf, 2012;
Peche, 2019). After the occurrence of a pipe defect, high sewer exfil­
tration rates continue until an equilibrium pressure height between in-
sewer and soil conditions is reached. These high rates often remain
over some hours or days (largely depending on soil properties, such as
initial soil moisture and soil hydraulic properties) before gradually
decreasing (Karpf and Krebs, 2004; Boukhemacha et al., 2015). The
reduction in exfiltration rates is due to the stabilization of the colmation
layer, which causes a change of hydraulic properties (in the form of a
reduction of porosity and intrinsic permeability) of the soil in the pipe
vicinity. This reduction continues until a mature colmation layer is
developed (Ellis et al., 2009; Boukhemacha et al., 2015).
A kinematic wave pulse, i.e. a breakthrough, can be initiated by
diurnal peak flows or during storm events (Klinger et al., 2007). This is
due to a temporary local increase in flow velocity, turbulence, shear
stress, changing hydraulic gradients, and accompanied by instability of
colmation layers, leading to a breaking-up of the colmation layer (Ellis
et al., 2009). As a result, a steady-state exfiltration condition is disturbed
by a short-term increase of exfiltration a few orders of magnitudes above
the equilibrium of the dry-weather flow (Wolf et al., 2007). Such ‘wash-
out’ events followed by the establishment of steady-state conditions
have been observed persistently in various studies, i.e., both in labora­
tory and field tests, but the effects are local and only remain over a short
time (Vollertsen and Hvitved-Jacobsen, 2003, Wolf et al., 2007). Thus, it
H.H. Nguyen et al. Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130

Fig. 1. The general structure of the review on sewer exfiltration modelling.

3. Key influencing variables of sewer exfiltration processes

Stemming from literature, influential primary factors that affect

sewer exfiltration modelling include pipe characteristics and defective
conditions, wastewater level and composition in the pipe, soil proper­
ties, hydraulic potential (as expressed by water pressure and soil mois­
ture) in the soil in the pipe vicinity, and colmation layers (Davies et al.,
2001; Ellis et al., 2009; Harvey and McBean, 2014; Roehrdanz et al.,
2017). These driving factors and their associated attributes and (or)
important derivatives are therefore reviewed in detail in the following
section (Fig. 3) to explore the progress in understanding the key pa­
rameters and their role in sewer exfiltration modelling.

3.1. Sewer pipe characteristics

Pipe characteristics and conditions are reported to significantly

Fig. 2. Example of contaminants from leaking sewers to groundwater in
affect the sewer exfiltration rates among various locations in the sewer
comparison to other pollution sources (adapted from Eiswirth et al., 2001; Burn
et al., 2007). *VOCs: Volatile Organic Compounds
network (Dohmann, 1995; Ellis and Bertrand-Krajewski, 2010; Lee et al.,
2015). Major pipe characteristics reported in sewer exfiltration studies
include age (e.g., Kettler and Goulter, 1985), diameter (DeSilva et al.,
is acknowledged that sewer defects are never completely blocked and
2005), length (Le Gat and Eisenbeis, 2000), types of pipe junctions
are subject to certain degrees of exfiltration when evaluating over
(Berardi et al., 2008), and material (e.g., Harvey and McBean, 2014).
extended time periods (Reynolds and Barrett, 2003; Ellis et al., 2009).
Aging sewer systems are the most primary cause of sewer exfiltration in

3
H.H. Nguyen et al.
Fig. 3. Graphical illustration of pipe sewer exfiltration (adapted from Ellis et al., 2009, Boukhemacha et al., 2015, and Peche et al., 2017): hS = hydraulic head in the
sewer, Hg = hydraulic head in the surrounding aquifer, kcolmationlayer = hydraulic conductivity of colmation layer, ksoil = hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
soil and groundwater worldwide (Amick and Burgess, 2000; Reynolds
and Barrett, 2003; Ellis and Bertrand-Krajewski, 2010). Based on a
literature review on the status of sewers and their potential exfiltration
rate, Chisala and Lerner (2008) concluded that exfiltration risks increase
with the sewer system age and decrease in more modern and younger
sewers. The higher durability of newer pipe infrastructure is achieved by
more inert and stable materials and connections (Reynolds and Barrett,
2003; Gibson et al., 2019). Regarding the conditions of sewer pipes,
typical reasons causing sewer exfiltration include defects at lateral
connections, broken joints, transversal and longitudinal cracks, frac­
tures, and holes (Decker, 1994). The rate of exfiltration also depends
considerably on the defect types. For instance, Vollertsen and Hvitved-
Jacobsen (2003) reported three times higher exfiltration rates for
cracks than for open joints and holes, i.e., 0.02 L/d.cm2 and 0.06 L/d.
cm2, respectively.
3.2. Standard defect area
Many studies suggest that the exfiltration rate is positively correlated
with the pipe defect area, i.e., the exfiltration-relevant damaged area (e.
g., Davies et al., 2001; Howard, 2007). Meanwhile, other studies
conclude that this effect might be overestimated since large defects
allow more sealing material in the sewage to reach the gravel and thus
reduce the rate of sewer exfiltration (e.g., Blackwood et al., 2006). Thus,
the term ‘standard defect area’ is often used to represent the status of
defective sewers in sewer exfiltration models (Rutsch et al., 2008). It is
based on the assumption that similar pipe characteristics and defective
conditions induce similar exfiltration rates (Franz and Krebs, 2005;
Karpf, 2012). The term ‘standard defect area’, also named as ‘average
4
Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
defect area’ or ‘representative elementary area’, refers to the mean
defect size per unit pipe length (given as the defect area per pipe length
in m2/m) in a given pipe network and represents the unique charac­
teristics and defective condition of the entire pipe network within the
study boundary. In a study by Rauch and Stegner (1994), the rectangular
hole (0.0015 m2/m) was used as the standard leak size for all experi­
ments. Wolf and Hötztl (2007) suggested an average size of a defective
sewer around 0.002 m2/m based on their literature review and consid­
ered the estimated average defect size in their particular case study
(0.008 m2/m) to be high because the study was focused on critical de­
fects with large size. Similar to Rauch and Stegner (1994), Karpf (2012)
proposes the application of a standard quadratic size of a defective pipe
in sewer exfiltration calculations, and these values have been adopted
successfully in sewer pipe models proposed by Peche et al. (2017) and
Peche et al. (2019).
3.3. Colmation layer
Sewer exfiltration is known as a ‘self-sealing’ (or ‘self-repairing’)
process due to the effect of a colmation layer forming (Blackwood et al.,
2006; Karpf et al., 2011). A colmation layer is defined as a layer
developed of solid inputs from wastewater, biomass growth and chem­
ical precipitation and is characterized by fast declining hydraulic con­
ductivity compared to that in the surrounding underground (Rauch and
Stegner, 1994; Ellis et al., 2009). Meanwhile, any overlying biofilm
should be referred to as a bridging layer because the formation of this
external layer is assumed to not affect the exfiltration rate through a
defect (Ellis et al., 2009; Karpf et al., 2011). For modelling purposes,
colmation layers are often represented by the two constant properties:
H.H. Nguyen et al. Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130

colmation layer thickness and intrinsic permeability (expressed as hy­ complexities (Rutsch et al., 2008; Karpf, 2012). Only a few studies exist
draulic conductivity for simplification). Accordingly, the colmation where the non-linearity of the exfiltration process is considered (e.g.,
layer is modelled as a thin layer with a thickness varying between 10 and Kidmose et al., 2015; Peche et al., 2017).
20 mm possessing a relatively low permeability (Vollertsen and Hvitved-
Jacobsen, 2003; Karpf et al., 2009; Peche et al., 2017). Hydraulic con­ 3.6. Exfiltration rate
ductivity decreases with time until a constant value is reached. This
parameter is assumed to represent a mature and stabilized colmation Sewer exfiltration rate is the primary indicator addressed in sewer
layer. Up to the thickness of 50 mm, the colmation layer is stabilized and exfiltration studies to quantitatively estimate the losses from defective
hinders the process of exfiltration from defective pipes (Ellis and sewers. Numerous studies focusing on sewer exfiltration rates are re­
Bertrand-Krajewski, 2010). ported in the literature, including reviews by Gruenfeld (2000), Rutsch
et al. (2008), and Ellis et al. (2009). According to these studies, a broad
3.4. Soil matrix variability of values and units of reported exfiltration rates are recorded
from field and laboratory investigations. This variability depends on the
One of the main difficulties in estimating sewer exfiltration is asso­ measurement techniques, the scale and focus of studies, and the
ciated with the complex physico-chemical interactions between waste­ particular conditions at the study sites. As such, it is recommended to
water in the exfiltration and soil medium, which involves the chemical develop a standardization of the found quantification approaches for
composition in the soil (e.g., pH, sulfates, chlorides), soil moisture, hy­ modelling applications (Rutsch et al., 2008; Peche et al., 2017). Corre­
draulic conductivity, porosity and aeration levels (Ellis et al., 2003; sponding to results from laboratory and field measurements, modelling
Nickpay et al., 2015). Studies at the laboratory to pipe scales indicate a studies provided relatively consistent estimates of exfiltration rates,
wide range of removal of Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) and ammo­ though being tested at different spatial and temporal scales and using
nium, from 30 to 73% and from 0 to 99% respectively, depending on soil methods of different complexity. Table 2 collates reported values to
particle size, dissolved oxygen supply in the soil, and the residence time derive generalized patterns and trends. Accordingly, exfiltration rates
of sewage flow in the unsaturated zone (Fuchs et al., 2004). When are often expressed as the amount of exfiltration per standard area and
exposed to acidic or sulfate-bearing soil medium, concrete pipes are per unit length of pipes, i.e., l/day/cm2 or l/s/km, respectively (e.g.,
more susceptible to corrosion than clay pipes (Davies et al., 2001; Chisala and Lerner, 2008; Karpf, 2012). Ellis et al. (2009) pointed out
Jaganathan et al., 2010). Thus, it is often suggested to interpret the ef­ that an over-estimation of some reported data at the larger scale might
fects of soil on sewer exfiltration in modelling studies in the context of be due to upscaling the results from physical experiments and moni­
the interaction and exchange of the soil matrix, i.e., the matrix potential toring. Concluding from different studies, exfiltration rates between 1.0
of the soil below the colmation layer and the colmation layer (Ellis et al., × 10− 2 and 0.2 L/s.km or even less (in case of sewers carrying large
2009; Karpf et al., 2011). The soil matrix potential increases, and hy­ sediment loads) provide reasonable mean values for large-scale
draulic conductivity decreases with reduced water content in the soil, approaches.
together affecting the estimation of the hydraulic potential in the pipe
(Karpf et al., 2009). More details on this issue are described in the 4. Development and applications of sewer exfiltration models
following section on hydraulic potential.
Together with a reliable estimation of sewer exfiltration at defective
3.5. Hydraulic potentials in the pipe and in the soil (in the pipe vicinity) pipe sites, complex biogeochemical processes need to be considered to
model flow and matter transport into soil and groundwater (Karpf and
The process of sewer exfiltration depends on the hydraulic potential Krebs, 2011). Initial equations of sewer exfiltration were developed to
gradient between pipe water (as expressed by wastewater level) and quantify losses from sewer systems and to gain a better understanding of
water pressure in the soil in the pipe defect vicinity (Fig. 3). The pipe the effects of sewer exfiltration on groundwater (e.g., Yang et al., 1999;
water level may be represented in static mode by a constant water level Ly and Chui, 2012). Later studies integrated equations of sewer exfil­
or pressure head (representing, e.g., dry-weather flow) or calculated tration into empirical and process-based models to simulate the overall
dynamically using pipe flow equations or models (e.g., Rauch and sewer leakage processes (Reynolds and Barrett, 2003; Peche et al., 2017;
Stegner, 1994; Karpf et al., 2009). For dynamic pipe flow calculations, Dvory et al., 2018). This section reviews in detail the development and
the Saint-Venant equations (de Saint-Venant, 1871) are used in many advancements of sewer exfiltration equations and models.
studies (e.g., Karpf and Krebs, 2005; Kidmose et al., 2015; Peche et al.,
2017). Later studies include the effect of a colmation layer on the hy­
draulic potential in the sewer pipes and in the soil matrix surrounding
the pipes.
Table 2
The water pressure in the soil (in the pipe defect vicinity) is used for
Examples of sewer exfiltration rate per pipe length unit in modelling studies.
determining the hydraulic gradient, i.e., the actual three-dimensional
water pressure distribution in the soil is reduced to one spatial dimen­ Scale of study Exfiltration rate (L/s. References
km)
sion by assuming a water flow through the colmation layer to be one-
dimensional (e.g., Karpf, 2012; Peche et al., 2017). This is achieved by Pipe scale 0.1 – 2.0 Blackwood et al. (2005)
Pipe scale 1.7 × 10− 2
– 0.45 Trauth et al. (1995)
defining the hydraulic potential in the soil as the potential directly
below the colmation layer and enables to use a one-dimensional form of Pipe network of a city 0.012 Hoffman and Lerner
(1992)
Darcy’s law (or Richard’s) equation. According to this, the change of the
Catchment area of a city 1.4 × 10− 2 Yang et al. (1999)
hydraulic potential not only depends on the water level in the pipe and
Catchment area of a city 1.4 × 10− 9 – 0.179 Chisala and Lerner
the thickness of the colmation layer, but also on the soil matrix potential (2008)
below the colmation layer, including the local soil moisture (as District area of a city 3.0 × 10− 2
– 7.5 × 10− 2 Morris et al. (2006)
expressed by the relative permeability) and soil properties (as expressed Multiple scales of the 1.0 – 2.0 Amick and Burgess
by intrinsic permeability and retention curve parameters) (Beal et al., country (2000)
2004; Ellis et al., 2009). Most of the time, the sewer exfiltration process Single pipe to catchment 6.2 × 10− 2
– 17.9 × Reynolds and Barrett
scales 10− 2 (2003)
rarely occurs under partially saturated soil conditions and is highly non-
linear. However, sewer exfiltration is often linearized by using a modi­ Review of various scale 1.7 × 10− 9
– 0.179 Ellis et al. (2009)
studies
fied version of Darcy’s law in order to reduce computational

5
H.H. Nguyen et al.
4.1. Estimation approaches of sewer exfiltration
Three main approaches for calculations of sewer exfiltration are
defined in the literature: sewer exfiltration rates, leakage factor, and
leakage functions (Table 3).
4.1.1. Sewer exfiltration rates
Equations of sewer exfiltration are based on a combination of theo­
retical assumptions and laboratory or field investigations. Two general
approaches are referred to in the review by Rutsch et al. (2008). One
approach is based on the Torricelli equation (Eq. 1), calculating exfil­
tration rates as a function of the coefficient of outflow, gravitational
acceleration, and pipe water level. Another approach is based on Darcy’s
law (Eq. 2). Later studies stressed the importance of a colmation layer, in
particular the effect of hydraulic properties of the colmation layer on
simulating the sewer exfiltration (DeSilva et al., 2005; Boukhemacha
et al., 2015) (Eq. 3, Eq. 4).
All above-stated calculations are based on the assumption of a sta­
tionary exfiltration flow, but in practice, this condition applies only
under constant pipe and soil conditions (Han, 1997; Karpf et al., 2011;
Boukhemacha et al., 2015). In practice, sewer exfiltration into a variably
saturated soil is a non-linear process. For example, exfiltration rates
using the linear Darcy approach tend to be overestimated under wet
weather conditions when significant proportions of sewer pipes are
pressurized, and soil resistance increases with increasing volume of
wastewater flow (Rushton and Tomlinson, 1979; Rutsch et al., 2008).
Similar to the pipe-aquifer interaction of sewer exfiltration, developing
an equation of non-linear exfiltration from sewers into an aquifer re­
quires information of both water level and streambed properties (Eq. 5).
Corresponding to this approach, Karpf and Krebs (2004) propose a sewer
exfiltration model which bases on a model for surface water leaking into
groundwater (Han, 1997) (Eq. 6, Eq. 7).
4.1.2. Leakage factor
Rauch and Stegner (1994) introduced the generic leakage factor KL
(Eq. 8). This factor incorporates the two parameters, hydraulic con­
ductivity and thickness of the colmation layer, which are difficult to
determine and often unknown in practice (Peche, 2019). Introducing
such a lumped leakage factor as a single colmation layer parameter helps
to simplify the calibration of sewer exfiltration models. Eq. (10) is a
more detailed version of the sewer leakage equation proposed by Ellis
et al. (2009) in order to incorporate interactions and combined effects of
the colmation layer, the soil layer, and the transition zones on exfiltra­
tion rates. Direct calibration of the exfiltration factor KL and its com­
ponents are often not possible and are alternatively proposed to achieve
by experimental analysis (Karpf and Krebs, 2011). This method applies
the Eq. (11) and requires data on a dynamic (i.e., colmation layer
clogging and break-up processes) and a structural non-dynamic
component (i.e., exfiltration area and soil properties).
4.1.3. Leakage function
Peche et al. (2017) introduced a nonlinear leakage function that
relates the nonlinear dependency of sewer exfiltration to pipe water
level and water pressure below the colmation layer. That relationship
can be represented by a 4th order polynomial equation (Table 3). Co­
efficients in Peche et al. (2017) were determined using a coupled nu­
merical pipe flow-unsaturated flow model. For this leakage function, soil
water pressure and pipe water level act as input variables and specific
sewer exfiltration flux via the colmation layer as the output variable.
This method enables coupling pipe flow and unsaturated zone flow
(both flow regimes may be calculated with numerical models). The
leakage function represents an upscaling method because it enables to
omit otherwise very fine spatial discretization of the colmation layer.
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Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
4.2. Sewer exfiltration models
Sewer exfiltration models can broadly be grouped into data-driven or
process-based categories based on model applications (Table 4). In
general, none of the available model approaches provides a single so­
lution to the major issues in sewer exfiltration from site-specific to large
scales, and all models are study-dependent because of the inherent
complexity of pipe sewer exfiltration processes, the difference in pipe
network conditions, and data availability within the study context (Xu
et al., 2014a).
4.2.1. Data-driven models
Data-driven models, or statistical models, employ data-driven tech­
niques to reveal the relationships between ‘explanatory’ variables and
the leakage patterns of defective pipes at specific locations. The method
generalizes a predictive model with a certain degree of confidence (Liu
et al., 2010; Harvey and McBean, 2014). Such modelling approaches are
most applicable to asset management and risk planning and modelling
the in-situ issues of sewer pipe damages in small catchments (e.g.,
Mashford et al., 2011; Younis and Knight, 2010).
Defective sewer inspections, most commonly with CCTV techniques,
resulted in an extensive database that is often abstracted at different
levels to enable various analyses of the exfiltration pattern and failure
rates of the whole sewer network (e.g., Le Gat, 2006; Mashford et al.,
2011). For example, Davies et al. (2001) extracted 12.000 records of
CCTV data and other explanatory variables for a 634 km long sewer
system to develop a statistical model for predicting sewer failure prob­
ability. Younis and Knight (2010) used extensive inspection data to
develop a Generalized Linear Regression Model to predict the proba­
bility of aged pipe deterioration in Ontario. Their results suggested that
the deterioration of vitrified clay (VC) pipes is age-independent, while
the service life for reinforced concrete (RC) pipes is approximately 75
years.
Outputs of sewer exfiltration models are often considered to directly
correspond with sewer damages and this principle is applied for the
development of various sewer deterioration models (e.g., Baur and Herz,
2002; Harvey and McBean, 2014). One common technique is the cohort
survival model, which was selected as the primary tool to predict the
structural condition of sewer pipes at the network-level in various re­
gions, for instance, in Norway (Rostum et al., 1999), Germany (Baur and
Herz, 2002), or Canada (Duchesne et al., 2012). Le Gat (2006) and Le
Gat (2008) applied the non-homogenous Markov chains (NHMC) model
to develop the time-dependent probability function to predict sewer
deterioration conditions to support short-term repair and long-term
maintenance planning of sewer networks. Another example is the
Gompitz model, which can predict pipe defective states even when
sewers are subjected to very sparse inspections (Caradot et al., 2017).
The method was successfully applied in many other countries, such as in
Canada (Harvey and McBean, 2014), Norway (Rokstad and Ugarelli,
2015), Germany (Caradot et al., 2017), and Austria (Fuchs-Hanusch
et al., 2015).
Artificial intelligence-based and machine learning techniques pre­
sent other alternative methods, particularly in cases where the inherent
uncertainties of inspection datasets constrain the use of statistical
models (e.g., Khan et al., 2010; Mashford et al., 2011). Artificial neural
networks (ANN) were successfully used by Najafi et al. (2005) and Khan
et al. (2010) to investigate the impact of explanatory parameters on the
prediction of the sewer pipe condition based on limited input data.
Applications of machine learning models, such as the Support Vector
Machine (SVM), helped to overcome the constraints of the sparseness of
sewer exfiltration data when predicting the condition of individual
sewer pipes in Australia, Colombia, and Germany (Mashford et al., 2011;
Hernández et al., 2018). The Neural Network machine learning model in
the study by Yin et al. (2020) also predicted well the deterioration state
of individual sewer pipes. The gained knowledge from this model can
ultimately be generalized with a certain degree of confidence to non-
 H.H. Nguyen et al.
Table 3
Approaches of sewer exfiltration estimation using equations of exfiltration rate, leakage factor, and leakage functions.
No. Equation functions Parameters References
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 3 − 1
Eq.(1) Qex = Aleak *μ* 2gh Qex = exfiltration rate (L T ) Rutsch et al. (2008)
Eq. kf Aleak = leakage area (L2)
Qex = Aleak *h* µ = coefficient of outflow (–)
(2) Δs
g = gravitational acceleration (LT− 1)
h = wastewater level in the pipe (L)
kf = coefficient of permeability (L T− 1)
Δs = depth of the soil column (L)
Eq. kc kc = hydraulic conductivity of colmation layer (L T− 1) DeSilva et al. (2005);
Qex = h* *Aleak
(3) B B = thickness of the colmation layer (L) Boukhemacha et al. (2015)
Eq. kc L = length of the sewer segment of interest (L),
Qex = h* *(Wp *L*%leak )
(4) B Wp = wetted perimeter generated with the water level in
the sewer (L)
%leak = percentage of leaking surfaces from the total
area under the wetted perimeter.
Eq. q = k1 *(ek2*Δh − 1) whenΔh > 0 q = the flow between sewer conduit and aquifer Rushton and Tomlinson (1979)
(5) (L3L− 1T− 1)
k1 = the streambed leakage coefficient (L T− 1)
k2 = a constant (L)
Δh = the difference in water level between sewer
conduit and aquifer (L)
7

Qex,T = exfiltration rate at time T (L3 T− 1)

∑i
Eq. Qex,T = KL i=1 Ai,T *(hG,i,T − hS,i,T ) whenhS,i,T > hG,i,T > hP,i Karpf and Krebs (2004)
(6) Ai,T = exfiltration effective surface area at time T (L2)
∑i
Eq. Qex,T = KL i=1 Ai,T *(hS,i,T − hP,i ) whenhP,i > hG,i,T hS,i,T = height of water level in pipe i at time T (L)
(7) hG,i,T = height of groundwater level pipe i at time T (L)
hP,i = pipe bottom level of pipe i (L)
Eq. kf KL = leakage factor (T− 1) Rauch and Stegner (1994)
KL =
(8) dl kf = coefficient of permeability (L T− 1)
Eq. Qex = Aleak *h*KL dl = thickness of the layer (L)
(9)
Eq. kcol Qex ΔH = hydraulic or matrix potential (m)hcol = thickness Ellis et al. (2009)
KL = −
(10) hcol Aleak *ΔH of the colmation layer (m)
kcol = permeability coefficient of the transition zone
beneath the leak (m/s)
Eq. KL = KL,dy *KL,n− dy KL,dy = leakage factor with dynamic input data (T− 1) Karpf and Krebs (2011)
(11) KL,n− dy = leakage factor with non-dynamic input data
(T− 1)

Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130

Eq. 1 ( ) qex = specific discharge (m/s) Peche et al. (2017)
qex * a00 + a10 p + a01 h + a20 p2 + a11 ph + a02 p3 + a21 p3 + a21 p2 h + a12 ph2 + a03 h3 + a40 p4 + a31 p3 h + a22 p2 h2 + a13 ph3
(12) 2.25*10− 4 p = soil water pressure below the comation layer (Pa)
h = height of water level in pipe (m)
axx = polynomial coefficients (units are omitted for
legibility)
H.H. Nguyen et al.
Table 4
Modelling approaches and applications incorporating sewer exfiltration processes and parameters.
Model approaches Model description
Data-driven models
Correlation analysis The correlation pattern is defined among pipe
damages attributes, other environmental
attributes, and resulting exfiltration in order to
identify important variables which affect sewer
exfiltration
Logistic and multiple Model variables are treated as random data and
regressions have a probability distribution. Include
regression models, multiple linear regression
models, or binary logistic models.
Cohort survival models Cohorts (sewers) are grouped based on similar
characteristics, i.e., the period of construction or
failure probabilities. Inspection data are used to
develop ‘survival’ curves to forecast the residual
lifetime of the pipe and the specific time when
sewers enter a critical condition.
Markov-chain models A common type of deterioration model. The
model incorporates the time-dependent
transition probabilities, i.e., probabilities of
condition changes, which allows defining the
specific time when the condition changes in a
sewer system.
Artificial intelligence Allow identifying the non-linear relationships
and machine between sewer condition states and explanatory
learning models variables by ‘learning’ the behavior of
deteriorated pipes from inspection data. It does
not require a predefined structure of the model
to link model inputs and outputs. Commonly
used models are Neural Networks, Random
Forests, and Support Vector Machines.
Physically-based models
Groundwater models A groundwater flow model. Sewer leakage is
considered as a pathway contributing to aquifer
recharge. The simulated flow is calibrated with
data available from groundwater and other
monitoring sources.
Models based on water Sewer exfiltration is estimated by determining
balance principles water balance inputs, such as precipitation and
water consumption and discharge.
Sewer pipe models Sewer exfiltration is represented as a function of
pipeline system deterioration and incorporates
sewer exfiltration equations, its key parameters
and processes, and interactions among key
variables which occur in the sewer pipe system.
Coupled pipe- The transport of flow and solutes are simulated
subsurface- by coupling the sewer pipe models and (or)
groundwater and sewer exfiltration equation with various
integrated models hydraulic, hydrologic, and process-based models
in tandem.
* Model inputs: (1) Climate data; (2) Sewer pipe characteristics and conditions; (3) Wastewater content; (4) Soil; (5) Colmation layer; (6) Hydraulic potential; (7)
Groundwater data; (8) Administrative information
inspected pipes to better define rehabilitation planning (Caradot et al.,
2017; Tscheikner-Gratl et al., 2020). In another study by Laakso et al.
(2018), the machine learning approach identified pipes in critical con­
ditions and revealed key predictor factors which affected the poor pipe
conditions. In general, machine learning models show an advantage
over other statistical approaches in revealing the pipe-scale sewers in the
critical condition (e.g., Caradot et al., 2018; Tscheikner-Gratl et al.,
2020).
4.2.2. Physically-based models
Unlike data-driven models, physically-based models are based on
physical process principles and aim to describe the relationships among
explanatory parameters relevant to the simulated process (Zoppou,
2001). A dependency among explanatory variables that drive sewer
exfiltration processes are often assumed or formulated, and dependent
variables are incorporated into equations of transport of sewage fluids
Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
Model inputs* Model applications
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
x x x x Dohmann et al. (1999); Davies et al. (2001);
DeSilva et al. (2005)
x x x Ariaratnam et al. (2001); Chughtai and Zayed
(2008); Younis and Knight (2010); Salman
and Salem (2012); Fuchs-Hanusch et al.
(2015); Lee et al. (2015); Roehrdanz et al.
(2017)
x x Herz and Hochstrate (1987); Baur and Herz
(2002); Baik et al. (2006); Duchesne et al.
(2012)
x x x Baur and Herz (2002); Le Gat (2006, 2008);
Egger et al. (2013); Caradot et al. (2017);
Tscheikner-Gratl et al. (2016); Rokstad and
Ugarelli (2016)
x x x x Tran et al. (2006); Khan et al. (2010);
Mashford et al. (2011); Syachrani et al.
(2013); Sousa et al. (2014); Jiang et al.
(2016); Harvey and McBean (2014); Rokstad
and Ugarelli (2015); Laakso et al. (2018);
Hernández et al. (2018)
x x x x x x Yang et al. (1999); Lerner (2002); Reynolds
and Barrett (2003); Fenz et al. (2005);
Wakida and Lerner (2005); Wolf et al. (2006,
2012)
x x x x x x Karpf and Krebs (2005); Trauth et al. (1995);
Nakayama et al. (2007); Li et al. (2008); Xu
et al. (2014a, 2014b))
x x x x x x x x DeSilva et al. (2005, 2007); Karpf and Krebs
(2011); Peche et al. (2017, 2019)
x x x x x x x x Wolf et al. (2007); Mohrlok et al. (2008);
Maxwell et al. (2009); Vizintin et al. (2009);
Ly and Chui (2012); Bhaskar et al. (2015);
Kidmose et al. (2015); Thorndahl et al.
(2016); Gogu et al. (2017); Peche et al. (2017)
from defect sources into aquifers (Yang et al., 1999; Karpf et al., 2011;
Boukhemacha et al., 2015). In general, physically-based models serve as
a useful tool for defining areas vulnerable to groundwater contamina­
tion and predicting sewer exfiltration scenarios with a certain degree of
spatial and temporal representation (Mohrlok et al., 2008; Ellis and
Bertrand-Krajewski, 2010).
Groundwater and water balance models are commonly used in sewer
exfiltration studies to estimate the exfiltration rates, particularly in areas
lacking site-specific information on defect conditions and inspections
(Karpf and Krebs, 2005; Xu et al., 2014b). A reliable representation of
areas susceptible to sewer exfiltration pollution typically requires an
accurate determination of water balance elements in urban groundwater
models (Boukhemacha et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2015; Gogu et al., 2017).
The core water balance-specific inputs include precipitation, evapora­
tion, interception, infiltration and percolation, transpiration and root-
water uptake, surface water flow, miscellaneous sink/source terms (e.
8
H.H. Nguyen et al.
g., leaking water mains, groundwater infiltration into a leaky pipe
network), water consumption at households, or collected/treated
wastewater. For example, Nakayama et al. (2007) combined data from
730 urban catchments with sewer pipes and data on precipitation to
estimate the average leakage of sewer fluids into aquifers in Tokyo,
Japan. The calculation of sewer exfiltration based on the water balance
was used in a case study by Xu et al. (2014b) to represent the Shanghai’s
drainage system, China (but with the main focus on dry-weather flow
conditions). The simulated groundwater flow is calibrated with data
from groundwater monitoring. To reduce model complexity of ground­
water models, some studies focusing on entire pipe networks often
consider certain water balance elements (including precipitation,
evaporation, interception, transpiration, root-water uptake, and surface
water flow) as lumped into groundwater recharge, which is assigned to a
Neumann-type boundary condition at the groundwater model top
boundary (e.g., Peche et al., 2019; Rodriguez et al., 2020). Such a
reduction in model complexity enables to omit the calculation of surface
water flow and its coupling to the groundwater flow regime (Rodriguez
et al., 2020). It is crucial to include elements of the urban water balance
into such a lumped groundwater recharge because a mere consideration
of water balance elements would truncate the urban water balance.
When modelling leakage from a specific pipe network, all other pipe
networks providing exchange fluxes to and from groundwater (such as
sewer network, stormwater network, water mains, and drain tiles) and
their respective temporal variations (from daily to seasonal flow pat­
terns) have to be considered as inputs of the urban water balance. Other
inputs are irrigation and dewatering of construction sites. The incor­
poration of surface coverage elements in the model is particularly
important in areas of low-pervious or impervious surface cover, in which
the local groundwater recharge may not be precipitation-driven at all
(Mitchell et al., 2003; Kenway et al., 2011).
Sewer pipe models are developed to supplement the rough estima­
tion of water balance and groundwater models, to further advance the
model knowledge and to increase the accuracy in predicting sewer
exfiltration effects on the environment when incorporating specified
exfiltration characteristics and patterns and wastewater flow equations
in the model. The first sewer exfiltration model at the pipe scale was
proposed by DeSilva et al. (2005), in which the flow equation of sewer
exfiltration was adapted from the studies of Rauch and Stegner (1994)
and Vollertsen and Hvitved Jacobsen (2003) to quantify the daily
pattern of sewer exfiltration. At the city scale, the sewer network exfil­
tration and infiltration model (NEIMO) was developed within the Eu­
ropean funded project ‘Assessing and Improving the Sustainability of
Urban Water Resources and Systems’ (AISWURS) and was applied in
various countries in Europe and Australia to reveal the magnitude of
sewer exfiltration in regions with different pipe and soil conditions
(DeSilva et al., 2007; Ellis and Bertrand-Krajewski, 2010). Another
example of a sewer exfiltration model was proposed by Karpf and Krebs
(2011), in which the dynamic and structural components of the exfil­
tration process, including clogging/break-up of the colmation layer and
groundwater infiltration in the vicinity of sewer leaks, were introduced
in the hydrodynamic model setting. Karpf and Krebs (2011) study
showed the complexity of exfiltration hydraulics and identified impor­
tant parameters and components of exfiltration models which can be
managed on the basis of different data availabilities. The results of Karpf
and Krebs (2011) were adapted in the study by Peche et al. (2017),
which further reveals the mechanism and parametrisation of sewer
exfiltration for upscaled studies on the basis of coupled pipe flow and
groundwater flow simulators. Approximation of sewage exfiltration by
means of leakage flow functions, which were derived from numerical
simulations of pipe water levels and hydraulic pressures below the
colmation layer, proved to reasonably represent the spatial discretiza­
tion of pipe defects at broader network scales with reduced computa­
tional times (Peche et al., 2017).
Stimulated by increasing availability of observed sewer exfiltration
data and the improvement of computational power, model designs have
9
Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
expanded toward integrating multi-dimensional, coupled pipe-soil-
groundwater models that represent better the spatial and temporal
pattern of sewer exfiltration (e.g., Schulz et al., 2005; Mohrlok et al.,
2008; Peche et al., 2019). The calibration of integrated sewer exfiltra­
tion models is often based on water sampling and groundwater moni­
toring (e.g., Wolf et al., 2012; Boukhemacha et al., 2015; Roehrdanz
et al., 2017). In the study by Mohrlok et al. (2008), the leakage from
pipes is considered the point source which can generate the three-
dimensional flow, and results from this study defined that the long-
term residence times of wastewater leakage in the soil medium were
due to lateral flow spreading. Dvory et al. (2018) used coupled 1D-3D
unsaturated and saturated flow and transport models to evaluate the
effects of a leakage event after a maintenance incidence. They found out
that sewer leakage was retained in the porous media of a karst/
fractured-porous unsaturated zone and groundwater system and
contributed a continuous supply of the micro-contaminant carbamaze­
pine to the groundwater and nearby creeks long after the incidence has
stopped. Bhaskar et al. (2015) used the coupled groundwater-surface
water-land surface model ParFlow (Maxwell et al., 2009) to quantify
the long-term impact of exfiltration on groundwater storage in Balti­
more, USA, and defined that sewer exfiltration is the second main driver
causing the change in subsurface storage volume when compared to
other factors. Peche et al. (2017) calculated sewer exfiltration based on a
hydro-dynamic pipe water level and variably soils saturation subsurface
flow approach and suggested that for groundwater levels far below leaky
pipes, sewer exfiltration rates are independent of groundwater and soil
water pressure and merely depend on the water level in the sewer pipe
(Peche, 2019). This study also revealed that the characteristics of the
aquifer strata and colmation layer, which in this case were sand and
sandy loam, had significant effects on the breakthrough time of pipe
leakage to the groundwater table. In another case study by Bhaskar et al.
(2015), the hydraulic connection between the sewer exfiltration to
groundwater varied when passing through various unconfined and
confined aquifers.
Incorporating geological and hydrogeological models in the inte­
grated model framework revealed that the exfiltration process from
sewers depends strongly on the interaction between the conduit and the
hydrogeological strata (Ly and Chui, 2012; Boukhemacha et al., 2015;
Roehrdanz et al., 2017). The study coupling the urban 3D geological and
sewer system models in Bucharest city, Romania, showed that sewer
conduits located completely in the aquitard strata were particularly
susceptible to the exfiltration process. In contrast, conduits located
partially or entirely in the aquifer might exhibit either infiltration or
exfiltration (Gogu et al., 2017). Sewer conduits with a known hydraulic
property of backfill material when crossing through different zones of
the heterogeneous aquifer and aquitard strata showed very distinct
patterns of hydraulic interaction with the hydrogeological matrix, and
consequently very different rates and loads of sewer leakage to
groundwater (Lee et al., 2015; Roehrdanz et al., 2017; Gogu et al.,
2017). The volume of artificial recharge from sewer leakage sources to
groundwater varied in both space and time in the case study of Barce­
lona city, Spain, due to the complex nature of the aquifer strata (Tubau
et al., 2017). Thus, studies focusing on the effects of sewer exfiltration on
groundwater need to properly consider the intersection between the
sewer conduits and the aquifer strata by correctly reproducing the hy­
draulic processes and water balance of core domains of surface water,
pipe flow, hydrogeology, and groundwater strata.
4.2.3. Others
These include other models or management tools that do not strictly
belong to the two above mentioned categories, such as visual mapping
and GIS-operations. Such models are particularly used in areas with a
deficiency of available data for the setup of sewer exfiltration models.
Reconstructing spatial-temporal patterns of sewer defect distribu­
tions in urban areas by using GIS tools is considered a useful supple­
mentary tool to analyze the risk and potential locations of sewer
H.H. Nguyen et al.
exfiltration to groundwater (Mohrlok et al., 2008; Roehrdanz et al.,
2017; Ducci, 2018). Selvakumar et al. (2004) developed a map on the
depth-to-groundwater basing on sewer network and groundwater level
data in the USA. Hopkins and Bain (2018) and Vystavna et al. (2018)
applied a similar approach to map the spatial patterns of sewer networks
and defined potential sewer leakage hotspots by conducting the prox­
imity analysis between aging sewers and surface waterways. Ducci
(2018) produced the Potential Nitrate Contamination (PNC) map, which
incorporates the source of sewer leakage in urban sewage networks, by
overlaying various thematic maps and statistical data available at the
national scale. Lee et al. (2015) and Roehrdanz et al. (2017) used a lo­
gistic regression model and GIS tool to predict the high likelihood areas
of sewer exfiltration.
Using leakage indicators is an alternative approach in regions where
the sewer leakage data constrain the application of models. For instance,
Barrett et al. (1997) proposed combining stable nitrogen isotopes and
microbiological indicators as the most effective parameters for the
quantification of groundwater recharge by sewer exfiltration. Their in­
vestigations provide evidence for the presence of sewage in shallow
groundwater. An approach using various wastewater indicators to
analyse the process of sewer exfiltration to groundwater is also proposed
in monitoring combined with modelling studies by Wolf et al. (2012),
Lee et al. (2015), and Roehrdanz et al. (2017).
5. Challenges and research needs for sewer exfiltration
modelling
Based on current literature, it can be concluded that the primary
focuses of sewer exfiltration studies, including the identification of
important variables affecting sewer exfiltration, the behavior and in­
teractions among sewer exfiltration parameters, and the presence and
types of effects on the environment, are well addressed at the scales from
single-site to certain defined sewer lengths (Section 2, Section 3). Based
on those grounds, various approaches and models have been proposed in
the literature to assist the prediction of deterioration status of sewer
pipes and to define the critical areas affected by sewer exfiltration to the
environment (Section 4).
However, effects of sewer exfiltration on the surrounding environ­
ment are often not limited to single sites where the leakages from pipe
defects are inspected and modeled (Section 1). Long-term management
decisions and rehabilitation planning often require a determination of
the system deterioration and effects at the broader scales of whole sewer
pipe networks or catchments (e.g., Wolf and Hötztl, 2007; Heinrich,
2007; Roehrdanz et al., 2017; Peche, 2019). Applications of sewer
exfiltration models at higher spatial and temporal resolutions are still
constrained due to the lack of information and understanding on the role
and interactions of key driving factors, which are not directly derivable
from small-scale studies (e.g., Rutsch et al., 2008; Vystavna et al., 2018).
The following section focuses on the more recent literature addressing
these knowledge gaps and defining research needs for future studies on
sewer exfiltration modelling.
5.1. Model hydraulic processes of sewer exfiltration
To estimate and adequately predict the effects to groundwater from
the sewer exfiltration source, studies on the hydraulic modelling aspects
of sewer exfiltration need to cover two main areas, which include (1) an
improved understanding of core processes and interactions among key
parameters of sewer exfiltration at the pipe scale, and (2) a better un­
derstanding of the transport and transformation processes of sewer
leakage into aquifer strata. For the first aim, advanced data-driven
techniques such as machine learning and artificial intelligence models
proved to be efficient and reliable tools that can help an accurate pre­
diction of pipe deterioration status and its key explanatory variables for
a better exploration of sewer exfiltration processes at the pipe scale.
Meanwhile, coupling the physically-based, integrated surface water and
10
Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
sewer pipe models with urban infrastructure, hydrogeological, and
groundwater models is essential to realistically simulate the effects of
sewer leakage to groundwater. Examples from the literature showed
diverse applications of data-driven and physically-based models that
primarily targeted only one or another above-mentioned aspect and
simplified the representation of other aspects of the sewer exfiltration
process (e.g., Rutsch et al., 2008; Tscheikner-Gratl et al., 2020). An
accurate prediction of sewer exfiltration impacts on groundwater at
large scales requires a thorough consideration of both aspects by care­
fully integrating the model domains from the local conduit surface to the
entire sewer network and city scales.
At the pipe scale, an accurate hydraulic simulation of sewer exfil­
tration needs to consider the condition of the following dependencies:
initial soil type, vertical distance to the groundwater table and pipe
water level (that may be used to estimate a hydraulic gradient through
the colmation layer), and the colmation layer condition (Karpf, 2012;
Guo et al., 2017; Peche, 2019). The initial soil type is often well-known if
pipes are embedded in well-defined backfill material (Karpf, 2012). The
vertical distance to the groundwater table may be calculated using pipe
network information (in the form of pipe invert depth) and groundwater
maps (Selvakumar et al., 2004; Roehrdanz et al., 2017). The pipe water
level is highly variable and may be simplified by using the dry-weather
flow water level (Peche et al., 2017). However, data of the colmation
layer parameters are not readily available and difficult to predict and
have to be calibrated or determined using in-situ physical experiments
(e.g., Karpf et al., 2009). Sewer pipe models are often based on the
simplification that hydraulic properties and the depth of the colmation
layer are constant. Results from physical experiments justified the latter
(e.g., Okubo and Matsumoto, 1983; Rauch and Stegner, 1994), which
shows that these attributes of the colmation layer converge to a constant
value within a short time of pipe defect occurrence. However, this
simplification leads to the significant uncertainty in the model outputs of
long-term predictions due to the negligence of colmation layer dy­
namics, such as colmation layer breaking-up effects (driven by high pipe
water pressure), leading to short-time large sewer exfiltration rates
(known as leakage pulses) (Ellis et al., 2009; Karpf, 2012). Developing
colmation layer forming models which allow predicting both the hy­
draulic properties and depth of the colmation layer, and (or) filtration
models coupled with biofilm growth models are potential important
research areas which can help to better represent the processes of hy­
draulic flow transport to groundwater in integrated pipe-subsurface-
groundwater models. As the subject of future studies, it is also impor­
tant to incorporate leakage pulses into sewer exfiltration models in order
to better address and to compare the effects of sewer exfiltration under
the dry-weather flow and stormwater flow conditions for both long-term
studies and studies focusing on event-based impacts of sewer
exfiltration.
At large spatial scales, the challenge in modelling the hydraulic
processes of sewer exfiltration is associated with the local geology
characteristics (Geyer et al., 2007; Dvory et al., 2018). Caverns may
form from sewer exfiltration-bound percolation when sewer leakage
occurs in dissoluble rock (e.g., limestone) (Hermosilla, 2012). These
caverns represent a substantial variability in local geology, and this
variability needs to be accounted for when modelling sewer exfiltration.
In other cases, the exchange between conduits and the aquifer strata
when sewer infiltrated via carbonate aquifers with preferential flow
paths may significantly impact on the local groundwater (e.g., Dvory
et al., 2016, 2018). In contrast, the presence of areas with very small
hydraulic conductivities (e.g., clay lenses) may lead to a soil-bound
sealing of pipe defects, and modelling sewer exfiltration in such areas
may not be necessary. Thus, the local geology and geological strata
characteristics should be well known when modelling the process of
sewer exfiltration to groundwater.
A further challenge in modelling the sewer exfiltration hydraulic
processes is caused by the complex nature of underground in­
frastructures and their interactions with the local hydrogeology, which
H.H. Nguyen et al.
subsequently affect the potential distribution of sewer exfiltration to
groundwater. Urban systems are often characterized by extensive net­
works of sewage pipes which intersect with other underground in­
frastructures and constructions (e.g., stormwater canals and drains) and
various pervious and impervious hydrogeological strata. These in­
tersections contribute a significant source of disturbance to the local
urban groundwater (Bhaskar et al., 2015; Attard et al., 2016). Studies
also revealed that the problem of sewer exfiltration in urbanized regions
is not limited to dry-weather conditions as often referred in previous
studies. Indeed, a significant amount of rainwater and surface flow via
pervious urban areas may infiltrate into conduits during storm events
and contribute to an increased peak of sewer discharge to groundwater
over a longer duration period depending on the local characteristics and
conditions of pervious and impervious aquifers (e.g., Ly and Chui, 2012;
Boukhemacha et al., 2015; Tubau et al., 2017). Therefore, it is crucial to
judiciously analyse local hydrogeology and groundwater maps to
accurately estimate the full sewage leakage process and to understand its
migration mechanism into groundwater. In regions where detailed
urban groundwater maps are not available, there is a need to apply
alternative and more generic approaches (e.g., using leakage factors and
functions) in order to gain the reasonably accurate estimation of sewer
exfiltration to groundwater.
Besides, current sewer exfiltration models do not take into account
the potential ‘hydraulic disconnection’ of leaky pipes from groundwater,
i.e., the distance of groundwater and leaky sewer at which the discon­
nection occurs and no significant effect on groundwater is observed
(Peche, 2019). Some studies with a focus on groundwater pollution
suggested that the impact from sewer exfiltration sources was mostly
remarkable and relevant near the vicinity of defective pipe areas (e.g.,
Reynolds and Barrett, 2003; Rutsch et al., 2008; Bhaskar et al., 2015).
Such a hydraulic disconnection is well known for river-groundwater
interactions (e.g., Sophocleous, 2002; Brunner et al., 2009). Mean­
while, the concept was first described for sewer-groundwater in­
teractions in Peche et al. (2017). However, to which spatial boundary (i.
e., depth to groundwater) this effect should be considered in sewer
exfiltration modelling is still largely unknown and should be subject to
future research (Lee et al., 2015; Roehrdanz et al., 2017). A better-
obtained knowledge of sewer pipe hydraulic disconnection has the po­
tential for model simplification since solving the nonlinear and
computationally costly Richards (1931) equation is not necessary for a
disconnected leaky pipe.
5.2. Model wastewater compositions from sewer exfiltration
Sewer exfiltration is characterized by a diverse composition of sub­
stances from industrial, commercial, and residential sources such as
heavy metals, surfactants, or organic compounds (Reynolds and Barrett,
2003; Karamouz et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2015). These substances differ in
their characteristics and behavior (including, e.g., degradation, solubi­
lity, adsorption-affinity) in the pipe and in groundwater, and as such
might not be compatible to model in a similar way as pollutant in­
dicators in surface water or groundwater models. However, very few
studies have been focused on modelling of wastewater contaminants in
sewer exfiltration (e.g., Roehrdanz et al., 2017; Dvory et al., 2018).
Thus, the behavior and effects of most contaminants from sewer exfil­
tration on the urban environment in the literature remain largely un­
known, particular on large scales, though it is acknowledged that the
significant pressure on groundwater from sewer exfiltration is caused by
pollutant loads rather than volume of sewer exfiltration discharge (e.g.,
Wolf et al., 2012; Roehrdanz et al., 2017).
Some studies incorporated sewage solute transport module with
coupled sewer flow, variably saturated flow, and groundwater flow
models, but the model results are interpretable only within the context
of the local small-scale regions and limited observation data available
for model calibration (Mohrlok et al., 2008; Ly and Chui, 2012;
Thorndahl et al., 2016). In fact, the physico-chemical compositions of
11
Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
the wastewater largely depend on land-use within the urban area and
thus often requires intensive sampling and analysis with a focus on total
filterable solids, components leading to chemical precipitation, and
bacteria leading to biofilm growth (Wolf et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2015;
Roehrdanz et al., 2017). Thus, the knowledge gained and behavior
patterns of these contaminants are not readily available to enable a
generalization for larger-scale modelling studies than the understanding
of hydraulic sewer flow models (e.g., Peche et al., 2017; Tscheikner-
Gratl et al., 2020). In other studies, wastewater pollutants from sewer
exfiltration are roughly represented as fixed concentration amounts or
indirectly estimated from population dynamics and other indicators (e.
g., Vystavna et al., 2018). However, no uncertainty quantifications in
such approaches have been reported so far in the literature.
For pipe and catchment-scale models, it is also critically important to
correctly characterize the local condition of geological strata and to
incorporate the physico-chemical adsorption and interactions of
wastewater constituents with the soil medium to better understand the
transport and transformation of key wastewater leakage compositions
into groundwater. Sewer exfiltration adsorption at pipe-soil interfaces is
considered as a key factor in the formation of a sedimentary media at the
pipe-soil surface, which is known as a colmation layer and plays a
critical role in defining the ultimate quantity and quality of exfiltration
to the environment (Vollertsen and Hvitved-Jacobsen, 2003; Ellis et al.,
2009; Karpf, 2012). The porous matrix of an unsaturated–saturated zone
is extraordinarily heterogeneous (Vollertsen and Hvitved-Jacobsen,
2003; Ellis et al., 2009). This often leads to the assumption of homo­
geneity to characterize the medium for simplification in large-scale
studies. However, the hydraulic interaction between the sewer leakage
flow and the hydrogeological matrix in the soil for the known hydraulic
properties of the colmation layer might be completely different. This
clogging phenomenon between the sewer exfiltration flow and the
aquifer system environment has to be properly quantified and repre­
sented in sewer exfiltration models (including stabilization of gas bub­
bles, transport of particles in soil pores, attachment of toxic metal and
algae, or development of preferential flows) in order to improve the
understanding and reduce the uncertainty in evaluating the impacts of
sewer exfiltration on the groundwater (Nickey et al., 2015). Besides, an
improved understanding of sewage solute transport and impacts on
vulnerable groundwater sources can help to formulate a legal threshold
on ‘allowable’ limits of sewer leakage in urban wastewater systems.
5.3. Model calibration and uncertainty analyses
In general, sewer exfiltration models at large scales are not well
established (e.g., Hopkins and Bain, 2018; Ducci, 2018). One main
constrain is due to the fact that the development of large-scale models
based on site-specific experiments or small-scale models often requires
careful realisation of model parameters, i.e., the knowledge of several
parameters with high spatial and temporal resolutions, which in most
cases are not available (Karpf, 2012; Peche, 2019). For instance, the
calibration based on groundwater monitoring merely enables to esti­
mate a hydraulic conductivity for fully saturated conditions. Thus, it is
important to use the results of laboratory experiments and field samples
to determine the relative hydraulic conductivity function and retention
curve parameters to support the correct simulation of flow under un­
saturated conditions at the pipe and sewer network scales. Adapting the
leakage factor approach has proven a reliable method which is
increasingly used in various pipe to city-scale studies to simulate the
interaction between groundwater and sewer systems with a less data
demand on complex sewer network and local strata conditions (e.g.,
Karpf and Krebs, 2011; Boukhemacha et al., 2015; Peche et al., 2017).
For model calibration, the following factors should be considered. A
reasonable discretization of the groundwater model into zones of
different soil properties and aquifer characteristics, and distinguishing
sewers into certain segments which can act either as a drain for the
aquifer or as an artificial recharge source to groundwater. Further,
H.H. Nguyen et al.
consideration of an appropriate number of groundwater observations,
since the results of model calibration is often dependent on both the
model structure and the number of available groundwater observations
in the study area. Tubau et al. (2017) suggested that urban recharge
models incorporating sewer exfiltration can only be successfully vali­
dated when an ‘accurate’ groundwater flow and transport model is
available in the study area. A successful calibration is also attributed to
the model uncertainty, which is an integral problem of all modelling
practices and is caused by various sources such as input data, model
structure and parameterization, as well as model simplifications and
assumptions (Rutsch et al., 2008; Karpf et al., 2009). Thus, the uncer­
tainty of sewer exfiltration models should be addressed in tandem with
model calibration to improve the accuracy of modelling outputs.
The first calibration model incorporating sewer exfiltration was re­
ported in the study by Yang et al. (1999), though the main focus was on
fitting the simulated flow with available observed groundwater data.
Meanwhile, applying a Monte Carlo approach by calculating 2000
randomly selected combinations of seven independent input parameters
for the sewer network of the city of Rastatt, Germany, Wolf et al. (2006)
and Wolf and Hötztl (2007) successfully defined the uncertainty ranges
for each parameter and the validated exfiltration rate was reported with
the confidence interval of 95%. Karpf (2012) also incorporated Monte
Carlo on 5000 simulations of a sewer pipe network and defined that
water level in the pipe and duration of the clogging process have a
significant impact on the accuracy of the exfiltration predictions. Peche
et al. (2017) performed 60 repetitive simulations to develop a functional
relationship between sewer exfiltration fluxes, pipe water level and soil
water pressure below the colmation layer, such that uncertainties
regarding the qualitative distribution of that relationship can be reduced
significantly. Studies of Lee et al. (2015), Roehrdanz et al. (2017), and
Dvory et al. (2018) stand among few modelling studies incorporating
important contaminants from sewer leakage. However, the calibration is
constrained by the availability of short-term groundwater observations
in small-scale regions and the lack of information on the background
concentration of contaminants in the groundwater.
Overall, more studies combining monitoring and modelling of sewer
exfiltration at pipe and city scales are needed to further verify the
important parameters in sewer exfiltration models and their practical
default ranges, as well as to further test the uncertainty approaches in
predicting sewer exfiltration impacts of large-scale models.
5.4. Upscaling and generalization of sewer exfiltration
Some efforts have been conducted to develop approaches to allow
upscaling the results of models from single defect points or pipe lengths
to catchment scales in order to provide information for decision support
and rehabilitation implementation of urban wastewater systems. First
efforts towards upscaling observed exfiltration rates aim at representing
sewer exfiltration on the whole sewer network scale. Dohmann et al.
(1999) quantified exfiltration rates at field scale and upscaled their re­
sults based on the statistical information on the structural condition of
the sewer system. CCTV-based inspection data have been extrapolated to
the city district scale in a study by Wolf and Hötztl (2007). However,
results upscaled from field studies tend to overestimate the exfiltration
at the sewer network scale since the results are derived from observed
pipes with significant damages and defects (Rutsch et al., 2008).
Possible solutions for large-scale modelling of sewer exfiltration
target to closer implement the characteristics and behavior of defective
sewer networks. Few studies have been conducted in this direction, but
the cases are still limited. For instance, Karpf et al. (2009) defined a fixed
value of colmation properties under stable conditions and proposed the
application of a standardized sewer leakage area to ease the use of a pipe
to catchment scale modelling. This approach was further developed in
the study by Peche et al. (2017), in which an upscaling of leakage, using
transfer functions, was derived from numerical simulations. This func­
tional relationship represents sewer exfiltration flux through the
12
Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
colmation layer, enables to omit the spatial discretization of colmation
layers in numerical models and significantly reduces computation times.
Along with the generalization of general patterns of key parameters and
processes of sewer exfiltration, integrating various modelling techniques
with advanced GIS and planning tools to extract available large-scale
data (such as detailed maps of sewer networks, urban infrastructure,
urban groundwater levels, and data on structural and operational states
of sewer conduits) is also a common but effective approach. These ap­
proaches are increasingly being used to supplement the data shortage
from sewer observations required for large-scale studies of sewer exfil­
tration impacts on the environment (e.g., Lee et al., 2015; Ducci, 2018;
Hopkins and Bain, 2018).
The ideal approach to accurately allocate urban areas susceptible to
sewer exfiltration contamination and groundwater pollution is to care­
fully upscale the integrated surface water-pipe-hydrogeology-
groundwater model from site-specific location to the pipe network and
entire city scales in order to accurately simulate the key water balance
components. However, such intensive data requirement of both sewer
network and groundwater observations is often unavailable and cannot
be satisfied in most urban systems worldwide. A potential solution to
this common issue might be to perform the ‘multi-component and multi-
scale analyses. Such analysis requires a full calibrated model at the large
city-scale that is re-calibrated under various simplification settings (e.g.,
reduced parameters and processes incorporated in the model) and,
separately, for smaller regions within the city, where distinctions in the
sewer infrastructure and hydrogeological conditions are known.
Applying a calibrated large-scale model on different ‘scenarios’, i.e.,
including and excluding key model parameters and processes, is another
research direction which may help to define the driving factors for sewer
exfiltration modelling (e.g., Bhaskar et al., 2015; Peche, 2019).
Analyzing and comparing the results of different model framework
simplifications and scenarios with the results of the original full city-
scale model may help to better evaluate the “accuracy” of various
development settings and calibration schemes of sewer exfiltration
models, as well as to define parameters and processes that may be
generalized or have negligible effects on groundwater. Addressing these
issues can help to develop more case studies of large-scale urban models
incorporating sewer exfiltration processes, particularly in regions with a
significant data-scarce issue.
5.5. Modelling of sewer exfiltration from private household sources
While inspection and rehabilitation of public sewer systems are
managed and regulated, information on house connection sewers is
often limited as it locates in private properties (Ellis and Bertrand-
Krajewski, 2010). As a result, data of sewer exfiltration from private
sewer networks as well as privately conducted monitoring and reha­
bilitation data are, in most cases, not available to third parties and for
exfiltration modelling studies. Exfiltration from defective sewers of
private sewer systems is often indirectly estimated from population
statistics (e.g., Ducci, 2018; Vystana et al., 2019) or using a population-
based risk/probability matrix (e.g., Ellis and Bertrand-Krajewski, 2010;
Kaddoura and Zayed, 2018). Results of a few available studies indicate
high variability in damage rates of private sewers and hardly monitored
exfiltration rates (e.g., Kaddoura and Zayed, 2018; Vystana et al., 2019;
Nguyen and Venohr, 2021). This lack of knowledge leads to the question
on whether sewer exfiltration remains underestimated in urban catch­
ments if restricted to public sewers (Nguyen and Venohr, 2021). It is
recognized that modelling exfiltration from private sewers may contain
high uncertainties due to the considerable lack of appropriate data. The
topic of sewer exfiltration from private house connections represents a
research gap that needs to be addressed thoroughly as an integral part of
the overall sewer leakage problems in urban areas.
H.H. Nguyen et al.
6. Conclusions
Sewer exfiltration models proved to be effective and important tools
for decision making and rehabilitation planning of urban wastewater
environment. The following main findings can be drawn from the
literature review on sewer exfiltration modelling:
• Sewer exfiltration involves various malfunction reasons caused by
pipe defects. Ageing-bound failure of structural integrity remains the
primary factor causing sewer leakage incidences in sewer systems
worldwide.
• With the pressure from rapid urbanisation and climate change, the
topic of sewer exfiltration modelling has undergone a significant
expansion in various directions, which can be broadly grouped into
statistical, physically-based, and other approaches. Initial models
focus on identifying important variables affecting sewer exfiltration,
the probability of sewer failures and potential impacts of sewer
exfiltration on groundwater in small case studies. More modern tools
aim to represente the real-time spatial pattern of sewer exfiltration
and to improve predictions of the failure of large sewer systems for
better rehabilitation and inspection plans.
• The general on-going trend of sewer exfiltration models are in favor
of more integrated approaches, i.e., combining the strength of
diverse modelling techniques, upscaling tools, together with more
data from real sewer experiments developed at various spatial,
temporal, and geographical boundaries for a better definition of
model parameters and representation of key processes, as well as for
confirming the validity of current approaches and advancing
methods for model calibration and uncertainty analyses.
Modelling of sewer exfiltration processes and linking this emission to
groundwater impacts at city or larger scales, yet, show considerable
short-comings. Here, lacking details on sewer conditions (including age/
damage but also depth in the ground) together with a coupled sewer
pipe-groundwater modelling are the two major limiting factors. For
future research, a more systematic approach with more model compo­
nents and tools is recommended when modelling the water losses from
defective sewers into groundwater environment. At the pipe scale,
advanced machine learning and data-driven techniques could be used to
find more accurately the deterioration state of the entire sewer network.
At this scale, models incorporating hydraulic interactions between pipe
and groundwater often assume constant damage rates or use simplified
leakage equations based on single pipe properties (e.g., pipe length, pipe
diameter, or pipe age). Machine learning models could also allow an
improved understanding of key driving factors affecting the sewer
leakage to groundwater, as the importance of these factors in sewer
leakage models at the scale of the whole sewer network might vary from
those defined in small-scale studies at major leakages. Among major
parameters affecting the modelling of hydraulic and solute contami­
nants from sewer exfiltration, colmation layer properties and hydraulic
potential gradient between pipe and aquifer strata are of critical
importance inquiring further research. While the hydraulic potential
distribution in time and space may be calculated with numerical models
on the basis of a well-known initial condition, a major challenge is the
accurate prediction of the extent and hydraulic properties of the col­
mation layer. In present times, no reliable model for the prediction of
these properties exist and colmation layer properties have to be deter­
mined with probing or physical experiments. Complete physically-
based, integrated surface water, pipe and urban infrastructure, hydro­
geological, and groundwater model framework based on an accurate
determination of core water balance components is essential to analyse
the effects of sewer exfiltration on groundwater quantitatively rather
than only qualitatively. A more thorough model calibration incorpo­
rating the uncertainty analyses is another integral part of future sewer
exfiltration models at large-scales. As groundwater monitoring is still
often patchy, the consideration of additional contaminates and more in-
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Journal of Hydrology 596 (2021) 126130
depth analyses of source, degradation and transport pathways is
required for different types of sewers. In most studies, private sewer
networks and household connections are missing and should be
considered. Upscaling and generalization of calibrated model results
from the conduit to city scales could help to define the certain model
simplification schemes that are applicable for urban systems with a
significant data shortage.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the interdisciplinary project “Agro-Environ­
mental measures in Germany” (AGRUM-DE). The project is funded by
the German Working Group on Water Issues of the Federal States and the
Federal Government, Germany (LAWA, Grant number O.4.19), which
aims at quantifying the water and nutrient emissions from multiple
sources for all German river systems. The authors thank the State part­
ners for proposing the necessity of this research and providing com­
ments to improve the content of this paper.
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