Center of mass

The center of mass or mass center is the mean location of all the mass in a system. In the case of a rigid
body, the position of the center of mass is fixed in relation to the body. In the case of a loose distribution
of masses in free space, such as shot from a shotgun or the planets of the solar system, the position of
the center of mass is a point in space among them that may not correspond to the position of any
individual mass. The use of the mass center often allows the use of simplified equations of motion, and
it is a convenient reference point for many other calculations in physics, such as angular momentum or
the moment of inertia. The center of mass of a body does not generally coincide with its geometric
center, and this property can be exploited.

Consider first two bodies, with masses m1 and m2, and position vectors r1 and r2. Write M = m1 + m2 for
the total mass of the 2-body system, and R for the position vector of the center of mass.

Under this model, we have k = d1/d2 = m2/m1. Therefore, after multiplying our vector equation by
m1, we find that m1(R - r1) = m2(r2 − R), or (m1 + m2)R = m1r1 + m2r2. Thus,

Two bodies of similar mass orbiting around a common barycenter. (similar to the 90 Antiope system)
Two bodies with a difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter, as in the Pluto-Charon

system.
Two bodies with a major difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter (similar to the Earth-

Moon system)
Two bodies with an extreme difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter (similar to the
Sun-Earth system)
Two bodies with similar mass orbiting around a common barycenter with elliptic orbits (a common
situation for binary stars)

Applications

 Center of gravity of an aircraft

 Center of percussion
 Center of pressure
 Mass point geometry
 Metacentric height
 Roll center
 Two-body problem
 Weight distribution

center of gravity

The center of gravity is a geometric property of any object. The center of gravity is the average location
of the weight of an object. We can completely describe the motion of any object through space in terms of
the translation of the center of gravity of the object from one place to another, and the rotation of the
object about its center of gravity if it is free to rotate. If the object is confined to rotate about some other
point, like a hinge, we can still describe its motion. In flight, both airplanes and rockets rotate about their
centers of gravity. A kite, on the other hand, rotates about the bridle point. But the trim of a kite still
depends on the location of the center of gravity relative to the bridle point, because for every object the
weight always acts through the center of gravity.
Determining the center of gravity is very important for any flying object. How do engineers determine the
location of the center of gravity for an aircraft which they are designing?

In general, determining the center of gravity (cg) is a complicated procedure because the mass (and
weight) may not be uniformly distributed throughout the object. The general case requires the use of
calculus which we will discuss at the bottom of this page. If the mass is uniformly distributed, the problem
is greatly simplified. If the object has a line (or plane) of symmetry, the cg lies on the line of symmetry.
For a solid block of uniform material, the center of gravity is simply at the average location of the physical
dimensions. (For a rectangular block, 50 X 20 X 10, the center of gravity is at the point (25,10, 5) ). For a
triangle of height h, the cg is at h/3, and for a semi-circle of radius r, the cg is at (4*r/(3*pi)) where pi is
ratio of the circumference of the circle to the diameter. There are tables of the location of the center of
gravity for many simple shapes in math and science books. The tables were generated by using the
equation from calculus shown on the slide.

For a general shaped object, there is a simple mechanical way to determine the center of gravity:

1. If we just balance the object using a string or an edge, the point at which the object is balanced is
the center of gravity. (Just like balancing a pencil on your finger!)
2. Another, more complicated way, is a two step method shown on the slide. In Step 1, you hang the
object from any point and you drop a weighted string from the same point. Draw a line on the
object along the string. For Step 2, repeat the procedure from another point on the object You
now have two lines drawn on the object which intersect. The center of gravity is the point where
the lines intersect. This procedure works well for irregularly shaped objects that are hard to
balance.

If the mass of the object is not uniformly distributed, we must use calculus to determine center of gravity.
We will use the symbol S dw to denote the integration of a continuous function with respect to weight.
Then the center of gravity can be determined from:

cg * W = S x dw

where x is the distance from a reference line, dw is an increment of weight, and W is the total weight of
the object. To evaluate the right side, we have to determine how the weight varies geometrically. From
the weight equation, we know that:

w=m*g

where m is the mass of the object, and g is the gravitational constant. In turn, the mass m of any object is
equal to the density, rho, of the object times the volume, V:

m = rho * V

We can combine the last two equations:

w = g * rho * V

then

dw = g * rho * dV

dw = g * rho(x,y,z) * dx dy dz

If we have a functional form for the mass distribution, we can solve the equation for the center of gravity:
 cg * W = g * SSS x * rho(x,y,z) dx dy dz

where SSS indicates a triple integral over dx. dy. and dz. If we don't know the functional form of the mass
distribution, we can numerically integrate the equation using a spreadsheet. Divide the distance into a
number of small volume segments and determining the average value of the weight/volume (density times
gravity) over that small segment. Taking the sum of the average value of the weight/volume times the
distance times the volume segment divided by the weight will produce the center of gravity.

centroid

In geometry, the centroid, geometric center, or barycenter of a plane figure or two-

dimensional shape X is the intersection of all straight lines that divide X into two parts of equal
moment about the line. Informally, it is the "average" (arithmetic mean) of all points of X. The
definition extends to any object X in n-dimensional space: its centroid is the intersection of all
hyperplanes that divide X into two parts of equal moment.

In physics, the word centroid means the geometric center of the object's shape, as above, but
barycenter may also mean its physical center of mass or the center of gravity, depending on the
context. Informally, the center of mass (and center of gravity in a uniform gravitational field) is
the average of all points, weighted by the local density or specific weight. If a physical object has
uniform density, then its center of mass is the same as the centroid of its shape.

In geography, the centroid of a region of the Earth's surface, projected radially onto said surface,
is known as its geographical center.

The centroid of a finite set of k points in is

The centroid of a plane figure X can be computed by dividing it into a finite number of simpler
figures , computing the centroid Ci and area Ai of each part, and then
computing
Buoyancy

buoyancy (pronounced /ˈbɔɪ.ənsi/) is an upward acting force exerted by a

fluid , that opposes an object's weight. If the object is either less dense than
the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the force can keep the
object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a
gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining
a "downward" direction (that is, a non-inertial reference frame). In a situation
of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the
weight of fluid displaced by the body [1] This is the force that enables the
object to float.

Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid.

For more general objects, floating and sunken, and in gases as well as liquids (i.e. a fluid),
Archimedes' principle may be stated thus in terms of forces:

Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object.

– Archimedes of Syracuse

with the clarifications that for a sunken object the volume of displaced fluid is the volume of the
object, and for a floating object on a liquid, the weight of the displaced liquid is the weight of the
object.

More tersely: Buoyancy = weight of displaced fluid.

Archimedes' principle does not consider the surface tension (capillarity) acting on the body.[4]

The weight of the displaced fluid is directly proportional to the volume of the displaced fluid (if
the surrounding fluid is of uniform density). In simple terms, the principle states that the buoyant
force on an object is going to be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object, or the
density of the fluid multiplied by the submerged volume. Thus, among completely submerged
objects with equal masses, objects with greater volume have greater buoyancy.

Suppose a rock's weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in a vacuum

with gravity acting upon it. Suppose that when the rock is lowered into water, it displaces water
of weight 3 newtons. The force it then exerts on the string from which it hangs would be 10
newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyant force: 10 − 3 = 7 newtons. Buoyancy reduces the
apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor. It is generally easier to lift
an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water.

Assuming Archimedes' principle to be reformulated as follows,

then inserted into the quotient of weights, which has been expanded by the mutual volume

yields the formula below. The density of the immersed object relative to the density of the fluid
can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes:

(This formula is used for example in describing the measuring principle of a dasymeter and of
hydrostatic weighing.)

Example: If you drop wood into water buoyancy will keep it afloat.

Example: A helium balloon in a moving car. In increasing speed or driving a curve, the air
moves in the opposite direction of the car's acceleration. The balloon however, is pushed due to
buoyancy "out of the way" by the air, and will actually drift in the same direction as the car's
acceleration.
Metacenter
The metacentric height (GM) is the distance between the center of gravity of a ship and its metacenter.
The GM is used to calculate the stability of a ship and this must be done before it proceeds to sea. The
GM must equal or exceed the minimum required GM for that ship for the duration of the forthcoming
voyage. This is to ensure that the ship has adequate stability.
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Ship Stability diagram showing center of gravity (G), center of buoyancy (B), and metacenter (M) with
ship upright and heeled over to one side. Note that for small angles, G and M are fixed, while B moves as
the ship heels, and for big angles - B and M are moving.

When a ship is heeled, the center of buoyancy of the ship moves laterally. The point at which a
vertical line through the heeled center of buoyancy crosses the line through the original, vertical
center of buoyancy is the metacenter. The metacentre remains directly above the centre of
buoyancy regardless of the tilt of a floating body, such as a ship. In the diagram to the right the
two Bs show the centers of buoyancy of a ship in the upright and heeled condition and M is the
metacenter. The metacenter is considered to be fixed for small angles of heel; however, at larger
angles of heel the metacenter can no longer be considered fixed and other means must be found
to calculate the ship's stability.
The metacenter can be calculated using the formulae:

KM = KB + BM

Where B is the center of buoyancy, I is the Second moment of area of the waterplane in meters4
and V is the volume of displacement in meters3. KM is the distance from the keel (bottom
middle section of the ship) to the metacentre. [1]

[edit] Different centers

Initially the second moment of area increases as the surface area increases, increasing BM, so
Mφ moves to the opposite side, thus increasing the stability arm. When the deck is flooded, the
stability arm rapidly decreases.

The center of buoyancy, is the center of the volume of water which the hull displaces. This point
is referred to as B in naval architecture. The center of gravity of the ship itself is known as G in
naval architecture. When a ship is stable, the center of buoyancy is vertically in-line with the
center of gravity of the ship.[2]

The metacenter is the point where the lines intersect (at angle φ) of the upward force of
buoyancy of φ ± dφ. When the ship is vertical it lies above the center of gravity and so moves in
the opposite direction of heel as the ship rolls. The metacenter is known as M in naval
architecture.
The distance between the center of gravity and the metacenter is called the metacentric height,
and is usually between one and two meters. This distance is also abbreviated as GM. As the ship
heels over, the center of gravity generally remains fixed with respect to the ship because it just
depends upon position of the ship's weight and cargo, but the surface area increases, increasing
BMφ. The metacenter, Mφ, moves up and sideways in the opposite direction in which the ship
has rolled and is no longer directly over the center of gravity.[3]

The righting force on the ship is then caused by gravity pulling down on the hull, effectively
acting on its center of gravity, and the buoyancy pushing the hull upwards; effectively acting
along the vertical line passing through the center of buoyancy and the metacenter above it. This
creates a torque which rotates the hull upright again and is proportional to the horizontal distance
between the center of gravity and the metacenter. The metacentric height is important because
the righting force is proportional to the metacentric height times the sine of the angle of heel.

When setting a common reference for the centers, the molded (within the plate or planking) line
of the keel (K) is generally chosen; thus, the reference heights are:

KB - Center of Buoyancy
KG - Center of Gravity
KM - Metacenter