Social Sciences & Humanities Open 3 (2021) 100107

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Social Sciences & Humanities Open

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Revisiting education reform in Kenya: A case of Competency Based

Curriculum (CBC)
Dr Beatrice M’mboga Akala
University of Johannesburg, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Kenya is in the process of implementing a new curriculum, themed Competency based Curriculum (CBC). Buoyed
Education by benefits accrued from education such as promotion of individual wellbeing and acquisition of skills and ca-
Challenges pabilities to contribute meaningfully to the economy and society at large, the Kenyan government continues to
Curriculum
invest heavily in education. The article aims to explore the extent to which the implementation of CBC is being
Transformation
impeded by challenges currently being experienced in the initial stages of implementation. It is therefore the
thesis of the article that any impediments to this transformation agenda should be addressed speedily in order for
learners to benefit optimally from the new changes. The article has relied on secondary literature and data to
critique, explore and appraise the gains and challenges of education change in Kenya. Through its analysis, the
article has considered some of the initial challenges that are related to inadequate human and material resources,
incongruencies between content and pedagogical practices and poor public participation, and concluded that, the
implementation of CBC was done haphazardly. The article proposes that in order for the goals of CBC to be
realised fully, schools should be adequately resourced, all stakeholders ought to be engaged substantively, and
teachers should be reskilled and trained on CBC since they are the heartbeat of the innovation.

1. Introduction: Kenya’s education reform trajectory
It is evident that education and the economy are intricately inter-
linked. Therefore, Kenya has recognised this integral role and juxtaposed
its national and developmental goals to education. The catalytical roles in
developing human capabilities that promote functionings and wellbeing
have been well articulated (Ojiambo, 2009; Otiato, 2009, pp. 1–133; Sen,
1982; Nussbaum, 1998; Sen, 1982; Republic of Kenya(GoK, 1964)).
Understandably so, the economy is highly dependent on the education
sector to provide economic development expertise in terms of human and
mechanical resources. Nussbaum (1998) and Sen (1982) theories surmise
the importance of education and argue that improved functionings
buttress a people’s well-being and freedoms. Education for women has
been heralded for reducing child and mother mortality levels, promoting
better nutrition for families, lowering of fertility levels, and increasing
longer life expectancy (Akala, 2016; Chege and Sifuna, 2006; Onsongo,
2008). Lewin (1985) dwells on the selection and allocation roles of ed-
ucation while identifying the intricate relationship between education
and the economy as stated below.
Few modern-sector jobs are available each year for large quantities of
school leavers; the rewards for access to these jobs (income, security,
prestige) are very great; the modern-sector labour market is bureau-
cratised and depends heavily and incrementally on academic qualifica-
tions for selection and promotion; the preceding generation of school-
leavers at a particular level mostly succeeded in getting modern-sector
jobs; the professional infrastructure of education (teacher-training, in-
service education, advisory staff, etc.) is poorly developed; systems of
examination and assessment are heavily dependent on the recall of trivial
information (Lewis, 1985, p. 121).
Allais (2014) differs with the link between education and the economy
as it is currently constituted. Allais argues that competency/outcome-based
qualifications frameworks are inexplicable and a waste of resources and
time. They are destructive education systems whose flaws are explicit
especially in poor countries which have weak education systems and tra-
ditions. Besides, it has been argued that education reform should be
organised around powerful bodies of knowledge, and not existential re-
alities of learners which CBC seems to extol (Young, 2010; Bernstein, 2003;
Hoadley, 2011). Essentially, the shift from traditionalism to a constructivist
approach to education reform is a factor of social justice. Although it centres
issues of identity, culture, power, and social position, it loses focus and
becomes weak on the knowledge question. Whereas it envisages generic
competencies and skills, and inclusion of voices from the subaltern, it

E-mail address: akalabetty@gmail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100107
Received 15 May 2020; Received in revised form 8 October 2020; Accepted 31 December 2020
Available online 27 January 2021
2590-2911/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
D.B. M’mboga Akala
undermines the foundation of worthwhile knowledge which learners need
to be exposed to (Hoadley, 2017). The limitations of constructivism are
hence linked to its inability to offer learners from working class a trans-
forming learning experience that transcends their immediate milieu, which
eventually entrenches and perpetuates societal inequalities (Young, 2010).
Against this background, a historical perspective on Kenya’s educa-
tion reform trajectory indicates that the first reform moment was occa-
sioned by the fact that education under colonialism was racist, unequal,
and discriminative. Education for natives was underdeveloped especially
secondary and higher education levels. Natives were exposed to inferior
education that prepared them for menial work, religious codes, and
vocational training. Ochieng’ (1989) explicates that, the natives were
prepared for low level and unskilled jobs as hewers of wood and drawers
of water. Colonial education alienated indigenous cultures by instituting
the dominance of European culture and language in learning institutions.
To unyoke the curriculum from advancing a singular narrative of
knowledge and cultural supremacy, efforts are being made to present a
plurality of cultures and traditions in knowledge discourses across the
Africa continent (Woolman, 2001; Gatsheni -Ndlovu, 2015). Subsequent
efforts towards education reform indicate the championong of
Afro-centrism to be at the centre of curriculum reforms across the
continent (Wa Thiong’o, 1992; Dei, 2000; Ndlovu- Gatsheni, 2015).
The commitment to improve Kenya’s education is evident through a
series of reforms that have been undertaken since gaining independence
in 1963. They range from embedding Africanisation and National goals
in the curriculum Republic of Kenay(GoK, 1964); a revision of national
objectives of education and policies (Republic of Kenay (GoK, 1976); the
establishment of the Second University (GOK, 1981); the change of
curriculum in 1985; establishment of working party on education and
training for the next decade and beyond (Republic of Kenya (GoK, 1988);
the Koech Report (Republic of Kenya, GoK, 1999) and implementation of
the Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET) (Muricho
& Chang’ach, 2013). Currently, Kenya is in the process of implementing a
new curriculum despite distinctive protestations and challenges. It is
notable that the reforms in Kenya have been undertaken through Com-
missions and led by Professionals from within and outside the country.
The reform processes in Kenya have been led by the following commis-
sions: Ominde Commission (The Ominde Report, 1964); Bessey Com-
mission ( The Bessey Report, 1972); Gachathi Commission (The Gachathi
Report, 1976); Mackay Commission ( The Mackay Report, 1981);
Kamunge Commission (The Kamunge Report, 1988) and Koech Com-
mission (The Koech Report, 1999) (Eshiwani, 1993; Amutabi, 2003).
Despite the sevearal transformational attempts, Muricho and Chang’ach
(2013) are of the view that education change in Kenya is duplicitous.
Muricho and Chang’ach (2013, p.142) argue that instead of the reforms
achieving the intended objectives, they have created more challenges
especially with regards to high unemployment rates of graduates exiting
the education system.
It is understandable that the issues defined in reform objectives over
the years have ranged from skills development in dealing with a large
population of unemployed youths, the relevance of education in meeting
and addressing its socialisation and vocational needs for a developmental
state, expansion of higher education through the creation of a second
university, developing happy youth who embrace national values and are
ready to serve their country (Republic of Kenya (GoK), 1981; MOE, 1998;
Sifuna, 1990). More challenges emanated from the 8-4-4 system (8 years
of primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of
higher education) which is being replaced by CBC. Issues of access, eq-
uity, equality and the approach of the cost benefit analysis given that the
government dedicates 30% of its total budget to education have been on
discussion tables for a long time. Some scholars have argued that tech-
nical and vocational education should be considered as an option espe-
cially when dealing with high unemployment levels in the country. Other
recommendations have been in relation to entrenching national unity
and social responsibility through constant reviews of the curriculum to
ensure quality education, resolve overcrowding in classrooms,
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Social Sciences & Humanities Open 3 (2021) 100107
implementation of free universal primary education, free day secondary
school education, acceleration of industrial and technological develop-
ment and lifelong learning (Amutabi, 2003; Eshiwani, 1993; Sifuna,
1990). Although some of these recommendations are being realised (i.e.
provision of free universal primary school and free day secondary
school); the sustainability of such programmes is in question because the
fiscus of the country is unlikely to provide sustainable funding.
The current reform agenda was impelled by improbabilities and in-
efficiencies identified within the 8-4-4 system. It has been argued that the
system was flawed and burdensome to the learners and teachers on
several planes. The system had many uncoordinated learning areas, it
was dense on content, it was examination oriented, resources were
misallocated; high teacher learner ratios, scarcity of teaching and
learning resources, socio-economic factors and under preparedness of
teachers due to poor training were noted as impediments to the success of
the 8-4-4 system. This resulted in learners being overworked, and they
suffered psychologically and physiologically. Hasty implementation
limited in-service training for teachers, inadequate ongoing professional
support for teachers, and inadequate resources were notable obstacles.
These factors compromised the efficiency and quality of education
(Abagi & Odipo, 1997; Bunyi, 2013; Kaviti, 2018; Momanyi & Rop,
2019). A multi-model approach was preferable, which included a
reduction in learning areas, and a departure from testing the efficiency of
the system through measuring learners’ cognitive achievement using
examinations results (Momanyi and Rop, 2019). The latest platform of
reform is the Vision 2030 whose goals are to help Kenya transform into a
middle-income country providing high quality life to all its citizens by the
year 2030.
The vision is based on three pillars, the economic pillar, the social
pillar, and political pillar (GOK, 2007). Vision 2030 proposes recom-
mendations for advancement of transformation through provision of free
learning in primary and secondary education, vocationalisation of edu-
cation to gain skills for the economy, unite Kenyans through languages,
social studies and its emphasis on science and mathematics. The pro-
posals, if enacted would be a hallmark for economic, social, and political
pillars of Vision 2030. It is notable that the targeted areas in Vison 2030
have been raised severally in different reform Commissions. Non
compliance to the objectives and goals of change has led to questions
being asked of the motive of instituting reforms if the wheels of change
do not move succinctly (Ball, 2006).
The need for clarity over the use of terminologies in reform agenda is
apparent. Jansen (1997) and Chisholm (2007) riposte and posit that, the
failure in the implementation of the Outcomes based Curriculum (OBE)
in South Africa was partially attributed to complexities in the terminol-
ogies. This posed a problem for teachers in trying to translate content into
viable competencies. The problem was further compounded by a
disconnect from disparate realities of teaching and learning in South
African schools (Hoadley, 2011). In view of the issues raised by Jansen
and Chisholm (2007), it is therefore imperative to have a functional
meaning of phrases like competiency that can be operationalised by all
stakeholdersin the Kenyan context. A competency is not having expertise
in an area, however, it means that the candidate has attained sufficient
practical skill and knowledge to perform the activity or service to a de-
gree and quality that is acceptable to the industry and the customer in a
time within which a competent person at the level could reasonably be
expected to perform the task (Momanyi & Rop, 2019, p. 12). Whiddett
and Hollyforde (2003) see a competency as being broadly defined as an
ability acquired from knowledge, skills and developed values and atti-
tudes. Competencies on the other hand are job related and linked to
things that a person should be good at meeting as required by his/her
organisation (Mackay, 2003). Mulenga and Kabombwe (2019) however
elucidate that competencies and outcomes are synonymous terms, in
explaining this, they argue that education innovation is misunderstood
because of the terminologies in usei
Hitherto, the pre-colonial Kenya had different education structures
which varied from traditional African education to Islamic education.
D.B. M’mboga Akala
Formal education was entrenched by the colonial masters and mis-
sionaries (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013). The current reform moment
replaces the three decades long 8-4-4 system (8 years of primary edu-
cation, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of university educa-
tion) (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013; Kaviti, 2018; Koskei & Chepchumba,
2020; Momanyi & Rop, 2019). The 8-4-4 system replaced the 7-6-3 (7
Years of primary education, 6 years of secondary education and 3 years of
higher education) systems that was instituted at independence and was
largely aimed at preparing a work force that was to take up white collar
jobs from the British. Several Western countries like France, Canada and
United States of America are already using CBC in schools. African
countries like Rwanda, South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe,
and Tanzania have implemented CBC (Kaviti, 2018; Ondimu, 2018;
Mulenga & Kabombwe, 2019). The new system (2-6-6-3) is characterized
by the follows; (i) Early Year Education, covering Kindergarten (Pre--
Primary) Education up to Grade 3; (ii) Middle School Education, covering
Grade 4 to Grade 9 (iii) Senior School Education, covering Grades 10 to
Grade 12 (Kaviti, 2018; Koskei & Chepchumba, 2020). The languaging
and naming has also changed. The change from 8-4-4 system to CBC and
standard to grade is overt. The new terminologies have an international
appeal which gives the change international legitimacy (Kaviti, 2018).
The 21st classroom is invariably moving away from traditional classes
that are deemed to be authoritarian and teacher centred. They are being
re-imaged and recalibrated to be more interactive, learner centred and
driven by 21st century needs in terms of skills and content. The educa-
tor’s role is also under scrutiny and changing fundamentally because it
ought to be aligned to the needs of the learners and the curriculum.
However, I argue that rural and poor schools are at a high risk of being
left behind in this great movement and innovation due to inaccessibility
to technology and related gadgets. It is imperative to take cognisance of
such realities while conceptualising change in order to avoid in-
terventions that are based on a one size fits all paradigm. Finally, the
need to have a functioning public education sector is critical especially
when there is an exponential increase in demand for quality education.
The increase has also spiralled to public and private higher education
institutions. Albeit some scholars have argued that the unmitigated in-
crease has compromised the quality of education, the demand for edu-
cation in Kenya is still very high (Lewis, 1985; Wangenge- Ouma, 2010;
Bunyi, 2013). The dynamic relation between individual academic and
career aspirations, general accrual from education and collective benefits
and parental conceptions of education (economic and social mobility),
neo liberalism and technical instrumentalism (market driven force) and
political expediency (political legitimization) have renewed calls for
transformation (Lewis, 1985). The next section discusses the dichotomies
in the changing education landscape.
2. The paradoxes in the changing education systems in Kenya
Education reform is a necessary process because it affords a country
an opportunity to revisit, revise and appraise its education system and
curriculum periodically. A curriculum has a myriad of functions; it pro-
vides direction on what should be studied and how it should be organised
through content selection, sequencing of content and teaching strategy
(method/pedagogy). It serves as a conduit to achieve social cohesion and
social solidarity because it is based on a social order that is based on
knowledge not tradition or faith (Stenhouse, 1988). Curriculum practices
in schools teach and socialize learners into accepting the common moral
order (Durkheim, 2006). Kenya’s on-going reform agenda started in
1963, it was assumed that quality education is a vanguard to social,
economic, and political development (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013).
A competency-based education which is the main focus of this article
was preferred as an option to the 8-4-4 system which was fraught with
several challenges. Adopting a Competency Based Curriculum requires
an observation of the following principles that undergird the curriculum:
students advance upon demonstrated mastery ii. Competencies include
explicit, measurable, and transferable learning objectives that empower
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Social Sciences & Humanities Open 3 (2021) 100107
students. iii. assessment is a meaningful and positive learning experience
iv. students receive timely, differentiated support based on their indi-
vidual learning needs. v. learning outcomes emphasize competencies that
include application and creation of knowledge along with the develop-
ment of important skills and dispositions (Strugies, 2015). Bearing this in
mind, I argue that the education sector in Kenya ought to have taken
cognisance of three imperatives; whether this kind of shift would enable
an individual to function adequately in his/her context and beyond, what
kind of pedagogy and content would be best suitable to champion the
reform and what and how country related needs would be addressed.
The government’s investment in education justifies its conviction of
its criticality as a public good (Lewin, 1985). The existence of a
demonstrable correlation between GNP/capita and educational provision
across countries is undeniable (Lewin, 1985). Schultz (1981) and Har-
bison (1973) allege that investing in a people is the greatest investment a
country can engage in. Harbison contends that the wealth of nations
depends on their capacity to develop their human resources and not so
much on their physical resources. He argues that a country which is inept
to develop skills and knowledge of its people and to utilize them effec-
tively in the national economy will be unable to develop anything else.
It is noteworthy that an analysis of post-independence education goals
and subsequent education reforms reflect a strong alignment to instru-
mentalism (Ominde Commission, 1964). Technical instrumentalism the-
orises education as a means to an end, education is intricately linked to the
economy as a result learners and students are prepared to take up positions
in the economy (Walker, 2006; Moore & Young, 2001). The human
development approach shares similar views and is interested in the
development of capabilities and functionings that promote individual
wellbeing, basic freedoms and liberties as well as securing the economic
and social wellbeing of a country. The hidden curriculum has been cited
for facilitating and socialising students and learners into their future roles
in the economy (Bernstein, 2003). The connection between technical
instrumentalism and Sen’s (1982) capability’s approach theorisation is
explicit in Kenya’s reform goals and aspirations (Amutabi, 2003; Otiato,
2009, pp. 1–133). Fundamentally, the principles of CBC as identified by
(Strugies, 2015) intersect with Sen’s capability’s Approach (CA). Largely,
the fundmental role of education which encompasses the intrinsic value of
education is therefore overshadowed by instrumentalism
it is also poignant to note that the technical instrumentalist value of
education is used to pressurise the education sector to prepare learners for
their future roles in the economy rather than developing their full potential
to enable them function beyond the job market sector. Teachers are
constantly monitored on a narrower array of activities that are based on how
well learners perform and not on the quality of teaching that takes place.
Examination Based Teaching- EBT, also known as teaching to test is the most
predominant strategy that teachers adopt in their everyday practices
(Ntwiga and Mwangi, 2018; Young, 2010; Hoadley, 2011; Moore & Young,
2001). Moore and Young (2001) are critical of the technical in-
strumentalists because they treat curriculum and education as a means to an
end and not an end in itself. The instrumentalist position does not provide
the conditions that are necessary for knowledge creation and on the other
hand, it fails to address why economic realities must be the only criteria for
deciding what knowledge ought to be selected and taught.
Due to the aforementioned contradictions and constrictions, I argue
that, linking education reforms to the demands of the economy by
developing certain competencies without providing an amiable envi-
ronment in which learners can develop and thrive is rather weak and
problematic. Thus, by focusing on specific market needs and not
improving education market relationship; the goals of education may not
necessarily satisfy the needs of the economy. What is required is not
changing aspects of the curriculum or assessment standards to satisfy the
needs of the economy but to relook at the contexts in which education
and the markets operate and exist and the impact of the intersection
(Allais, 2014).
Nevertheless, it is therefore incumbent upon policy makers to observe
the quality of a curriculum because through its systems, life chances are
D.B. M’mboga Akala
allocated and selected (Lewin, 1985). Getting the right balance between
the two imperatives (the instrumental and fundamental goals of educa-
tion) has eluded education reformist and heightened challenges, and
resistance to change being the biggest obstacle to overcome. A synthesis
of the educational reforms in Kenya indicate that processes have largely
been flawed, at times hurried and lacking proper strategies and wide
consultation (Momanyi & Rop, 2019; Wanzala, 2018, p. 2018). Initial
reports regarding implementation of CBC point to subtle challenges and
resistance from main stakeholders (Kaviti, 2018; Momanyi & Rop, 2019).
As a result, this article is aimed at exploring the extent to which the
challenges are impacting the implementation stage and the implications
thereof to learning and teaching. The main contestations have been
around the question of content and pedagogies that should be best suited
for this process and context. I note that, the same issues have been part
and parcel of education reform discourse since indepence (Kaviti, 2018;
Hoadley, 2011, 2017; Jansen, 1998). Previous education systems have
been condemned for being authoritarian, content driven, and teacher
centred. It has been argued that such an approach is authoritarian and
leaves very little room for learner engagement. Rote learning (drill and
practice) and regurgitation are promoted when learners’ voices are
suppressed and absent (Momanyi & Rop, 2019; Mulenga & Kabombwe,
2019; Nasibi, 2016; Wanzala, 2018, p. 2018). These flaws should inform
the synthesis of CBC as it goes through various implementation cycles to
gauze whether change has truly happened, or the status quo has been
retained.
It is inevitable that the education sector has had to contend with se-
vere under resourcing in terms of financial, physical, and human re-
sources. Political interference for political expediency and legitimization
has also contributed to the current impasse (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013;
Jansen, 1998). Teachers are overwhelmed, often dealing with a diverse
learner population, adapting to the use of new technologies in classrooms
and the demands of excellence from across the society. This means that
teachers on their own cannot bring about change. A multi-pronged
approach that galvanises all stakeholders has a high probability of sus-
taining a healthy education sector (Fullan & Fullan, 1993). The discus-
sions in the next section are based on the theories of change.
3. Theoretical considerations for implementing education
change
Theories of education change have been used variedly in grounding
various aspects of education transformation. As for the new dawn in Kenya,
pertinent studies are revealing that the new tangent in curriculum reform is
already encountering several challenges. In particular, the challenges are
linked to the two major contentious areas in curriculum discourses. These
are, the meaning of curriculum as intention, plan or prescription which is a
representation of what ought to happen in schools and how curriculum is
seen as the existing situation in schools, which represents the actuality of
what happen in schools (Stenhouse, 1984). Young (2010) argues that many
policies have neglected the role of knowledge (knowledge led, and subject
led) in education. According to Young and thinkers who share the same
view, putting emphasis on learners, learning styles, employability, mea-
surement of outcomes and competencies is implausible (Young, 2010;
Young and Moore, 2001; Hoadley, 2017; Jansen, 1998).
It can therefore be concluded that since Kenya’s trajectory towards
effecting curriculum change, including CBC has always considered skills
development as an important aspect of education, it stands in contra-
diction with Young and Allais (2014) conceptualization of education
reform. As previously espoused, the instrumental panacea of education
which targets education as a means to economic development and
prosperity still remains the dominant goal of education and curriculum
reforms. In this case, a lot of emphasis is put on developing capabilities
that will enable learners and students to apply themselves competitively
in the job market. Walker is disposed to this position in positing that,
viable education policies should be anchored on a normative human
development and a capability’s approach (Walker, 2006, 2010).
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Whereas identifying the paradigm through which education change is
implemented is important, other key imperatives that influence the na-
ture of change and how it must be implemented are evident in the
ensuing discourses. Change can be communicated through policy priority
agenda, parliamentary circulars, Ministerial statements, and public news.
However, the enthusiasm levels of stakeholders in education is not al-
ways guaranteed depending on the proposed adjustments. This can be
partly attributed to limited knowledge concerning the envisaged change
(Birkland, 2011; Hargreaves, Lieberman, Fullan and Hopkins, 2014).
Education change can be precipitated by many factors such as teaching
strategies, outcomes, resources, greater participation, funding, stake-
holder involvement, improving quality of education, teacher training,
marketisation of education, preserving parental rights and involvement
in their children’s education, accountability measures, encouraging
development of higher order thinking and adopting new literacies and
technologies in teaching and learning and globalisation (Hargreaves
et al., 2014).
Subsequently, the post-colonial curriculum changes have been pred-
icated on replacing the colonial order that was elitist and exclusionary
(Martin and Griffins, 2012). Former colonies aspire to have a curriculum
that is responsive to the social, economic, and cultural needs of the
country while observing the demands of modernism and globalisation
(Woolman, 2001; Blosveren et al., 1986). It is undoubtable that CBC is
geared towards shifting from knowledge and skills acquisition to
knowledge creation and application (Waweru, 2018). Allais (2014) and
others reject this move, for it is contentious and problematic. Interest-
ingly, the scholars argue that more gaps emerge in poor countries due to
the poor state of education which is characterized by inherent weak in-
stitutions, and scarce human and material resources (Hoadley, 2011,
2017).
Education change goes through three distinctive stages: initiation,
implementation, and institutionalisation. Each stage causes great anxiety
for people regarding how the change will affect them depending on their
curent stage and position in their career trajectories (Hargreaves et al.,
2014). Fullan (2010) and Ball (2006) point out the cruciality of under-
standing the link between how goals and values will be impacted by the
consequences of the educational change. On the other hand, we must
comprehend the complex and onerous nature of educational change at a
socio-political level. Multiple stakeholders with diverse and competing
interests are likely to cripple procedures and process of change due to
personal loses that may accrue from the reform agenda. Policies are
entrenched in their social contexts, composed of what he calls the
fissured social, political, and economic conditions of education and social
policy making. Thus, the fissured contexts in which change is con-
ceptualised and implemented can stifle or enable the implementation of
an innovation instrumentally (Ball, 2006). Goals of policies are
commensurate to material effects which rally support for its realisation.
Education is mostly linked to futuristic economic development which is
used to garner support for material effects of that policy (Ball, 1998,
2006, p. 2006).
The complexities within education change are drawn from the para-
doxes and tensions undergirding the process (Fullan & Fullan, 1993).
Bartlett (1991) and Fullan (2010) argue that a dialectical and
synchronised relationship between stability and instability in change
management can provide a better way of managing change. Furthermore,
Fullan (1986) and Hargreaves et al. (2014) categorise curriculum change
in three stages; 1970-1978- documentation of implementation failures;
1979-1986- identification of implementation’s best practices and the
period thereafter is concerned with management of change. The third
stage that involves curriculum change management has been described
as bureaucratic (Bartlett, 1991). It has borrowed its practice from cor-
porations’ models of management which are unlikely to bring about
effective change in the education sector. Several studies have noted that
large scale educational change endeavours fail due to poor leadership.
The most used leadership styles and modules are too tight and too loose
which do not suffice. The top down leadership style is unable to rally
D.B. M’mboga Akala
support because it lacks commitment, ownership and the change goals
are ambiguous and unclear. The bottom-up prism is seen as placid; it does
not guarantee any success because it favours capacity building/bias for
action for success and it combines strategies from both styles Fullan
(2010). A blended system aimed at building an interactive culture of the
organisation is most likely to succeed (Fullan, 2007).
Whilst curriculum discourses are founded on how teaching should be
approached and organised, different scholars have differed on whether
content should be centred in teaching and learning, and the pedagogical
strategies that should be deployed (Young, 2010; Jansen, 1997). The goal is
to transcend the global North- South binaries in the authentication of
knowledge production discourses. Martin and Griffins (2012) prefer a
post-colonial paradigm in thinking about the 21st education curriculum.
They point out the poignant reality that the coloniser imposed their world
views on the colonised people in a manner that destroyed indigenous
knowledge systems. Post - colonial theorists pay attention to what should be
at the centre and what should remian on the periphery. Inclusion of diverse
content that reflect the heterogeneity of history, culture (include discourses
of the “other”) is preferable (Wa Thiong’o, 1992; Gatsheni- Ndlovu, 2015).
Curriculum reforms in developing countries have produced varied
outcomes depending on the context and aspirations of individual coun-
tries. Envisaged outcomes of change include transformation in classroom
practice and experience for teachers and learners (This could be achieved
although progress has been limited and uneven). Mixed results have been
attained in some cases because of the training of the teachers and the
environment that they operate within. The most successful cases have
been in well-staffed and resourced pilot projects (Guthrie, 1986). Rud-
duck (1986) observes that the success of an innovation depends on
whether the shareholders have a shared understanding of what is
changing and how the change is going to happen. Rudduck hypothesises
the difficulty of realising change when people’s cultures, values and
institutional life are at odds. This could increase the probability of ending
up with an innovation without change (Rudduck, 1986).
Fullan (2010) emphasises the efficacy of clarifying the following
concerns; the meaning of change, what is new in terms of capacity
building, sustainability, learning in context, lateral capacity building and
leadership in action at all levels (Momanyi & Rop, 2019). Thus, what, and
how of change are very crucial when thinking about introducing an
innovation in education. Bell and Stevenson (2006, p.2–3) presuppose
that policies are derived from values that are embedded in dominant
discourses in the socio-political environments within which they are
generated and implemented. Hodgson and Spours’ (2006) allude to the
different contexts imbued in policy change as ‘a policy triangle’, which
comprises the context of influence, as the realm of power and how it is
played out in processes; the context of policy, or the environment in
which it is produced; and the context of the practitioner, that is, the
implementation process. Paying attention to these contexts is important
while thinking about implementing change.
Kogan (1985), Bell and Stevenson (2006) and Taylor et al. (1997)
note that values imbued in policies should not be viewed as neutral, but
rather as being laden with meanings that are contested and often sub-
jected to negotiation, compromise, and conflict. This calls for an estab-
lishment of a common meaning of values in order to avoid
misunderstandings within stakeholders (Akala, 2016). It is therefore
advisable to take note of the language that comes with the new curric-
ulum and the imbedded meaning. Research has identified the introduc-
tion of new phrases like dissemination (teaching), facilitator (educator)
and diffusion (diversity) which have not changed practice significantly
(Rudduck, 1986). One needs to interrogate their usage to find out if they
are fundamentally different or it could be a case of earning political or
global legitimacy. Does the past meaning occlude current meaning and
practices?
Fullan and Fullan observe that change depends on collaborative ef-
forts at different levels.(spacing)
Change is a journey of unknown destination, where problems are our
friends, where seeking assistance is a sign of strength, where
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simultaneous top down, bottom up initiatives merge, where collegiality
and individuality co-exist in productive tension (1993,P. viii).
Whilst systems do not change themselves, it is true that the people
within them who bring about change, change themselves (Fullan &
Fullan, 1993). Rudduck (1986) appeals for attention to be paid to the
meaning of change, at least in cultural terms and not the obsession with
management of change. This will clarify the cultural implication of cur-
riculum change. Fullan and Fullan (1993) note that change is complex,
different management teams ought to be put in place to help manage the
unknowable. Fullan and Fullan (1993) are concerned with how to
transform an education system to a learning organisation which is an
expert in dealing with change as part and parcel of its work and not a new
policy that must be implemented. Birkland (2011) sees the broadness in
any change driven policies, they have a life outside texts and regulations.
As such, they continue to work and be reinvented through the imple-
mentation processes that determine the beneficiaries, the deliverables,
the deliverer, and the cost bearer (Akala, 2016).
Lewin (1985) suggests knowing the importance of understanding the
pressure points in curriculum innovations. He identifies three pressure
points that should be of interest to innovators. Socio-economic pressures
are of endogenous nature, attention is focused on what governments have
control over, secondly, acknowledging problems and pressures that arise
from other interest groups and the importance of recognising their values
in shaping the curriculum that a country implements. Thirdly, it is crucial
to understand the centres of power in reform processes (Foucault, 1984).
Ball (1994) further argues that the curriculum document that ends up at
the doorstep of schools is not innocent or neutral.
The physical text that pops through the school letterbox, or whatever,
does not ‘arrive out of the blue’- it has an interpretational and repre-
sentational history – and neither does it enter a social and institutional
vacuum (Ball, 1994, p. 17).
Adequate communication is an important aspect of any reform pro-
cess for the followng reasons identified by Ruddick (1985).
1. Pupils’ understanding of the form of an innovation will be increased if
they have access to concrete representation in addition to oral
explanations.
2. If an innovation requires a substantial shift in classroom roles and
relationships, teachers and pupils will have to develop a mutual
commitment to the work which will counter the pull of existing
conventions.
3. The development of a mutual commitment to the innovation by
teachers and pupils requires a shared understanding of the nature of
the innovation and an agreement, tacit or open, about the manage-
ment of control.
4. Alertness on the part of the teacher to aspects of the task of
communicating the nature of the innovation to pupils will increase
the likelihood of the innovation taking root in the classroom (Rud-
duck, 1984b)
Pursuant to this, ensuring sustainability in educational change is
paradoxical. Fullan defines sustainability as the capacity of a system to
engage in the complexities of continuous improvement consistent with
deep values of human purpose. However, Datnow (2006) observes that,
most innovations do not conceptualise sustainability beyond school
factors that include, genuine interest in change, teacher and adminis-
trator support, a critical mass involved in implementation, sustained
professional development, and a practical plan for implementation and
monitoring of the change effort. Datnow finds gaps in extraneous factors
such as linkages that reveal what form of infrastructure is available at all
levels to support change (Districts/Province/State). Nuanced tensions
might arise from policy decisions and policy goals on one hand and a
variance between material effects and the reality on the ground on the
other hand (Ball, 1998).
Ball (1994) points out the centrality of fathoming the textuality in
policy documents. The textuality of policies is two-fold; firstly, as textual
D.B. M’mboga Akala
representations, they are coded in complex ways, as struggles, compro-
mises, public interpretations, and reinterpretations. Secondly, the
decoding process is complex, the manner in which a multiplicity of
readers who have their own interpretations and meanings in relation to
their contexts, histories, experiences, values, skills, and resources is
multifaceted (Ball, 1994, 2006). Due to the duality of authorship and
readership of policies, a variance in interpretation, meaning and under-
standing is an area of tension that can affect implementation. A lack of
clarity of meaning can obfuscate processes and the timely implementa-
tion of envisaged changes. Ball (1996) concludes that the success of
policy implementation is dependent on a conglomerate of factors
including, commitment; understanding; availability of resources; capa-
bility; practical limitations and inter-textual compatibility, being in
synch with other policy texts that are in circulation.
The concerns raised by Ball are akin to the salient role of trainers of
trainers, the select group that is trained and charged with the re-
sponsibility of training their colleagues. Bunyi (2013) maintains that
effective curriculum innovation ought to be established on greater
participation in curriculum decision making, patience in training those in
various levels of the curriculum implementation process and enormous
resources. Lewin (1985) concludes that when all is said and done, the
classroom dimension experience is very important in any curriculum
reform. The classroom experience is founded on the respect and an un-
derstanding that the quality of teaching and learning is interlinked with
the enthusiasm and commitment of the average teacher and the not so
perfect circumstances he/she works under. According to Fullan and
Fullan (1993), what is required is skill and skilled know how if change
must be achieved. Short workshops do not prepare teachers adequately to
have mastery and pride in what they do. Governments must invest in
initial teacher training and continuous staff development for them to be
positive agents of change (Kaviti, 2018; Momanyi & Rop, 2019).
The conclusions in this section usher in a discussion on composite
challenges that are being experienced in the initial stages of imple-
menting CBC in Kenya.
4. Implementing CBC: initial challenges and opportunities
The new curriculum is credited for creating a major shift in the ed-
ucation sector in comparison to the previous systems. The shift is how-
ever encountering several challenges in the initial stages of inception
some of which shall be discussed in this section. The proposals in the new
system are a positive move towards developing a holistic individual who
is vast in theory and application at the same time. The role of parents has
been made explicit especially in assisting in harnessing and nurturing
their children’s talents and gifts. The single national examination ques-
tion that has dominated scholarly debates for a long time has been
addressed. It has been argued that national examinations cause a lot of
trauma and enxiety in learners and teachers because they determines
one’s life chances (Momanyi & Rop, 2019). Young (2010) is lucid about
the necessity to use grades, scores, and national rankings as an
accountability tool for teachers rather than a guiding tool.
The CBC promises a reduction in subjects in order to allow learners,
teachers, and parents to identify and nurture learners’ talents and ca-
pabilities. Instead of administering national examinations which have
been an area of contestation and long debates, the CBC is shifting towards
administering Continuous Assessment Tests (CATS) in its place. The shift
is equally beleaguered due to purported teacher subjectivity in admin-
istering them (CATS). The needs of the 21st century have been appro-
priated in CBC through the inclusion of requisite skills such as
communication and collaboration, self-efficacy, critical thinking and
problem solving, creativity and imagination and computer literacy
(Njeru & Itegi, 2018; Hoadley, 2011). I observe that, despite the envis-
aged move from traditional principles of teaching and learning to pro-
gressive and constructive principles, the status quo has not changed in
some countries that have implemented CBC (Hoadley, 2011; Allais,
2014).
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Social Sciences & Humanities Open 3 (2021) 100107
On a similar note, Mulenga and Kabombwe (2019) state that although
Zambia has implemented CBC, the country is still grappling with the
conceptualisation and realisation of of assessment criteria and compe-
tencies. It is still unclear how they should be developed in each learning
area (Momanyi & Rop, 2019; Ondimu, 2018). A report from Tanzania
indicates that teachers have struggled with inadequate knowledge
regarding the objectives of CBC. There has been a lower learner
involvement in classroom activities, and noncompliance with assessment
standards. Furthermore, teachers have not fully moved to the new format
of assessment. Research shows that the ratio of compliance was 50-50 for
formative and the summative modes of assessments. Mulenga and
Kabombwe suggest that teachers should use differentiated modes of in-
struction and evaluation for learners to benefit individually and progress
meaningfully. Although the learning space in public education faces a lot
of constrictions with regards to learner teacher ratios, this conundrum
gives the government an opportunity to train and hire more teachers
(Mulenga & Kabombwe, 2019).
Gaps and delays in preparation of learning material with publishing
houses has added to the fluidity of the implementation dilemma
(Momanyi & Rop, 2019; Ondimu, 2018). In the new dispensation,
learners are expected to spend 2 years at an Early Childhood Centre
before joining primary school (Kaviti, 2018). ECDE centres are ill pre-
pared for the CBC, there is no framework to guide the implementation of
the new curriculum and learning material including a guiding curriculum
(Kilile, Mwalw’a & Nduku, 2019). Early research that lucidly targeted the
implementation stages of early grade education and preparedness of the
teachers to implement CBC indicate that teachers’ knowledge of CBC is
vague, they are ill prepared, and hence their inability to teach and
evaluate the new curriculum. Further training and more sessions for
reskilling are suggested through the Kenya Institute for Curriculum
Development (KICD) in order to prepare teachers adequately in peda-
gogy, assessment, and document preparation (Momanyi & Rop, 2019;
Koskei & Chepchumba, 2020).
Waweru (2018) notes that lack of teacher preparedness and training
in the new curriculum is a big impediment to the successful imple-
mentation of the new curriculum. Teachers who participated in Wawe-
ru’s study complained of lack of knowledge on how to design worksheets
which are a prerequisite in the CBC. Preparing lesson plans for all sub-
jects was seen as extra work interfering with the instructional time given
the already overburdened working environments teachers find them-
selves in (Koskei & Chepchumba, 2020). Koskei and Chepchumba (2020)
and Njeru and Itegi (2018) opine that teachers are an integral part of
implementing any education reform agenda. Having proper training and
skills will obliterate the current dilemma facing the country’s teachers.
Momanyi and Rop (2019) intimate that this could be contributing to
teachers not having shifted fully to new pedagogies that are imbued in
CBC. Teachers have been accused of not using the discovery method and
yet it is obligatory in CBC. Teacher centredness is preferable in most
cases, personalised instruction is not happening in most of the schools,
understandably so due to large classes. The effect of not shifting fully will
have adverse effects eventually on the goals of CBC especially missing the
target of discovering of learner talents and skills and developing their
capabilities thereof.
In addition, under- resourcing and a shortage of quality teaching
materials in most schools is a common phenomenon that is obfuscating
the implementation process (Mutisya, 2019). The national government
has been implored to provide necessary resources to schools to cushion
susceptible learners from the anguish of persistent under-achievement
that is heighted through inadequate resourcing and poor learning envi-
ronments (Mutisya, 2019). Teachers need technological resources to help
improve their pedagogical practices and access to other online resources.
The integration of ICT in teaching and learning can help improve their
content delivery and classroom engagement (Njeru & Itegi, 2018).
Ideally, learners are supposed to apply the competencies that have been
acquired to skills, knowledge, ethics, and attitudes in various defined
real-life or practical contexts (Koskei & Chepchumba, 2020; Njeng’ere,
D.B. M’mboga Akala
2017). This is tricky especially when we think about the divergent con-
texts’ learners find themselves in. Some have argued that the best place to
locate CBC is in vocational training institutions (Brandt and Tyler, 2011).
For Durkheim (1983), new knowledge is produced when we differentiate
between knowledge and experience, theory, and everyday knowledge.
Mulenga and Kabombwe (2019) state candidly that in countries
where CBC has been implemented, research has shown that teachers lack
a thorough understanding of the requirements of the curriculum. The
incongruence has led to competencies being reduced to a checklist,
learning targets or mastery of outcomes. This has precluded the goals of
the innovation from being realised. Kaviti (2018) is unequivocal about
the hurried implementation of the new curriculum and yet it was to
address the gaps in the former 8-4-4. system. The simultaneous teacher
preparation was inadequate to move them (teachers) to the new teaching
and learning platforms. The effects on the learners is not well articulated
but historical factors indicate that negative ethnic (negative ethnicity)
profiling could be promoted in a country that is struggling with ethnic
related violence. The introduction of mother tongue in primary schools
could reignite negative ethnicity in a country that is already polarised
along ethnic lines. Additional constrictions are in relation to readiness
and scarcity of resources to teach indigenous languages. A more tacit
question that is being grappled with is, which one of the more than 43
ethnic languages will be given preferential treatment given that all lan-
guages do not have the same currency in terms of popularity and print
presence (Kaviti, 2018; Koskei and Chepchumba, 2010). Although the
aim of the policy was to foster unity and greater integration, the dilemma
of implementing it is in the insidious factors that have not been articu-
lated accordingly.
In summary, the reality of most Kenyan children to successfully move
to the new curriculum is surreal. The persistent disparities between pri-
vate and public schools are more explicit. As public schools struggle with
under resourcing and poor preparation, private schools are forging ahead
with implementation albeit the storm in public education. The design and
publishing houses have not delivered quality learning materials in good
time, this confirms the fears of a hastily implemented curriculum
(Momanyi & Rop, 2019; Waweru, 2018; Kaviti, 2018). The pre-eminence
of galvanising and incentivizing parental involvement in their children’s
education has been highlighted. Parents have encountered similar diffi-
culties as teachers and learners, and hence the assistance for their chil-
dren has been hindered fundamentally. Their partnership with schools in
implementing CBC has been impeded by time constrains, an absence of
induction on the competency-based curriculum, inadequate skills, and
knowledge to assist children (Mwarari et al., 2020).
5. Conclusions and recommendations
The cases of Zambia, Tanzania and South Africa demonstrate that
clarity of meaning and messaging about change is paramount (Mulenga
and Kabombwe; 2019; Jansen, 1997; Chisholm, 2007; Hoadley, 2011).
Allais (2014) contends that education reformers should take note of the
tensions between normative and prescriptive undertones of policy doc-
uments. The intended is the (formal, policy documents); implemented is
the (actual teaching and learning); taught or curriculum in action is the
(achieved knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, understanding that
learners develop in the process of learning). The tensions are symptom-
atic of the fluidity of curriculum reforms that should not be taken lightly.
The most important lesson from the South African context is to show a
candid demarcation between curriculum and pedagogy. By not
conflating the two, learners will have access to powerful and worthwhile
knowledge that gets to be silenced when everyday experiences are given
more visibility in curriculum reform (Allais, 2014; Hoadley, 2011, 2017).
Equally, comprehending the differences between vertical and horizontal
knowledges is important in selecting the kind of content to be included in
the curriculum (Bernstein, 2003). Kenya should therefore look at suc-
cessful models from countries that are accomplished in implementing
CBC and learn from their mistakes and successes. Recommendations from
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Social Sciences & Humanities Open 3 (2021) 100107
past reforms can also provide cues on new strategies that can move the
education sector forward without repeating perpetual past mistake.
Given the emerging challenges, it is inevitable to include CBC in
teacher training curriculum to enhance pedagogical skills and content
knowledge (Koskei & Chepchumba, 2020; Young, 2011; Moore & Young,
2001; Allais). Digital Literacy (DL) is a crucial area that is not frequently
implemented in many schools. It has been suggested that continuous
training and reskilling of teachers through in- service and online training
should be undertaken to keep them abreast with new and current
teaching strategies and document preparation (Komba & Mwandanji,
2015). Besides, the absence of devices, teacher preparedness and lack of
virtual support are plausible obstacles to low level implementation of DL
(Maina & Rosemary, 2019; Njeru & Itegi, 2018; Ondimu, 2018).
There is growing need for learners as stakeholders to be included in
debates around curriculum change. This will give the innovators social
capital and an opportunity to engage significantly with their positions for
supporting or resisting the innovation. Greater public participation in
seeking greater legitimacy, sensitisation and civic education could have
assisted in entrenching the goals of the new curriculum in the broader
society. More parental involvement through seeking out opportunities in
their contexts and involving them in training activities to better under-
stand the innovation could help reduce their own and their children’s
anxieties (Ball, 2006; Momanyi & Rop, 2019; Mwarari et al., 2020;
Waweru, 2018).
Finally, in view of discussed challenges and the increasing interest to
implement CBC in most countries, Allais (2014) is cautiously optimistic
that if governments and reformers reconsider the way qualifications are
used in labour markets, the functioning and productivity of economies
can be improved tremendously. Allais suggests that, instead of specifying
and making explicit the content to be learnt and taught, outcomes have to
be specified instead. This will in turn inform the content, pedagogies and
assessment standards that can support the outcomes. The ripple effect of
centring a mechanism such as learning outcomes results in an education
for change that is meaningful socially and economically.
Author Statement
Dr Akala, is the sole author of the article. The conceptualisation and
writing of the article was done by me
Declaration of competing interest
I conform that there is no conflict of interest in this article.
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