STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES

MATERIALS

Ing. Jaime Gonzàlez

University of Padua
Yaounde, Cameroon – July/August 2019
TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE
• Tests can be made for different purposes, but the two main objectives of
testing are quality control and compliance or conformity with specifications.
Tests can be broadly classified into destructive and non-destructive tests
(which allow repeated testing of the same specimen).
• The most common of all tests on hardened concrete is the compressive
strength test, partly because it is an easy test to perform, and partly because
many of the desirable characteristics of concrete are qualitatively related to
its strength.
• In addition, the compressive strength is the most important characteristic
used during the structural design.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
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COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
BASIC DEFINITIONS
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
• The strength test results may be affected by variation in: type of test specimen,
specimen size, type of mould, curing, preparation of the end surface, rigidity of the
testing machine, and rate of application of stress. For this reason, testing should
follow a single standard, with no departure from prescribed procedures.
• Among the specifications, the tests required full compactation and wet curing for a
specified period. It is worth noting that the concrete strength in the structure may
actually be inferior, for example due to inadequate compaction, segregation or poor
curing.
• These effects are of importance if we want to know when the formwork may be
removed, or when further construction may continue, or the when structure can be
put in service. For this purpose, the tests specimens are cured under conditions are
nearly similar as possible to those existing in the actual structure.
• The age at which service specimens are tested is governed by the information
required. Standard specimens are tested generally at 28 days, with additional tests
made at 3 and 7 days.
• Two types of specimens are used: Cubes and Cylinders. Cubes are used in Great
Britain, Germany, Italy and many other countries in Europe. Cylinders are the
standard specimens in USA, France, Canada, Colombia, Australia. European
standards use both types of strength.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
• For cube tests, specimens are generally 150 mm size, although 100 mm size
cubes are sometimes used.
• Specimens are cast in steel or cast-iron moulds. The mould and it is base
must be clamped together during casting in order to prevent leakage of
cement paste. The mould surfaces should be covered with mineral oil, in
order to prevent bond between the mould and the concrete.
• The mould should be fill in more than one layer. Each layer of concrete is
compacted by vibration, usually using a steel bar.
• After the top surface of the cube is finished, the cube is stored undisturbed
for 16 to 72 hours at a temperature of 20+/- 5°C and high RH. After this
period, the cube is demoulded and further cured in water or in a chamber
with RH not less than 95% and at 20+/-2°C.
• When testing, the rate of applied stress should be constant and equal to
0.4MPa/second.
Cubic
compressive
strength
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
• For cylinder tests, standard cylinders are 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm
long, although specimens of 100x200 are also used. In France, the size is
159.6 mm by 320 mm, because in this way, the cross-section area is 20000
mm2.
• Specimens are cast in steel or cast-iron moulds, but the sue of single-use
moulds, made of plastic, sheet metal and treated cardboard is also allowed.
• Details of mould are important because, for instance, if the mould has a low
rigidity, some of the compaction of the concrete in the mould may be
inadequate and a lower strength would be recorded. If the mould allows
leakage of mix water, the strength of the concrete would increase.
• The testing of the cylinders in compression requires that the top surface of
the cylinder be in contact with the platen of the testing machine. However,
this surface is generally not smooth enough and requires further preparation.
This is a disadvantage of cylinders.
Cylindrical
compressive
strength
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
• In addition to being plane, the end surfaces of the cylinder should be normal
to its axis. This guarantees that the end planes are parallel to one another. A
small tolerance is permitted: an inclination of the axis of the specimen to the
axis of the testing machine of 6 mm in 300 mm.
• Effect of height/diameter ration on cylinders:
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
• It is difficult to say which type of specimen, cylinder or cube, is better, but
even in countries where cubes are the standard specimen, there seems to be
a tendency, mainly for research purposes, to use cylinders rather than cubes
and this has been recommended by RILEM (Rèunion Internationale des
Laboratoires d’Essais et Recherches sur les Matéeriaux et les
Constructions).
• Cylinders are believed to give a greater uniformity of results for nominally
similar specimens because their failure is less affected by the machine
properties. In addition, their strength is less affected by coarse aggregate
used in the mix, and the stress distribution is more uniform than on a
specimen with square cross-section.
• It is also important to note that cylinders are cast and tested in the same
position, while in a cube that is not the case. For this reason, it has been
suggested that cylinders are more realistic.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
• It is difficult to say which type of specimen, cylinder or cube, is better, but
even in countries where cubes are the standard specimen, there seems to be
a tendency, mainly for research purposes, to use cylinders rather than cubes
and this has been recommended by RILEM (Rèunion Internationale des
Laboratoires d’Essais et Recherches sur les Matéeriaux et les
Constructions).
• Cylinders are believed to give a greater uniformity of results for nominally
similar specimens because there failure is less affected by the machine
properties. In addition, their strength is less affected by coarse aggregate
used in the mix, and the stress distribution is more uniform than on a
specimen with square cross-section.
• It is also important to note that cylinders are cast and tested in the same
position, while in a cube that is not the case. For this reason, it has been
suggested that cylinders are more realistic.
CONCRETE
TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE
• Although, concrete is not normally designed to resist direct tension, the
knowledge of tensile strength is of interest to estimate the load under
which cracking will develop.
• The absence of cracking is of considerable importance in maintaining
the continuity of a concrete structure and in many cases in the
prevention of corrosion of reinforcement.
• There are three types of test for strength in tension: direct tension test,
flexure test, and splitting tension test.

The direct tensile test is difficult to be developed due to problems

related to the application of the tensile forces to the ends of the
specimen.

The splitting test is currently used to determine the tensile strength

of the concrete.
TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE
• Although, concrete is not normally designed to resist direct tension, the
knowledge of tensile strength is of interest to estimate the load under
which cracking will develop.
• The absence of cracking is of considerable importance in maintaining
the continuity of a concrete structure and in many cases in the
prevention of corrosion of reinforcement.
• There are three types of test for strength in tension: direct tension test,
flexure test, and splitting tension test.
• Direction tension test is not used frequently. A direct application of a
pure tension force, free from eccentricity is very difficult. In addition, it is
difficult to avoid secondary stresses such as those induced by grips or
by embedded studs.
SPLITTING TENSION TEST
• In this test, a concrete cylinder, of the type used for compression tests, is
placed with its axis horizontal between the plates of the testing machine.

• The load is increased until failure by indirect tension in the form of splitting
along the vertical diameter takes place.
SPLITTING TENSION TEST
• In this test, a concrete cylinder, of the type used for compression
tests, is placed with its axis horizontal between the plates of the
testing machine.

• The load is increased until failure by indirect tension in the form of

splitting along the vertical diameter takes place.

• The splitting test is simple to perform and gives more uniform results
than other tension tests. The strength determined in the splitting test
is believed to be closer to the direct tensile strength, being 5 to 12%
higher.

• With normal aggregate, the presence of large particles near the

surface to which the load is applied may influence the behavior.

• An advantage of the splitting test is that the same type of specimen

can be used for both the compression and the tension tests.
“BRAZILIAN” OR SPLITTING TEST
“BRAZILIAN” OR
SPLITTING TEST
FLEXURAL STRENGTH TESTS
• In these tests, a plain (unreinforced) concrete beam is subjected to flexure
using symmetrical two-point loading until failure occurs.

• Because the load points are spaced at one-third of the span, the test is
sometimes called third-point loading test. The theoretical maximum tensile
stress reached in the bottom fibre of the test beam is known as modulus of
rupture.
• If fracture occurs within the central one-third of the beam, the modulus of
rupture is calculated on the basis of ordinary elastic theory.
TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE

Flexural test
FLEXURAL STRENGTH TESTS
• There exists also a test for flexural strength under center-point loading. In this
test failure occurs when the tensile strength of concrete in the extreme fiber
immediately under the load point is exhausted.

• Under third-point loading, one third of the length of the extreme fiber in the
beam is subjected to the maximum stress, so that the critical crack may
developed at any section in one third of the beam length.
• Because the probability of a weak element being subjected to the critical
stress is considerably greater under two-point loading than when a central
load acts, the center-point loading test gives higher values of of the modulus
of rupture.
TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE

Flexural test
FLEXURAL STRENGTH TESTS
• The expression for the modulus of rupture given earlier is “theoretical”
because it is based on the elasticity beam theory, in which the stress-strain
relation is assumed to be linear and the tensile stress in the beam is
assumed to be proportional to the distance from its neutral axis.
• However, there is a gradual increase in strain with an increase in stress about
one-half of the tensile strength. In consequence, the shape of the actual
stress block close to rupture is parabolic, and not triangular.
• Therefore, the modulus of rupture overestimates the tensile strength of
concrete.
CORES FROM EXISTING CONCRETE
• If the strength of standard compression test specimens is found to be below
the specified value, then either the concrete in the actual structure has too
low strength as well, or the specimens are not truly representative of the
concrete in the structure.
• For instance, the test specimens may have been disturbed while setting, they
may have been exposed to frost before they hardened sufficiently or have
otherwise been improperly cured. This argument is often resolved by testing
a core of concrete taken from the suspect member.
• Cores can also be cut in order to determine the actual strength of concrete in
the structure, for instance in the case of old existing structures.
• The selection of the location of the cores also depends on the purpose of
testing. This may be: to estimate the strength of a critical part of a structure,
or of a part suspected of having been damaged, or alternatively, to estimate a
representative value for the entire structure, in which case a random
selection of locations is appropriate.
• Cores can also be used to detect segregation, to check the bond at
construction joints or to verify the thickness of pavement.
 CORES FROM EXISTING CONCRETE
• Cores are cut by means of a rotary cutting tool with diamond bits. In this manner a
cylindrical specimen is obtained, sometimes containing embedded fragments of
reinforcement, and usually with end surfaces far from plane.
CORES FROM EXISTING CONCRETE
• The strength of cores is generally lower than that of standard cylinders, partly
as a consequence of the drilling operation and partly because site curing is
almost invariably inferior to curing prescribed for standard test specimens.
• Even for careful drilling, there is a high risk of slight damage. The effect
appears to be greater in stronger concrete. Reduction in strength can be as
high as 15% per cent for 40 MPa concrete.
• There is, however, a difficulty in separating out the effect of drilling because
the curing history of cores is perforce different from the curing history of cast
specimens. For structures cured in accordance with the recommended
practice, it has been found that the ratio of core strength to standard cylinder
strength (at the same age) is always less than 1, and decreases with an
increase in the concrete strength level. Approximate values of this ratio are:
just under 1 when the cylinder strength is 20 MPa, and 0.7 when it is 60 MPa.
CORES FROM EXISTING CONCRETE
• The location in the structure from which the core has been taken may affect
the strength of the core. If the core has been taken from concrete in tension,
the core strength may be low because of the presence of cracks. Therefore, a
false picture of the strength of the concrete in the structure can be obtained.
• The position of the core with respect to the height of the element may also be
of relevance. Cores usually have lowest strength near the top surface of the
structure, be it a column, a wall, a beam, or even a slab. The difference can
be as high as 10 or even 20%. It is likely that the variation in strength with
height is the consequence of trapped bleed water, coupled with a variation in
compaction.
• The presence of trapped bleed water may also be responsible, in part, for the
reported influence of the orientation of the core (horizontal or vertical on
strength). Cores drilled horizontally were found to have a strength lower by,
typically, 8%.
CORES FROM EXISTING CONCRETE
POISSON’S RATIO
• When a uniaxial load is applied to a concrete specimen, it produces a
longitudinal strain in the direction of the applied load and, at the same time a
lateral strain of opposite sign. The ration of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio. The sign of the ration is ignored.
• For an isotropic and linear-elastic material, Poisson’s ratio is constant, but in
concrete, it may be influenced by specific conditions. Depending on the
properties of the aggregate used, Poisson’s ratio of concrete lies generally in
the range of 0.15 to 0.22 when determined from strain measurements under
compressive load. The value in tension is the same.
• The value has been reported not to be affected by the increase in strength
with age or by the richness of the mix.
 POISSON’S RATIO

• Above a certain stress, Poisson’s ratio increases rapidly, this is cause by the
extensive vertical cracking so that, in fact, it is an apparent Poisson’s ratio. Under
further increase in stress, the rate in change in volumetric strain changes sign.
Further on, Poisson’s ratio exceeds the value of 0.5 and the concrete is not longer
a truly continuous body.
 EUROCODE 2 (EN-1992): Design of Concrete Structures
CONCRETE STRENGTH • The code covers concrete of strength up
to 90 MPa in normal-weight concrete
and 80 MPa in lightweight concrete.
• The compressive strength of concrete is
denoted by concrete strength classes.
• The code used the characteristic
cylinder strength fck or the cube strength
fck, cube found at 28 days.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
DISTRIBUTION OF STRENGTH
• Let’s suppose that we measure the compressive strength of 100 test
specimens, all made from similar concrete (i.e., same mix design).
• This concrete can be imagined as a collection of units referred to as the
population, and the portion of concrete in the actual specimens is called the
sample. The purpose of the tests on the sample is to provide information on
the properties of the parent population.
• From the nature of strength of concrete, it is expected that the recorded
strengths will be different for different specimens and the results will show
scatter.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
DISTRIBUTION OF
STRENGTH
• If the constant strength
intervals are plotted as
horizontal axis (abscissae)
and the number of
specimens in each interval
(known as frequency) in the
vertical axis (ordinates), it is
possible to obtain a
histogram.
• The area of the histogram
represents the total number
of specimens to an
appropriate scale.
• Sometimes, they are
represented as percentage.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
DISTRIBUTION OF STRENGTH
• This distribution is the so-called normal or Gaussian distribution. For concrete,
the assumption of normal distribution is sufficiently close to reality.
• The equation of the normal curve, which depends only on the values of mean,
m, and standard deviation, s, is:
( )

• The equation is symmetrical about

the mean value and extends to
plus and minus infinity. This is
sometimes mentioned as a
criticism of the use of normal
distribution for strength, but the
extremely low probability of the
occurrence of the very high or
very low values is of little practical
significance.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
DISTRIBUTION OF STRENGTH
• The dispersion of strength about the mean is a fixed function of the standard
deviation. This is defined as the root-mean-square deviation:
/

• The graphical representation of the standard deviation is the horizontal

distance from the mean to the point of contraflexure of the normal distribution
curve.
• Since the curve is symmetrical, the area under the curve contained between
abscissae m-s and m+s is 68%. In other words, the probability that the strength
of a test specimen chosen at random lies within the range m+/- s is 68%.
• For a given mean strength, the standard deviation characterizes fully the
distribution, assumed to be of the normal type; the variation in the value of
standard deviation determines the spread of the strengths.
 CONCRETE

 Choosing too high a value will result in a ( fc)

high probability that most of the structure
will be constructed with concrete having a
strength below this value.  Too low a value will result in a high
probability that most of the structure will be
constructed with concrete having a strength
above this value which is an inefficient use
of the material (more expensive).
 CONCRETE
fcm

fck

 As a compromise between economy and safety, the EUROCODES refers to the

characteristic strength ( fck) which is defined as the value below which not
more than 5 per cent of the test results fall

fck = fcm – 8 MPa

 CONCRETE
 Concrete strength classes:
• Normal strength classes NR: fck ≤ 50 MPa;
• High performance concrete HPC: 50 < fck ≤ 70 MPa;
• Ultra high performance concrete UHP: 70 < fck ≤ 90 MPa.
Constitutive diagrams for concrete

fcd = acc fck/gc (acc = 0.85; gc = 1.5)

Parabola-rectangle diagram for concrete

under compression.
Constitutive diagrams for concrete

fcd = acc fck/gc (acc = 0.85; gc = 1.5)

Bi-linear stress-strain relation.

 REINFORCING STEEL
Steel rebars
• Used for longitudinal (i.e.,
flexure) and transverse (i.e.,
shear) internal
reinforcement in beams,
columns and walls
• Ribbed to increase bond with
concrete

Welded wire mesh

reinforcement
• Used for longitudinal
reinforcement in slabs and
thin walls
Stirrups
Welded steel grids
REINFORCEMENT STEEL
Ribbed bar
REINFORCING STEEL – TENSILE TEST
HOT ROLLED BARS
REINFORCING STEEL – TENSILE TEST

Es=200-210 GPa
 REINFORCEMENT STEEL

gs =1.15 for persistent loads

eud = 0.90eu
gs =1.00 for accidental loads
Es =200000 MPa (200 GPa)
 REINFORCEMENT STEEL
Steel B450C

fyk

Normal ductility: wire

meshes in general Very high ductility:
and low diameter Seismic areas
rebars High ductility: rebars
with diameter >12mm
REINFORCING STEEL – TENSILE TEST
REINFORCEMENT STEEL