European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe.[13] It has an
area of 4,475,757 km2 (1,728,099 sq mi) and an estimated population of about 513 million. The EU has developed an internal single European Union
market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where
members have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the
internal market,[14] enact legislation in justice and home affairs and maintain common policies on trade,[15] agriculture,[16] fisheries
and regional development.[17] For travel within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished.[18] A monetary union
was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 and is composed of
19 EU member states which use the euro currency.
Flag
The EU and European citizenship were established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993.[19] The EU traces its Motto: "In Varietate Concordia" (Latin)
origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), established, "United in Diversity"
respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome. The original members of what came to be known as the
Anthem: "Ode to Joy" (instrumental)
European Communities were the Inner Six: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The
Communities and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy
areas to its remit. The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.
While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the United Kingdom signified the intention to leave after a
membership referendumin June 2016 and is negotiating its withdrawalon 29 March 2019.

Covering 7.3% of the world population,[20] the EU in 2017 generated a nominalgross domestic product(GDP) of 19.670 trillion US
dollars, constituting approximately 24.6% of global nominal GDP[21] . Additionally, all 28 EU countries have a very high Human
Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize.[22] Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The
union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade
Organization, the G7 and the G20. Because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging
superpower.[23]

Location of the European Union,

its outermost regions,
Contents and the overseas countries and territories

Capital Brussels (de facto)[1]

History
Background
Largest cities Paris and London[a]
Preliminary (1945–57) Official languages 24 languages[b]
Treaty of Rome (1957–92)
Maastricht Treaty (1992–2007) Official scripts[4] Latin · Greek · Cyrillic
Lisbon Treaty (2007–present) Religion 71.6% Christianity
Structural evolution 45.3% Roman Catholic
Demographics 11.1% Protestant
Population 9.6% Eastern Orthodox
Urbanisation 5.6% other Christian
Languages
24% No religion
Religion
1.8% Muslim
Member states 2.6% other faiths[5]
Geography
Politics
Demonym(s) European[6]
European Parliament Type Political and economic
European Council union
Council of the European Union
Member states 28 states
European Commission
Budget Government Supranational and
Competences intergovernmental
Legal system • President of the Donald Tusk
Courts of Justice Council
Fundamental rights • President of the Antonio Tajani
Acts Parliament
• President of the Jean-Claude Juncker
Justice and home affairs Commission
Foreign relations Legislature Council of the EU
Defence
European Parliament
Humanitarian aid
Regional and global influence Formation[7]
Economy • Treaty of Rome 1 January 1958
Internal market • Treaty of Maastricht 1 November 1993
Monetary union • Treaty of Lisbon 1 December 2009
Energy • Last polity 1 July 2013
Infrastructure admitted
Agriculture Area
Competition • Total 4,475,757 km2
(1,728,099 sq mi)
Social policy
• Water (%) 3.08
Environment
Education and science Population
Health care • 2018 estimate 512,596,403[8]
Culture • Density 117.3/km2
 Sport (303.8/sq mi)
Symbols
GDP (PPP) 2019 estimate
Media
• Total $23.0 trillion[9] (2nd)
See also • Per capita $44,854[9]
Notes GDP (nominal) 2019 estimate
References • Total $19.1 trillion[9] (2nd)
Sources • Per capita $37,360[10]
Further reading
Gini (2016) 30.8[11]
External links medium
HDI (2017) 0.899[d]
very high
History Currency Euro (EUR; €; in
eurozone) and
10 others
Background
Time zone UTC to UTC+2 (WET,
During the centuries following the fall of Rome in 476, several European States CET, EET)
viewed themselves astranslatio imperii of the defunct Roman Empire: the Frankish • Summer (DST) UTC+1 to UTC+3
Empire (481–843) and the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) were thereby attempts (WEST, CEST, EEST)
to resurrect Rome in the West.[g] This political philosophy of a supra-national rule (see also Summer
Time in Europe)
over the continent, similar to the example of the ancient Roman Empire, resulted in Note: with the exception
the early Middle Ages in the concept of a renovatio imperii ("restoration of the of the Canary Islands
empire),[26] either in the forms of theReichsidee ("imperial idea") or the religiously and Madeira, the
Scheme of Indo-European migrations outermost regions
inspired Imperium Christianum ("christian empire").[27][28] Medieval
from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according observe dif ferent time
Christendom[29][30] and the political power of the Papacy[31][32] are often cited as
to the Kurgan hypothesis zones not shown. [e]
conducive to European integration and unity
.
The assumed Urheimat (Samara Date format dd/mm/yyyy (AD/CE)
culture, Sredny Stog culture) and the See also: Date and time
In the oriental parts of the continent, the Russian Tsardom, and ultimately the
subsequent Yamnaya culture. notation in Europe
Empire (1547–1917), declared Moscow to be Third Rome and inheritor of the
Area possibly settled up to c. 2500
BCE. Eastern tradition after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.[33] The gap between Internet TLD .eu[f]
Area settled up to 1000 BCE.[24] Greek East and Latin West had already been widened by the political scission of the Website
Roman Empire in the 4th century and the Great Schism of 1054; and would be europa.eu
eventually widened again by theIron Curtain (1945–91).[34]

The Roman Empire in AD 117, at its
greatest extent (with itsvassals in
pink).
Pan-European political thought truly emerged during the 19th century, inspired by the liberal
ideas of the French and American Revolutions after the demise of Napoléon's Empire (1804–15).
In the decades following the outcomes of the Congress of Vienna, ideals of European unity
flourished across the continent, especially in the writings of Wojciech Jastrzębowski,[35]
Giuseppe Mazzini[36] or Theodore de Korwin Szymanowski.[37] The term United States of
Europe (French: États-Unis d'Europe) was used at that time by Victor Hugo during a speech at
the International Peace Congressheld in Paris in 1849:[38] Europe in the Early Middle Ages
A day will come when all nations on our continent will form a European
brotherhood ... A day will come when we shall see ... the United States of
America and the United States of Europe face to face, reaching out for each other
across the seas.

During the interwar period, the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the
observation of a larger and growing US market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent.[39]
In 1920, advocating the creation of a European economic union, British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote that "a Free Trade Union should
be established ... to impose no protectionist tariffs whatever against the produce of other members of the Union."[40] During the same decade, The Congress of Vienna met in
Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, one of the first to imagine of a modern political union of Europe, founded the Pan-Europa Movement.[41] His 1814–15. The objective of the
Congress was to settle the many
ideas influenced his contemporaries, among which then Prime Minister of France Aristide Briand. In 1929, the latter gave a speech in favour of a
issues arising from theFrench
European Union before the assembly of the League of Nations, precursor of the United Nations.[42] In a radio address in March 1943, with war
Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic
still raging, Britain's leader Sir Winston Churchill spoke warmly of "restoring the true greatness of Europe" once victory had been achieved, and Wars, and the dissolution of theHoly
mused on the post-war creation of a "Council of Europe" which would bring the European nations together to build peace. Roman Empire.

Preliminary (1945–57)
After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which had devastated the continent.[43] In a speech
delivered on 19 September 1946 at the University of Zürich, Switzerland, Winston Churchill went further and advocated the emergence of a
United States of Europe.[44] The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history, as it led to the creation of the European
.[45]
Movement Internationaland of the College of Europe, where Europe's future leaders would live and study together

It also led directly to the founding of the Council of Europe in 1949, the first great effort to bring the nations of Europe together, initially ten of
them. However, the Council focused primarily on values - human rights and democracy - rather than on economic or trade issues, and was always
envisaged as a forum where sovereign governments could choose to work together, with no supra-national authority. It raised great hopes of
further European integration, and there were fevered debates in the two years that followed as to how this could be achieved.
Play media
But in 1952, disappointed at what they saw as the lack of progress within the Council of Europe, six nations decided to go further and created the Robert Schuman proposing the Coal
and Steel Community on 9 May 1950
European Coal and Steel Community, which was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe".[46] Visionary men such as Alcide De
Gasperi from Italy, Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman from France, and Paul-Henri Spaak from Belgium understood that coal and steel were the
two industries essential for waging war, and that by tying their national industries together, future war between their nations was made impossible.[47] These men and others are officially credited
as the founding fathers of the European Union.
Treaty of Rome (1957–92)
In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the
European Economic Community(EEC) and established a customs union. They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic
Energy Community (Euratom) for co-operation in developingnuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958.[47]

The EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The
EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and
then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among
members.[48][49]

During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was
reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively
referred to as the European Communities.[50][51] Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).[52]
The continental territories of the member states
of the European Union (European Communities
In 1973, the Communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland,
pre-1993), coloured in order of accession
which later left the Communities in 1985, following a dispute over fishing rights),
Ireland, and the United Kingdom.[53] Norway had negotiated to join at the same time,
but Norwegian voters rejected membership in areferendum. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held.[54]

Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain following in 1986.[55] In 1985, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders
without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states.[56] In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the
EEC[57] and the Single European Act was signed.

In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the Communities as part of a reunified Germany.[58] A close In 1989, the Iron Curtain fell,
fiscal integration with the introduction of the euro was not matched by institutional oversight making things more troubling. Attempts to solve the enabling the Community toexpand
problems and to make the EUmore efficient and coherent had limited success.[59] further (Berlin Wall pictured)

Maastricht Treaty (1992–2007)

The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—
came into force on 1 November 1993.[19][60] The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred as such
before the treaty. With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and
Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new
level of complexity and discord.[59] In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU.

In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the
eurozone has increased to encompass 19
countries. The euro currency became the second largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when
Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the Union.[61]
The euro was introduced in 2002,
replacing 12 national currencies.
Seven countries have since joined.
Lisbon Treaty (2007–present)
In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. The same year, Slovenia adopted the
euro,[61] followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009, by Estonia in 2011, by Latvia in 2014, and by Lithuania in 2015.

On 1 December 2009, theLisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the
European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent President
of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.[62][63]
The Lisbon Treaty entered into force
in 2009 In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of
peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe."[64][65] In 2013, Croatia
became the 28th EU member.[66]

From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the
Eurozone countries, increasing migration from the Middle East, and the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU.[67] A referendum in the UK
on its membership of the European Union was held in 2016, with 51.9% of participants voting to leave.[68] The UK formally notified the Group photograph of European
European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017 initiating the formal withdrawal procedurefor leaving the EU, committing the UK to Union heads of government on
leave the EU on 29 March 2019.[69] occasion of the 60th anniversary of
the Treaty of Rome in Rome, Italy

Structural evolution
The following timeline illustrates theintegration that has led to the formation of the present union, in terms of structural development driven by international treaties:

Signed: 1947 1948 1951 1954 1957 1965 1975 1986 1985+90 1992 1997 2001 2007
In force: 1947 1948 1952 1955 1958 1967 1976 1987 1995 1993 1999 2003 2009
Document : Dunkirk Brussels Paris Modified Rome Merger Council Single Schengen Maastricht Amsterdam Nice Lisbon
Treaty Treaty Treaty Brussels Treaty & Treaty Agreement European Treaty & Treaty (TEU) Treaty Treaty Treaty
Treaty EURATOM on TREVI Act Convention
Content: (est. (founded (founded (protocol (founded (merging the (founded (amended: (founded (amended: (amended: (amended with (abolished
alliance) WU) ECSC) amending EEC and legislative & TREVI) EURATOM, Schengen) EURATOM, EURATOM, focus on the 3 pillars
WU to EURATOM) administrative ECSC, (implemented ECSC, and EEC ECSC, EC to institutional and WEU by
become bodies of the EEC)+ Schengen) to transform it also contain changes: amending:
WEU) 3 European (founded into EC) + Schengen, and EURATOM, EURATOM,
communities) EPC) (founded: TEU where ECSC, EC and EC=>TFEU,
JHA+CFSP) PJCC replaced TEU) and TEU)
JHA) (founded EU
as an overall
legal unit with
Charter of
Fundamental
Rights ,
and reformed
governance
structures &
decision
procedures)

Three pillars of the European Union:

 Three pillars of the European Union:
European Communities
(with a single Commission & Council)
European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) Treaty expired in 2002
European Economic Community (EEC) European Community (EC)
Schengen Rules
Terrorism, Radicalism, Extremism Justice and Police and Judicial Co-
and Violence Internationally Home Affairs operation in Criminal European
(TREVI) (JHA) Matters (PJCC) Union (EU)
European Political Common Foreign and Security Policy
Cooperation (EPC) (CFSP)
Franco- Western Union
British (WU) Western European Union (WEU)
alliance Treaty terminated in 2011

Demographics

Population
As of 1 January 2016, the population of the European Union was about 510.1 million people (6.9% of the world population).[8][70] In 2015, 5.1
million children were born in the EU-28, corresponding to a birth rate of 10 per 1,000, which is 8 births below the world average.[71] For comparison,
the EU-28 birth rate had stood at 10.6 in 2000, 12.8 in 1985 and 16.3 in 1970.[72] Its population growth rate was positive at an estimated 0.23% in
2016.[73]

In 2010, 47.3 million people who lived in the EU were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4% of the total EU population. Of
these, 31.4 million (6.3%) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2%) were born in another EU member state. The largest absolute numbers of
people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2
million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).[74]

EU population density in 2014

Urbanisation
The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over one million, including the two megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million)
of London and Paris.[2] Also, there are several other metropolises with a population of over 5 million like Madrid, Barcelona, Berlin and includes polycentric urbanised regions like Rhine-Ruhr
(Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine-Main, the Flemish Diamond (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.) and
Upper Silesian area (Katowice, Ostrava et al.).[2]

Languages
The European Union has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian,
Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament
[79][80][81]
provides translation for documents and plenary sessions.

Due to the high number of official idioms, most of the institutions use only a handful of working languages.[82] The European Commission conducts its internal business in three procedural
languages : English, French, and German. Similarly, the European Court of Justice uses French as the working language,[83][84] while the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily
in English.[85][86]

Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens.[h][87] English is the most widely spoken language in the EU, being
understood by 51% of the EU population when counting both native and non-native speakers.[88] German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (spoken by 16% of the EU population.) More
[89]
than a half (56%) of EU citizens is able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.

Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, represented by the Balto-Slavic,[i] the Italic,[j] the Germanic,[k] the Hellenic,[l] and the Celtic[m] branches. Some
EU languages however, namely Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian (all three Uralic), Basque (Vasconic[n]) and Maltese (Semitic) do not belong to Indo-European languages.[90] The three official
( yrillic, Latin, and modern Greek), all derive from the Archaic Greek scripts.[4][91]
alphabets of the European Union C

Besides the 24 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people.[90] Catalan, Galician, Basque, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh are not
recognised official languages of the European Union but have semi-official status: official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the
institutions in these languages.[92][93] The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their
[94]
linguistic heritage. TheEuropean Day of Languagesis held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.

Religion
The EU has no formal connection to any religion. The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union[95] recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious
ganisations".[96]
associations" as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional or

The preamble to the Treaty on European Unionmentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe".[96] Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the
[97]
Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mentionChristianity or God, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.

Christians in the European Union are divided among members of Catholicism (both Roman and Eastern Rite), numerous Protestant denominations (Anglicans, Lutherans, and Reformed forming
the bulk of this category), and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million,[98] and an estimated Jewish population of over a million.[99] The
other world religions ofBuddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population.

According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2015 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 71.6% of the EU population.
[5]
Catholics are the largest Christian group, accounting for 45.3% of the EU population, whileProtestants make up 11.1%, Eastern Orthodox make up 9.6%, and other Christians make up 5.6%.
 Eurostat's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52% of EU
Religious affiliation in the European Union (2015)[5] citizens believed in a God, 27% in "some sort of spirit or life force", and Language Native Total
speakers
Affiliation % of EU population 18% had no form of belief.[100] Many countries have experienced falling
church attendance and membership in recent years.[101] The countries
English 13% 51%
Christian 71.6
where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16%) and German 18% 32%
Catholic 45.3 the Czech Republic (19%).[100] The most religious countries were Malta French 13% 26%
Protestant 11.1 (95%, predominantly Roman Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania Italian 12% 16%
Eastern Orthodox 9.6 (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90% of citizens professing
Spanish 8% 15%
a belief in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older
Other Christian 5.6 Polish 8% 9%
people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16,
Muslim 1.8 and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political [100]
scale". Romanian 5% 5%
Other faiths 2.6 Dutch 4% 5%

Irreligious 24 Member states Greek 3% 4%

Non-believer/Agnostic 13.6 Hungarian 3% 3%

Through successive enlargements, the European Union has grown from the
Atheist 10.4 six founding states (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Portuguese 2% 3%
and the Netherlands) to the current 28. Countries accede to the union by Czech 2% 3%
becoming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial Swedish 2% 3%
delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of Bulgarian 2% 2%
sovereignty".[102][103]
Slovak 1% 2%
To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These Danish 1% 1%
require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of Finnish 1% 1%
membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council.[104] No member
Lithuanian 1% 1%
state has yet left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985.[105] Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty
Croatian 1% 1%
provides the basis for a member to leave the Union.[106] Since mid-2017, the United Kingdom has been negotiating terms for its withdrawal from
the EU. Slovenian <1% <1%
Estonian <1% <1%
There are six countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Iceland, Macedonia,[o] Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey,[107]
Irish <1% <1%
though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013.[108] Bosnia and Herzegovinaand Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates,[107] with
Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application. Latvian <1% <1%
Maltese <1% <1%
The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU's economy and
[76]
regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which Survey 2012.
has similar ties through bilateral treaties.[109][110] The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City Native: Native language[77]
include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation.[111] The following 28 sovereign states (of which the map only shows territories situated Total: EU citizens able to hold a
[112]
in and around Europe) constitute the European Union: conversation in this language[78]
 Population Pop. density
Arms Flag State Capital Code Accession Area (km2) MEPs
(2017)[8] (per km²)

Austria Vienna AT 1 January 1995 8,772,865 83,855 104.62 18

Belgium Brussels BE Founder 11,351,727 30,528 371.85 21

Bulgaria Sofia BG 1 January 2007 7,101,859 110,994 63.98 17

Croatia Zagreb HR 1 July 2013 4,154,213 56,594 73.4 11

Cyprus Nicosia CY 1 May 2004 854,802 9,251 92.4 6

Czech Republic Prague CZ 1 May 2004 10,578,820 78,866 134.14 21

Denmark Copenhagen DK 1 January 1973 5,748,769 43,075 133.46 13

Estonia Tallinn EE 1 May 2004 1,315,635 45,227 29.09 6

Finland Helsinki FI 1 January 1995 5,503,297 338,424 16.26 13

France Paris FR Founder 66,989,083 640,679 104.56 74

Germany Berlin DE Founder[p] 82,521,653 357,021 231.14 96

Greece Athens GR 1 January 1981 10,768,193 131,990 81.58 21

Hungary Budapest HU 1 May 2004 9,797,561 93,030 105.32 21

Ireland Dublin IE 1 January 1973 4,784,383 70,273 68.08 11

Italy Rome IT Founder 60,589,445 301,338 201.07 73

Latvia Riga LV 1 May 2004 1,950,116 64,589 30.19 8

Lithuania Vilnius LT 1 May 2004 2,847,904 65,200 43.68 11

Luxembourg Luxembourg City LU Founder 590,667 2,586 228.41 6

Malta Valletta MT 1 May 2004 460,297 316 1,456.64 6

Netherlands Amsterdam NL Founder 17,081,507 41,543 411.18 26

Poland Warsaw PL 1 May 2004 37,972,964 312,685 121.44 51

Portugal Lisbon PT 1 January 1986 10,309,573 92,390 111.59 21

Romania Bucharest RO 1 January 2007 19,644,350 238,391 82.4 32

Slovakia Bratislava SK 1 May 2004 5,435,343 49,035 110.85 13

Slovenia Ljubljana SI 1 May 2004 2,065,895 20,273 101.9 8

Spain Madrid ES 1 January 1986 46,528,024 504,030 92.31 54

Sweden Stockholm SE 1 January 1995 9,995,153 449,964 22.21 20

United Kingdom London GB 1 January 1973 65,808,573 243,610 270.14 73

Totals: 28 countries 511,522,671 4,475,757 114.28 751

Geography
The EU's member states cover an area of 4,423,147 square kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi).[q] The EU's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea
level.[113] The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level.[114] The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are
influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long.
 65,993 km (41,006 mi) Mont Blanc in the Alps is The Danube (pictured in Repovesi lake in Finland, where
coastline dominates the the highest peak in the EU Budapest), is the longest there are some 187,888 lakes
European climate (Natural river in the European Union larger than 500 square metres
Park of Penyal d'Ifac, Spain)

Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe, but which are members of the union, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic (North-
East Europe) to tropical (French Guiana), rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate
(North-Western Europe and Central Europe), aMediterranean climate(Southern Europe), or a warm summer continental orhemiboreal climate (Northern Balkans and Central Europe).[115]

The EU's population is highly urbanised, with some 75% of inhabitants living in urban areas as of 2006. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around
the Benelux.[116]

Politics
The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making,[117][118]
and according to the principles of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the
competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an
objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions
are passed in a variety of forms.[119] Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which
come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which
[120]
specifically require national implementation measures (directives).

The European Union has seven principal decision making bodies, its institutions: the European Parliament, the
European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the
European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors. Competence in scrutinising
and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament,
while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European
Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of
the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and
Organigram of the political system with the seven institutions of the
the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the
Union in blue, national / intergovernmental elements in orange
European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a
specific area.

the European Council, which sets the general political directionsand priorities of the Union by gathering together its member states'heads of state/government (elected
chief executives). The conclusions of its summits (held at least quarterly) are adopted by consensus.
the European Commission, the "Guardian of the Treaties" consists of anexecutive cabinet of public officials, led by an indirectly elected President. This College of
Commissioners manages and directs the Commission's permanent civil service. It turns the consensus objectives of the European Council into legislative proposals.
the Council of the European Unionbrings together ministers of member states governments' departments. It forms the upper house of the EU's essentiallybicameral
legislature and its approval is required for any proposal to enter into law
.
the European Parliamentconsists of 751 directly elected representatives, forming the EU'slower house of its bicameral legislature. It shares with the Council of the EU
equal legislative powers to amend, approve or reject Commission proposals for most areas of EU legislation. Its powers are limited in areas where member states' view
sovereignty to be of primary concern (i.e. defence). It elects the Commission's President, must approve the College of Commissioners, and may vote to remove them
collectively from office.
the Court of Justice of the European Unionensures the uniform application of EU law and resolves disputes between EU institutions and member states, and against EU
institutions on behalf of individuals.
the European Central Bankis responsible for monetary stability within member states.
the European Court of Auditorsinvestigates the proper management of finances within both the EU entities and EU funding provided to its member states. As well as
providing oversight and advice, it can refer unresolved issues to the European Court of Justice to arbitrate on any alleged irregularities.
EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all
[121]
member states. Lobbying at EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process

European Parliament
The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU's legislature. The 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected
by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to
political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencieswhere this does
not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.[122]

The hemicycle of the European
Parliament in Strasbourg
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative
procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. The European Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office,
having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament (currently Antonio Tajani) carries
out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally. The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half
years.[123]

European Council
The European Council gives political direction to the EU. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council (currently Donald Tusk), the President of the
European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government). The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
(currently Federica Mogherini) also takes part in its meetings. It has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority".[124] It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty
changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies.
 The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and
disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective head of state" and ratifies important documents (for example,
international agreements and treaties).[125]

Tasks for the President of the European Councilare ensuring the external representation of the EU,[126] driving consensus and resolving divergences among
member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them.

The European Council should not be mistaken for theCouncil of Europe, an international organisation independent of theEU based in Strasbourg.

President of the European

Council, Donald Tusk

Council of the European Union

The Council of the European Union(also called the "Council"[127] and the "Council of Ministers", its former title)[128] forms one half of the EU's
legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being
addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body.[129] In addition to its legislative functions, the
Council also exercisesexecutive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the Union. Visegrad Group, Benelux, Baltic Assembly,
Nordic Council or Craiova Group.

European Commission Lithuania held the Presidency of the

Council of the European Unionin
The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. The
2013.
Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It operates as a cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for different areas of
policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.

One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission (currently Jean-Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Council. After the President, the
most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is ex-officio a Vice-President of the
Commission and is also chosen by the European Council.[130] The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European
Union in agreement with the nominated President. The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the
European Parliament.

Budget
The EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,[132] representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the
.[133]
EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP

In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness" with around 45% of the total budget.[134] Next
comes "agriculture" with approximately 31% of the total.[134] "Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes up around 11%.[134] "Administration"
Commission President,
accounts for around 6%.[134] The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice" bring up the rear with approximately 6% and 1% Jean-Claude Juncker
respectively.[134]

The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts
and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions".[135] The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud
actions.[136] The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission's handling of the budget.

The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007 and, while making it clear that the European
Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level.[137][138] In their report on 2009 the auditors
found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error.[139] The European Commission
estimated in 2009 that the financial effect of irregularities was €1,863 million.[140]

Competences
EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas The 2011 EU budget (€141.9
in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to bn)[131]
legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-
[141] Cohesion and
ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.
competitiveness for growth and
That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting employment (45%)
legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy Direct aids and market
area. related expenditures (31%)
Rural development (11%)
The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories:
EU as a global partner (6%)
Administration (6%)
Citizenship, freedom,
security and justice (1%)

As outlined in Title I of Part I of the consolidated Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
Exclusive competence Shared competence Supporting competence
 The Union has exclusive competence
to make directives and conclude
international agreements when
provided for in a Union legislative act
as to …
the customs union
the establishing of thecompetition
rules necessary for the functioning
of the internal market
monetary policy for the Member
States whose currency is theeuro
the conservation of marine
biological resources under the
common fisheries policy
Common Commercial Policy
conclusion of certaininternational
agreements
Member States cannot exercise Union exercise of competence shall The Union can carry out actions to
competence in areas where the Union not result in Member States being support, coordinate or supplement
has done so, that is … prevented from exercising theirs in … Member States' actions in …
the internal market research, technological the protection and improvement of
social policy, for the aspects defined development and (outer) space human health
in this Treaty development cooperation, industry
economic, social and territorial humanitarian aid culture
cohesion tourism
The Union coordinates Member States
agriculture and fisheries, excluding policies or implements supplemental education, youth, sport and
the conservation of marine to their common policies not covered vocational training
biological resources elsewhere in … civil protection (disaster prevention)
environment
administrative cooperation
consumer protection the coordination of economic,
transport employment and social policies
trans-European networks common foreign, security and
energy defence policies
the area of freedom, security and
justice
common safety concerns in public
health matters, for the aspects
defined in this Treaty

Legal system
The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.[142] These are power-giving treaties
which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation[r] which can directly
affect all member states and their inhabitants.[s] The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.
[143]

Under the principle ofsupremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to
[t]
ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.

Courts of Justice
The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union—consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the
General Court[144] The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of
member states.[145] The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts,[146] and the
European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service.[147] Decisions from the General
.[148]
Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law

Fundamental rights
The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and
The Court of Justice, seated in
respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, Luxembourg
justice, solidarity and equality between women and men [150]
prevail."

In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
. The charter is a codified catalogue offundamental
rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived
from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states."[151] The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion,
[152]
invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.

Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership,[u] previously, the EU itself could not accede to
the Convention as it is neither a state[v] nor had the competence to accede.[w] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former
binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it.

Although, the EU is independent from Council of Europe, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law, human rights and democracy. Further
European Convention on Human Rightsand European Social Charter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rightsare created by Council of Europe.
The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the
death penalty is a condition for EU membership.[153] Parada Równości, Warsaw
in 2018, the Court of Justice
declared same-sex spouses
Acts have EU residence
The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they rights.[149]
[x] and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.
come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures, [r] Directives require

member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are
left to member states.[y] When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may
, under certain conditions, havedirect effect in national law against member states.

Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often
used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal
.[154]
legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy

Justice and home affairs

 The borders inside the Europol Headquarters in Eurojust Headquarters in The Seat of
Schengen Area between The Hague, Netherlands Hague, Netherlands Frontex in
Germany and Austria Warsaw,
Poland

Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of justice and home affairs; initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. Accordingly,
the Union has legislated in areas such asextradition,[155] family law,[156] asylum law,[157] and criminal justice.[158] Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing
in the treaties.[z] In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.[aa] By virtue of
these powers, the EU has enacted legislation onsexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.[ab]

The Union has also established agencies to co-ordinate police, prosecutorial and immigrations controls across the member states: Europol for co-operation of police forces,[159] Eurojust for co-
operation between prosecutors,[160] and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.[161] The EU also operates the Schengen Information System[18] which provides a common
database for police and immigration authorities. This co-operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross
border crime.

Foreign relations
Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957,
when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU's common commercial
policy.[162] Steps for a more wide-ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the
establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between
member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when
European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was
renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy(CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.[163]

The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a
whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy
, and the rule
EU Free trade agreements (2017)
of law.[164] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any European Union
particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements,
Agreement in force
such as those which occurred over thewar in Iraq.[165]
Pending
The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Negotiating
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and
has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common
alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department[166] that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December
2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of theTreaty of Lisbon.[167] The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry anddiplomatic corps for the European Union.[168]

Donald Tusk and Jean- The EU participates in all G8 and High Representative of the
Claude Juncker with U.S. G20 summits. (G20 summit in Union for Foreign Affairs and
President Donald Trump, Hangzhou, 2016) Security Policy, Federica
2017 Mogherini, after reaching in
Vienna the Iran nuclear deal
framework

Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU
act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European
formerly Communist countries.[169]:762 This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".[170]

The European Union has concludedfree trade agreements (FTAs)[171] and other agreements with a trade component with many countries worldwide and is negotiating with many others.
[172]

Defence
The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.[173] 22 EU members are
members of NATO[174] while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.[175] The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in
2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.[176]

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent $61 billion on defence in 2014, placing it fifth in the world, while France spent $53 billion,
the sixth largest.[177] Together, the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity.[178] Both are officially
recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council.
 Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the
capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use
them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to
actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military
capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete
result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly
about 1500 personnel.[179]
Out of the 28 EU member states, 22
are also members of NATO. Another EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the
three NATO members are EU The Bulgarian fleet in Varna, Black
western Balkans and western Asia.[180] EU military operations are supported by a number of
applicants—Albania, Montenegro Sea.
and Turkey. bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the
European Union Military Staff.[181] Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the
cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders. It aims to detect and stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and
terrorist infiltration. In 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national
[182]
authorities for border management. In an EU consisting of 28 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.

Humanitarian aid
The European Commission's Humanitarian Aid
and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO",
provides humanitarian aid from the EU to
developing countries. In 2012, its budget
amounted to €874 million, 51% of the budget
went to Africa and 20% to Asia, Latin America,
the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20% to the Middle
East and Mediterranean.[185] The European Union co-fundspsychosocial support by the IAHV, Jordan at the Zaatari refugee camp for the Syrian refugees

Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the

budget (70%) as part of the financial instruments
for external action and also by the European
Development Fund (30%).[186] The EU's external
action financing is divided into 'geographic'
instruments and 'thematic' instruments.[186] The
'geographic' instruments provide aid through the If considered collectively, EU member states are the largest contributor offoreign aid in the world.[183][184]
Development Cooperation Instrument(DCI, €16.9
billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95% of its
budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.[186] The European
Development Fund (EDF, €22.7 billion for the period 2008–2013 and €30.5 billion for the period 2014-2020) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to
get and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.[186][187]
merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7% tar

get: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.[188]

In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4% and five had met or exceeded the 0.7% tar

Regional and global influence

Because of its ability to shape rules and norms on a global level as well as its attempts to influence neighbouring countries, the EU has been called an
emerging or potential superpower by scholars and academics like T. R. Reid,[189] Andrew Reding,[190] Andrew Moravcsik,[191] Mark Leonard,[192]
Jeremy Rifkin,[193] John McCormick,[194] and some politicians like Romano Prodi[195] and Tony Blair,[196] They believe that the EU is a superpower, or
will become one, in the 21st century – while noting that, for them, the concept of "superpower" has changed to one of soft power rather than the hard
(military) superpowers of the 20th century.

The EU uses foreign relations instruments like the European Neighbourhood Policywhich seeks to tie those countries to the east and south of the European
territory of the EU to the Union. These countries, primarily developing countries, include some who seek to one day become either a member state of the
European Union, or more closely integrated with the European Union. The EU offers financial assistance to countries within the European Neighbourhood,
so long as they meet the strict conditions of government reform, economic reform and other issues surrounding positive transformation. This process is
normally underpinned by an Action Plan, as agreed by both Brussels and the tar
get country.

.[197]
Critics of the concept of the EU as an emerging superpower point to the lack of either a strong European military or of unified EU foreign policy

Eiffel Tower, Paris

Economy
The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 512 million citizens. In 2017, the EU had a combined GDP of $21 trillion international
dollars, a 17% share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP).[199] As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). EU
member states own the estimated second largest after the United States(US$98.2 trillion) net wealth in the world, equal to 25% (US$78 trillion) of the $317 trillion(~€280 trillion[200] ) global
wealth.[201]

19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone, which uses the Euro as a single currency. The currency union represents 342 million EU citizens.[202] The euro is the
second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after theUnited States dollar.[203][204][205]

Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured byrevenue in 2010, 161 have their headquarters in the EU.[206] In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9%[207] while inflation was
at 2.2%, and the current account balance at −0.9% of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around €24,000(US$30,000)[208] in 2015, which was about 70% of that in
the United States.[209]

There is a significant variation in Nominal GDP per capita within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (276 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of
W UK), or from €4,100 to €207,300.[210]
Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2016, from 14%(Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average(€29,200) to 935%(Inner London -est,
 Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of
underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the
states of central and southern Europe.[211][212] Several funds provide
emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to
conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the
Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part
of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU research and technological
framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU
members to work towards a singleEuropean Research Area.[213]
The five largest economies in the world accordingto the
IMF by Nominal GDP in 2018[198]

World's largest passenger Automotive manufacturing is

airplane Airbus A380 built by one of most enduring
Gross domestic product (GDP) per
European corporation Airbus industrial activities in the EU,
inhabitant in purchasing power standards
(PPS) in relation to the EU-28 average, by SE. Airbus is one of the and it accounts for millions of
NUTS 2 regions, 2016 world's leading aircraft jobs, billions of euros in
manufacturers investment, and represents a
large portion of the continent's
exports

Tourism is a major economic Port of Antwerp container

activity in the European Union terminal, second-largest
with wide-ranging impact on seaport in the European
economic growth and Union
employment

Internal market

Clockwise from top left: Astandardised passport design, displaying the name of the member state, the nationalarms and the words "European Union" given in their official
language(s). (Irish model), Croatian version of anEU driving licence cardwith the EU flag on it, The common EU format ofvehicle registration plate(Slovak version
pictured)

Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its
member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU,[202] and the customs union involves the application of a common external
tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally.
The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.[109] Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation
harmonised by the EU.[214]

Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.[215] Until the drive towards economic and monetary
union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free
movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.

The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative
[216]
formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.
The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account
for 60–70% of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to
liberalise the cross border provision of services.[217] According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.

Monetary union
The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European
Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a
currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil
the agreed-on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union.
The states wanting to participate had first to join theEuropean Exchange Rate Mechanism.

In 1999 the currency union started, first as an accounting currency with eleven member states
joining. In 2002, the currency was fully put into place, wheneuro notes and coins were issued and
national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of 12 member
states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has
since grown to 19 countries.[218][ac]

The seat of the European Central
Bank in Frankfurt. 19 of the 28 EU
member states have adopted the
euro as their legal tender.
The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are
The Eurozone (dark blue) represents
under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB).[219] The ECB is the central bank for the 340 million people. The euro is the
eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price second-largest reserve currency in
stability. It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU the world.
national central banks and is controlled by its General Council, consisting of the President of the
ECB, who is appointed by the European Council, the Vice-President of the ECB, and the
[220]
governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states.
The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three
authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and
Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Boardunder the responsibility of the ECB. The aim of
[221]
this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.

To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and
procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a
sustainable level.

Energy
In 2006, the EU-27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe).[222] Around 46% of the
Consumed energy (2012)
energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported.[222] In these statistics, nuclear energy is Energy source Origin Percents
treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in the Imported 33%
Oil Domestic 6%
EU.[223] Imported 14%
Gas Domestic 9%
The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Imported 0%
Nuclear[ad] Domestic 13%
Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the
Imported 0%
[224]
meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007. Coal/Lignite Domestic 10%
Imported 0%
The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost
Renewable Domestic 7%
Imported 7%
interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new Other Domestic 1%
treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia[225] and
North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally
increase funding for new energy technologies.[224]

In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82% of their oil, 57% of their natural gas[226] and 97.48% of their uranium[223] demands. There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU
has been attempting to reduce.[227]

Infrastructure
The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects
under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina
Bridge. In 2010 the estimated network covers: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports;
270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.[228][229]

Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), an initiative to greatly enhance
safety, increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross-border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with
digitised mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems.

The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In
Approximate extent of completed
the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that
motorway network in Europe as of
joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.[230] The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 March 2016
autostrada.[231]

The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA).
The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater
accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system.[232]
 The Öresund Bridge The port of Tallinn is one of the European Space Agency Spain places second in High-
between Denmark and busiest cruise and passenger Mission Control at ESOC in speed rail constructed km in
Sweden is part of the harbours in Northern Europe Darmstadt, Germany the world after China
Trans-European Networks with over 10 million people
passing through in 2016,
connecting Helsinki in 2h.

Agriculture
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the long lasting policies of the European Community.[233] The policy has the objectives of
increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and
ensuring reasonable prices for consumers.[ae] It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the
policy accounted for over 60% of the thenEuropean Community's annual budget, and as of2013 accounts for around 34%.[234]

Vineyards in Romania; EU farms are
supported by the Common
Agricultural Policy, the largest
budgetary expenditure.
The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction. These were intervention stores of products bought up by
the Community to maintain minimum price levels. To dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably
below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to
export their products outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers outside Europe, especially those in the
developing world.[235] Supporters of CAP argue that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of
living.[235]

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially, these reforms included the introduction of set-aside in
1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or
disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked
to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels.[233] One of these reforms entailed the modification of the EU's
sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the [236]
EU.

Competition
The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.[af] The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for
antitrust issues, approvingmergers, breaking up cartels, working foreconomic liberalisationand preventing state aid.[237]

The Competition Commissioner, currently Margrethe Vestager, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national
corporations.[238] For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been
approved by their national authority.[239] Another high-profile caseagainst Microsoft, resulted in the Commission finingMicrosoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action.
[240]

Social policy
The EU has long sought to mitigate the effects of free markets by protecting workers rights and preventing social and environmental dumping. To this end it has adopted laws establishing
minimum employment and environmental standards. These included the Working Time Directive and the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive. The EU has also sought to coordinate the
social security and health systems of member states to facilitate individuals exercising free movement rights and to ensure they maintain their ability to access social security and health services in
other member states.

Environment
In 1957, when the EEC was founded, it had no environmental policy.[241] Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has
been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and
the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology.[242] According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law
[243]
comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.

European policy-makers originally increased the EU's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem.[244] Trade barriers
and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state.[245] In
subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU
European Environment Agencyin [243]
environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.
Copenhagen.
Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g.
the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of theKyoto Protocol despite opposition from theUnited States. This international
dimension is reflected in the EU's Sixth Environmental Action Programme,[246] which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported
and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions.[247] EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and
[243]
species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.

Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy. In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20% of the energy used across the EU must be renewable, and
carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels.[248] The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the
economy.[249] The European Green Capitalis an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, ener
gy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to createsmart city.

Education and science

Basic education is an area where the EU's role is limited to supporting national governments. In higher education, the policy was developed in the
1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a university exchange
programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years, it supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and
[250]
college students and became a symbol of European student life.

There are similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong
Learning Programme 2007–2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in
the education and training fields across the EU.[251][252] Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and
compatible degrees across Europe. Biogeographic regions of the
continental European Union,
Scientific development is facilitated through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area according to the European
Environmental Agency
are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research
projects.[253] EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a
[254]
diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.

Health care
Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care, Article 35 of the Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be
ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities". The European Commission's
Directorate-General for Health and Consumersseeks to align national laws on the protection of people's health,
[255][256][257]
on the consumers' rights, on the safety of food and other products.

All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which,
on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other Desiderius Erasmus of
European Health Insurance Card
participating European countries.[258] A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation Rotterdam, renacentist
(Slovenian version pictured)
on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high-quality cross-border healthcare humanist that gave name
for European patients.[259][260][261] to Erasmus Programme

Culture
Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht
Treaty.[262] Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven-year programme,[262] the European Cultural Month
event,[263] and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra.[264] The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more
cities in every year to assist thecultural development of that city.[265]

The European Capital of Culture
programme was launched in the
summer of 1985 with Athens being
the first title-holder
movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign
players with European citizenship.[267]
Sport
Association football is by far the most popular sport in the European Union by the number of
registered players. The other sports with the most participants in clubs are tennis, swimming,
[266]
athletics, golf, gymnastics, equestrian sports, handball, volleyball and sailing.
Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather
than of the EU. However, there are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free

The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on Football is one of the most popular
voluntary activity.[268] This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to sports in the European Union. C( amp
objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.[269] The EU does Nou in Barcelona)
[270]
fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.

Symbols
The flag used is the Flag of Europe, which consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background. The blue represents the West, while the number and
position of the stars represent completeness and unity, respectively.[271] Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the
European Communities, the predecessors of the present Union, in 1986.

United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the Union in the year 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils.[272] Since
1985, the flag day of the Union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration). The anthem of the Union is an instrumental
version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community
leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.[273]

Bust of Charlemagne with
the German Reichsadler
embossed on the metal and
the French fleur-de-lis
embroidered on the fabric.
Aachen Cathedral Treasury
Besides naming the continent, theGreek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth
in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union. Statues of Europa and the bull
decorate several of the Union's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all
residence permit cards.[274]
Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe"),[275][276][277] has a
symbolic relevance to Europe. The Commission has named one of its central buildingsin Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949
awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification.[278] Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European
Parliament, have awarded theCharlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people.[279]
In 1997, Polish-born Pope John Paul II canonised Poland's 14th-century monarch Jadwiga as Saint Hedwig, the patron saint of queens and of European
unification[280]
Media
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of
Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights.[281]:1 Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media
[282]
freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".
The vast majority of media in the European Union are national-oriented. However, some EU-wide media focusing on European affairs have
emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe.[283] ARTE is a public Franco-German TV
network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80% of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two
member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ARTE GEIE and the channel's European
partners.[284]
The MEDIA Programme of the European Union intends to support the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides
support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.
See also
Outline of the European Union
List of country groupings
List of multilateral free-trade agreements
Euroscepticism
Notes
a. London and Paris are the largest cities in the European Union by urban
population.[2]
b. The 24 languages are equally official and accepted as working languages.
However, only three of them – English, French and German – have the higher
status of procedural languages and are used in the day-to-day workings of the
European institutions.[3]
c. Currently undergoing exit procedures known asBrexit.
[12]
d. Calculated using UNDP data for the member states with weighted population.
e. Martinique, Guadeloupe (UTC−4); French Guiana (UTC−3); Azores (UTC−1 /
UTC); Mayotte (UTC+3); and La Réunion (UTC+4); which, other than the Azores,
do not observe DST.
f. .eu is representative of the whole of the EU; member states also have their own
TLDs.
g. Kikuchi Yoshio (菊池良生) of Meiji University suggested that the notion ofHoly
Roman Empire as a federal political entity influenced the later structural ideas of
the European Union.[25]
h. See Articles 165 and 166 (ex Articles 149 and 150) of theTreaty on the
Functioning of the European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)
i. Slavic: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Polish, Slovak and Slovenian. Baltic: Latvian
and Lithuanian.
j. French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish.
k. Danish, Dutch, English, German and Swedish.
l. Greek
m. Irish
n. Vasconic is still a putative family whose Basque would be the only surviving
language. Basque is not an official language of the European Union but has a
semi-official status.
o. Referred to by the EU as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia".
p. On 3 October 1990, the constituent states of the formerGerman Democratic
Republic acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany, automatically becoming
part of the EU.
q. This figure includes the extra-European territories of member states which are part
of the European Union and excludes the European territories of member states
which are not part of the Union. For more information seeSpecial member state
territories and the European Union.
r. See Article 288 (ex Article 249 TEC) of the T
reaty on the Functioning of the
European Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUri
Serv.do?uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0047:0200:EN:PDF)
s. According to the principle of Direct Effect first invoked in the Court of Justice's
decision in Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, Eur-
Lex (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ .do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:E
N:NOT) (European Court of Justice 1963).See: Craig and de Búrca, ch. 5.
t. According to the principle ofSupremacy as established by the ECJ in Case 6/64,
Falminio Costa v. ENEL [1964] ECR 585. See Craig and de Búrca, ch. 7. See also:
Factortame litigation: Factortame Ltd. v. Secretary of State for Transport (No. 2)
[1991] 1 AC 603, Solange II (Re Wuensche Handelsgesellschaft, BVerfG decision
of 22 October 1986 [1987] 3 CMLR 225,265) andFrontini v. Ministero delle
Finanze [1974] 2 CMLR 372; Raoul George Nicolo [1990] 1 CMLR 173.
Europa and the bull, depicted by
Jean-François de Troy (1716)
[285]
Euronews headquarters in Lyon,
France
u. It is effectively treated as one of the Copenhagen criteria, Assembly.coe.int. (http://
assembly.coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta08/ERES1610.htm)
This is a political and not a legal requirement for membership.Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080626175941/http://assembly .coe.int/Main.asp?link=/Docum
ents/AdoptedText/ta08/ERES1610.htm)26 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
v. The European Convention on Human Rights was previously only open to
members of the Council of Europe (Article 59.1 of the Convention(http://conventio
ns.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/005.htm)), and even now only states may
become member of the Council of Europe Article
( 4 of the Statute of the Council of
Europe (http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/001.htm)).
w. Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community
to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ
.d
o?uri=CELEX:61994V0002:FR:NOT)(in French), ruled that the European
Community did not have the competence to accede to the ECHR.
x. See: Case 34/73, Variola v. Amministrazione delle Finanze[1973] ECR 981 (http://
eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ .do?uri=CELEX:61973J0034:EN:NOT).
y. To do otherwise would require the drafting oflegislation which would have to cope
with the frequently divergent legal systems and administrative systems of all of the
now 28 member states. See Craig and de Búrca, p. 115
z. See Articles 157 (ex Article 141) of theTreaty on the Functioning of the European
Union, on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ .do?ur
i=OJ:C:2010:083:0013:0046:EN:PDF)
aa. See Article 2(7) of the Amsterdam Treaty on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://eur-lex.europ
a.eu/en/treaties/dat/11997D/htm/11997D.html#0001010001)Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20080217024604/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/treaties/dat/11997D/
htm/11997D.html#0001010001)17 February 2008 at theWayback Machine.
ab. Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal
treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19 July
2000, p. 22–26); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing
a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ L 303,
2 December 2000, p. 16–22).
ac. "ERM II" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183816/http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/Int
ernational%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%20political%20coordination/
ERM2.aspx). Danish Finance Ministry. 20 March 2009. Archived from the original
(http://uk.fm.dk/Portfolio/International%20cooperation/EU%20economic%20and%2
0political%20coordination/ERM2.aspx)on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 26 December
2009.
ad. Although almost all uranium is imported, nuclear power is considered primary
energy produced in the EU.
ae. Article 39 (ex Article 33) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union,
on eur-lex.europa.eu (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20131106072048/http://eur-lex.eur
opa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AC%3A2010%3A083%3A0047%3A0
200%3AEN%3APDF)
af. Article 3(1)(g) of the Treaty of Rome
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Prospects for the Future. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781138244191.
Bomberg, Elizabeth; Peterson, John; Corbett, Richard, eds. (2012).The European
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Corbett, Richard; Jacobs, Francis; Shackleton, Michael (2011).The European
Parliament (8th ed.). London: John Harper Publishing. ISBN 978-0956450852.
Craig, Paul; de Búrca, Gráinne (2007).EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials(4th
ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199273898.
Federiga, Bindi, ed. (2010).The Foreign Policy of the European Union: Assessing
Europe's Role in the World(2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution
Press. ISBN 978-0815722526. The E.U.'s foreign-policy mechanisms and foreign
relations, including with its neighbours.
Gareis, Sven; Hauser, Gunther; Kernic, Franz, eds. (2013). The European Union –
A Global Actor?. Leverkusen, FRG: Barbara Budrich Publishers.ISBN 978-3-
8474-0040-0.
Grinin, L.; Korotayev, A.; Tausch, A. (2016). Economic Cycles, Crises, and the
Global Periphery. Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London: Springer International
Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-17780-9.
Jones, Erik; Anand, Menon; Weatherill, Stephen (2012). The Oxford Handbook of
the European Union. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199546282.
Jordan, A.J.; Adelle, Camilla, eds. (2012).Environmental Policy in the European
Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics(3rd ed.). Abingdon-on-Thames:
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They already have NATO to undertake that task."
Kaiser, Wolfram (2009). Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union
(New Studies in European History). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0511497056.
Le Gales, Patrick; King, Desmond (2017).Reconfiguring European States in
Crisis. Corby: Oxford University Press.ISBN 9780198793373.
McCormick, John (2007).The European Union: Politics and Policies(5th ed.).
Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342023.
Pinder, John; Usherwood, Simon (2013).The European Union: A Very Short
Introduction (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199681693.
excerpt and text search
Rifkin, Jeremy (2005).The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is
Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream. City of Westminster, London:
TarcherPerigee. ISBN 978-1585424351.
Smith, Charles (2007). International Trade and Globalisation(3rd ed.). Stocksfield:
Anforme Ltd. ISBN 978-1905504107.
Staab, Andreas (2011).The European Union Explained: Institutions, Actors,
Global Impact. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-
0253223036. excerpt and text search
Steiner, Josephine; Woods, Lorna; Twigg-Flesner, Christian (2006). EU Law (9th
ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199279593.
Tausch, Arno (2012). Globalization, the Human Condition, and Sustainable
Development in the Twenty-first Century: Cross-national Perspectives and
European Implications. With Almas Heshmati and a Foreword by Ulrich Brand(1st
ed.). Anthem Press, London.ISBN 9780857284105.
Yesilada, Birol A.; Wood, David M. (2009). The Emerging European Union(5th
ed.). Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-0205723805.
 European Council
European Commission
Council
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European Central Bank
Court of Justice of the European Union
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Agencies
EUR-Lex—EU Laws
Historical Archives of the European Union
Overviews and data:

Eurostat—European Union Statistics Explained

Datasets related to the EU on CKAN
"CIA World Factbook: European Union". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
British Pathé—Online newsreel archive of the 20th century
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The European Union: Questions and AnswersCongressional Research Service
Works by European Unionat Project Gutenberg
Works by or about European Unionat Internet Archive
News and interviews:

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Educational resources:

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Awards and achievements

Preceded by
Succeeded by
Tawakkul Karman Laureate of the Nobel Peace Prize
Organisation for the Prohibition of
Leymah Gbowee 2012
Chemical Weapons
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf

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