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PG TRB PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS , 1
SRMHSS, KAVERIYAMPOONDI, TIRUVANNAMALAI
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A., P.G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS
POST GRADUATE ASSISTANTS

(PG TRB )
,aw;gpay;
PHYSICS
STUDY MATERIAL
2020 – 2021
PREPARED BY
RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A.,

P. G. ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS,
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,
SRM HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KAVERIYAMPOONDI,
TIRUVANNAMALAI DISTRICT – 606 603.
mrrkphysics@gmail.com, murasabiphysics@gmail.com
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CONTENTS
Unit.
S. No. TOPICS PAGE No.
No.
1 1 VECTOR FIELDS 3 - 13
2 2 PROBABILITY AND THEORY OF ERRORS 14 - 24
3 3 CLASSICAL MECHANICS 25 - 44
4 4 STATISTICAL MECHANICS 45 - 53
5 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 54 - 63
6 6 SPECTROSCOPY 64 - 74
7 7 SOLID STATE PHYSICS 75 - 91
8 8 QUANTUM MECHANICS 92 - 111
9 9 NUCLEAR PHYSICS 112 - 129
10 10 ELECTRONICS (DIGITAL ELECTRONICS) 130 - 150
“NeHikahd Kaw;rpapy; fpilj;j

ntw;wpapd; %ykhff; fpilf;Fk; kfpo;r;rpapd;
rpfuj;ij ahUk; msf;fNt KbahJ.”
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UNIT – I (VECTOR FIELDS)
Gradient of f is grad f = ∇ f ; = ı+ ȷ+ k
GRADIENT:
i + ∂y j + ∂z k
∂ ∂ ∂
Where ∇ =
∂x
Directional derivative of f in the direction if a is D f = .∇f

| |
∇ (fg) = g ∇ f + f ∇ g ; ∇ f = nf ∇ f for any n ∈ N

PROPERTIES OF GRADIENT:
∇ !"# = "$ %g ∇ f − f ∇ g( ∇) fg = g∇) f + 2 ∇ f + ∇g + f∇) g

LAPLACE OPERATOR:
∇) f = + + = ∇f
$ $ $
$ $ $
Divergence of a vector filed (F div F = ∇. F

Remarks : Div (grad f) = ∇. ∇f ; = ∇) f ; = ∇f
Curl F = ∇xF
Curl of a vector field (F
If a vector filed is irrotational. Curl F = 0 ; ∇xF = 0

Remarks:
Let F be a smooth vector field then div (Curl F) = 0 ; ∇. ∇ x F = 0

If a vector field is solenoid divF = 0 ; ∇ . F = 0
Gradient in curvilinear co-ordinates ∇f = e + ./ e + ./ e
./ / / 1 1 2 2
∇. V = 7 + + 9
Divergence in curvilinear co-ordinates
84 .5 .6 .4 85 .6 .4 .5 86
.4 .5 .6 / 1 2
∇) Ψ = . 7 ! #+ ! #+ ! #9
Laplacian in curvilinear coordinates
.5 .6 ; .4 .6 ; .4 .5 ;
4 .5 .6 / .4 / 1 .5 1 2 .6 2
ℎ@ A@ ℎB AB ℎC AC
Curl in curvilinear co – ordinates
1 D D D
∇xV = > >
h/ h1 h2 DE DF DG
ℎ@ F@ ℎB FB ℎC FC
1 ∂ ∂Ψ 1∂ Ψ ∂ Ψ
Laplacian in cylindrical coordinates
2 2
∇ Ψ=
)
Jr K+ 2 +
H ∂r ∂r r ∂θ2 ∂z2
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1 ∂ ∂Ψ 1 D ∂Ψ 1 ∂ Ψ
Laplacian in spherical coordinates
2
∇ Ψ = ) J r2
)
K+ 2 Osin N P+
H ∂r ∂r r sin θ DN DN H2 QRS2 N ∂ϕ2
∇H = = ∇H ; ∇ log H = ; ∇ H X = SH X ) H
U U
U U$
Div (Y F = ∇ϕ . F + ϕ%∇. F( ; Z∇. %Y F([
Curl (Y F = ∇ϕ x F + ϕ%∇xF( ; Z∇x%Y F([
∇. %\ x] ( = ] . %∇xF( − F. %∇xG( ; div. %\ x] ( = ] . aEHbF − F. aEHbG
∇x%∇xF( = ∇%∇. F( − ∇) F
Model Problems:
ı+ ȷ+ k ; = 2d e + 1 f + −1 g
If f = x2 + y – z – 1 find grad f at (1, 0, 0)
Grad f = ∇c ; =
At (1, 0, 0) = 2e + f − g
e+f+g
Find the directional derivative of f = xyz at (1, 1, 1) in the direction of
Grad f = ∇c ; = ı+ ȷ+ k
= hiR + dij + dhg
At (1, 1, 1) = e + f + g
;=
lmnmo
Sk = |X| =
X lmnmo
p $m $m $ √r
Directional derivative = grad f . S

k ; = %e + f + g(. ! #
lmnmo
√r
= 1+1+1 ;= ; = √3
r
√r √r
Find the normal derivation of Y = dh + hi + id at (−1, 1, 1
i + ∂y j + ∂z k ;= h+i R+ d+i j+ d+h g
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
Grad Y =
∂x
= 2R
Normal derivative = |grad ϕ| ; = √2) = 2
Find a unit vector normal to the surface d ) − h ) + i = 2 at the point
Y = d) − h) + i − 2
(1,−1,2)
uHvw Y = 2d R − 2hj + 1g ; = 2R + 2j + g
= |"y =
∇x "y z { 2R+2j+g
|∇x| z {| r
Unit normal vector = ;
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If ∇Y = 2dhie + d ) if + d ) hg find Y
ı+ ȷ+ k ; = 2dhie + d ) if + d ) hg
{ { {
= 2xyz ; | DY = 2 | dhi Dd
{
ϕ=2 yz + f y, z ; ϕ = d ) yz + f y, z
}$
)
Similarly ϕ = d ) yz + f x, z ; ϕ = d ) yz + f x, y
Hence ϕ = d ) yz + a constant
ϕ = d ) yz + C
at the point e + 2f + 2g
Find the equation of the tangent plane and normal line to the surface xyz = 4
f = xyz− 4 ; Grad f = hie + dif + dhg

At (1, 2, 2) grad f = 4e + 2f + 2g ; H€ = e + 2f + 2g
H − H€ = %de + hf + ig ( − %e + 2f + 2g (
= d−1 e+ h−2 f+ i−2 g
Equation of the Tangent plane H − H€ . uHvw c = 0
4 d−1 2 h−2 +2 i−2 =0
4d − 4 + 2h − 4 + 2i − 4 = 0 ; 4d + 2h + 2i − 12 = 0
2d + h + i − 6 = 0
Equation of the normal plane H − H€ x uHvw c = 0
ı ȷ k
ƒx − 1 y − 2 z − 2ƒ = 0
4 2 2
e„ h − 2 − i − 2 … − f „ d − 1 − 2 i − 2 … + g „ d − 1 − 2 h − 2 … = 0
Equating the coefficients of e, f, g
h−2 − i−2 =0 ; h−2 = i−2
d−1 −2 i−2 =0 ; d−1 =2 i−2 ; =i−2
}
)
d−1 −2 h−2 =0 ; d−1 =2 h−2 ; =h−2

†
)
d−2 h−2 i−2
⟹ = =
2 1 1
If \ = d ) e + h ) f + i ) g then find divergence and curl.
Divergence = ∇. \ ; 2d + 2h + 2i ; = 2 d + h + i
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e f g
Curl = ∇xF ; > >=0 ;
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ} ˆ† ˆ‰
d )
h)
i)
F is irrotational.
Find the constant a, if F = x + z e + 3d + 9h f + d − 5i g is
Since F is solenoidal . div F = 0 ; ∇. F = 0

solenoidal.
D D D
d+i + 3d + 9h + d − 5i = 0
Dd Dh Di
1 + v − 5 = 0 ; v − 4 = 0 ; v = 4
STOKE’S THEOREM:
The line integral around the boundary curve of S of the tangential component
of F is equal to the surface integral of the normal component to the curl of F.
|Œ F. wH = ∬• ŽEHb \. wQ ; = ∬• ŽEHb \. Sk wQ ; = ∬• %∇x\ (. Sk wQ
If F is a vector point function, finite and differentiable in a region R bounded

GAUSS DIVERGENCE THEOREM:
∬‘ F. nk ds = ∭8 ∇. FdV ; ∬‘ F. ds = ∭8 div FdV

by a closed surface S . Then the surface.
wQ = ∭” ; If F = vde + •hf + Žig , a, b. c

Remarks:
∬• ∇H ) . SkwQ = 6’ ; ∬•
U .Xk “”
U$ U$
are constant then ∬‘ F. n

k ds = a+b+c
–—
r
MATRIX THEORY:
Ž v •
Remarks:
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers Eg. š œ

c w ›
v • Ž
Order of a matrix = No. of rows x No. of columns Eg. š œ order = 2 x 3
w › c
v •
Square Matrix: No. of rows = No. of columns Eg. 7 9 order = 2 x 2
Ž w
1 0 0
Diagonal Matrix: In a square matrix all the element other than the leading
diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal matrix. Eg. •0 2 0ž

0 0 3
2 0 0
Scalar Matrix : In a diagonal matrix all the non zero elements are equal is
called a scalar matrix. Eg. •0 2 0ž

0 0 2
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1 0 0
Unit Matrix: In a scalar matrix all the non- zero element are 1 (unit) is called a
1 0
unit matrix. Eg. 7 9 , •0 1 0ž
0 1
0 0 1
0 0
Null Matrix: In a matrix all the elements are 0 is called a Null matrix.
Eg. 7 9
0 0
Eg. „v • Ž …
Row Matrix: A matrix which consists only one row is called a row matrix.
1
Column Matrix: A matrix which consists only one column is called a column
matrix. Eg. •2ž

3
Transpose of a Matrix: A matrix which is obtained by interchanging the rows
1 4
and columns of a matrix is called the transpose of the matrix.
1 2 3
Eg. A = 7 9 , AT = •2 5ž
4 5 6
3 6
Additional / Subtraction of Matrices: To find addition or subtraction of
3 2 −1 2
matrices order of the given matrices should be same.
Eg. A = 79 B=7 9
4 6 3 −3
3 − 1 2 + 2 2 4
A+B =7 9 ; =7 9
4 + 3 6 − 3 7 3
3 + 1 2 − 2 4 0
A−B =7 9 ; =7 9
4 − 3 6 + 3 1 9
1 0 3 −1 2
Eg. A = 7 9 ,B=7 9
0 −2 −6 2 4
Order of A = 2 x 2 ; Order of B = 2 x 3. Since order of A≠ order of B.
A + B and A – B cannot be determined
2 −1 2x 2 −1 x 2 4 −2
Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix:
Eg. A = 7 9 ; 2A = 7 9 ;=7 9
5 3 5 x 2 3 x 2 10 6
2 −1 4 0
Eg. A = 7 9 B=7 9 ;
5 3 1 9
6 −3 8 0
3A – 2B = 7 9−7 9
15 9 2 18
6 − 8 −3 − 0 −2 −3
=7 9 ; = 7 9
15 − 2 9 − 18 13 −9
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Multiplication of two Matrices:

To multiply two matrices number of column in the first matrix should be equal
to the number of rows in the second matrix.
Eg. Order of A : m x n ; Order of B : p x q
To find AB : n = P ; order of AB : m x q
2 3
To find BA : m = q ; order of BA : p x n
1 5 7
Eg. A = 7 9 B = •−1 −2ž
0 −2 4
5 1
2 − 5 + 35 3 − 10 + 7 32 0
AB = 7 9 ; 7 9
0 + 2 + 20 0 + 4 + 4 22 8
1 2
Eg. If A = 7 9 then find A2 – 7A – 4I
5 6
1 2 1 2
A2 = 7 9 7 9
5 6 5 6
1 + 10 2 + 12 11 14
=7 9 ;=7 9
5 + 30 10 + 36 35 46
7 14
7A = 7 9
35 42
1 0 4 0
4I = 4 ! # = ! #
0 1 0 4
11 − 7 − 4 14 − 14 − 0
A2 – 7A – 4I = 7 9
35 − 35 − 0 46 − 42 − 4
0 0
=7 9 ;=0
0 0
Determinant of a Matrix : (Only for square matrix)
1 2 |£| 1 2
Eg. – 1,
A=7 9 ; =¤ ¤
5 6 5 6
= (1 x 6) – (2 x 5) ; = 6 – 10 ; = – 4
1 5 −9 1 5 −9
Eg. 2,
A = ¥2 3 7 ¥ ; |£| = ¥2 3 7 ¥
6 −1 4 6 −1 4
= 1 12 + 7 − 5 8 − 42 − 9 −2 − 18
= 1 19 − 5 −34 − 9 −20
= 19 + 170 + 180 ; = 369
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3 −1 4 1
Adjoins of a square Matrix:
Eg. A = ¤ ¤ ; adj a = ¤ ¤
2 4 −2 3
3 7 2 3
1 5 −9
−1 4 6 − 1
Eg. A = ¥2 3 7 ¥ ; Aij = > >
5 − 9 1 5
6 −1 4
3 7 2 3
12 + 7 42 − 8 −2 − 18
= ƒ 9 − 20 4 + 54 30 + 1 ƒ
35 + 18 −18 − 7 3 − 10
19 34 −20
= ¥−11 58 31 ¥
53 −25 −7
19 −11 53
Adj A = (Aij)T
= ¥ 34 58 −25¥
−20 31 −7
£ = |¦| adj A ; Where |£| ≠ 0 (Condition for existence of inverse)

Inverse of a matrix :
i) A + B © = A© B © ii) AB © = B© BA©
Remarks :
iii) A adjA = adj A A = |A| I iv) AA ª = A ª A = I

v) AB ª = B ª A ª vi) If |A| = 0 then A is singular
If |£| ≠ 0 then A is non- singular
vii) a is a square matrix of order n |KA| = K |A| ; |Adj A| = |A|
Symmetric and skew symmetric matrices:
i) If A = A© , A is symmetric, ii) If A = −A© , A is skew symmetric

For a square matrix A
2 −1
Eg. A = ¤ ¤ A = AT
−1 2
2 −1
AT = ¤ ¤A is symmetric
−1 2
i) For any square matrix A 7A = A + A© + A − A© 9

Remarks:
) )
A AT, AT A are symmetric matrix
iii) If A and B are skew symmetric A + B is also skew symmetric

ii) If A and B are symmetric A+B is also symmetric
iv) If A and B are symmetric AB is also symmetric if AB = BA (Commutative)

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Conjugate of a Matrix:
The matrix obtained from any given matrix A on replacing its elements by the
denoted by A
corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called the conjugate of A and is
4 + 3R 7 − 3R ¬ = 74 − 3R 7 + 3R
Eg : A = 7 9 ; A 9
R 4 −R −4
¬)T = 74 − 3R −R 9
7 + 3R 4
A* = (A
Hermition and Hermition Matrices:
ii) If A* = −A , A is skew Hermition

For a square matrix A i) if A* = A , A is Hermition,
3 4 + 5R ¬ 3 4 − 5R
Eg. A = 7 9 ;A=7 9
4 − 5R 6 4 + 5R 6
¬ )T ; = 7 3 4 + 5R
9 =A
4 − 5R 6
A* = (A
A is Hemition
Remarks:
i) If A and B are hermition then AB + BA is hermition and AB – BA and skew
hermition
ii) If A is a square matrix A + A*, A* A are hermition and A – A* is skew
hermition.
Orthogonal and unitary matrices:
A is a square matrix and said to be orthogonal if A AT = I
A is a square matrix and said to be unitary if AA* = I
Remarks:
If A and B are orthogonal matrices of the same order then AB and BA are also
orthogonal.
If A and B are unitary matrices of the same order then AB and BA are also
unitary.
If A is orthogonal then AT and A-I are also unitary.
A real matrix is unitary if it is orthogonal.
3 −1 3 −1
Rank of a Matrix:
Find the rank of 7 9 ; |£| = 7 9; = 6 − 6 ; = 0
−6 2 −6 2
If |£| = 0 ⟹ Rank of A is 1 (Only for 2 x 2 matrix.
1 3 1 3
Find the rank of 7 9 ; |£| = 7 9; = −2 − 21; −23 ≠ 0
7 −2 7 −2
If |£| ≠ 0 ⟹ Rank of A is 2 (Only for 2 x 2 matrix.
3 −1 2 1 −1 2
Find the rank of •−6 2 −4ž ; ~ •−2 2 −4ž a → °
¯
r
−3 1 −2 −1 1 −2
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1 −1 2 R2 = R2 + 2R1
•0 0 0 ž R3 – R3 + R1
0 0 0
1 2 −1 3
No. of non – zero rows are 1 Rank of A is 1
Find the rank of A = •3 −1 2 1ž ;

2 −2 3 2
1 2 −1 3
~ •0 −7 5 −8ž R3 – R3 - 2R1
R2 = R2 - 3R1
0 −6 5 −4
1 2 −1 3
~ •0 −7 5 −8ž R3 – 7R3 - 6R2
0 0 5 20
Rank of A is 3
A is a square matrix, then |£ − ±²| is called the characteristic polynomial of A

Characteristic equation of a matrix:
|£ − ±²| = 0 is called the characteristic equation.

Roots of |£ − ±² | = 0 are called characteristic roots or Eigen Values.
If A is a square matrix the characteristic equation of A and AT are identical.
If A and B are two non – singular matrices AB and BA have the same
characteristics equation.
The characteristics roots of a Hermition matrix are real.
The characteristics roots of a real symmetric matrix are real.
„± = 1, −1 R› |±| = 1…
The characteristics roots of an orthogonal matrix are of unit modules
The characteristic roots of unitary matrices are of unit modules.
3 2
0 is the characteristic roots of a singular matrix.
Eg. Find the Eigen Values of 79
2 3
3 2 |A 3−± 2
A=7 9 ; − λI| = 0 ; 7 9=0
2 3 2 3−±
9 − 3λ − 3λ + λ) − 4 = 0 ; λ) − 6λ + 5 = 0 (Which is characteristic
λ − 1 λ − 5 = 0 ; λ = 1, 5 (5 +1 = 6 Equal sum of diagonal elements)

equation of A)
Eigen Values are 1, 5 (Characteristic roots)
Let P(λ = |A − λI| be the characteristic polynomial of a square matrix A

Cayley – Hamilton Theorem:
then P(A) = 0
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1 2 1−± 2
Example:
A=7 9 ; |A − λI| = 7 9
3 4 3 4−±
4 − 4λ − λ + λ) − 6 ; λ) − 5λ − 2
By Cayley Hamilton Theorem A2 – 5A – 2I = 0
1 − t ) y µµ − 2ty µ + P P + 1 y = 0. Where P is a real number is called a

Legendre polynomial and Legendre Equation:
Solution Pn(t) of the Legendre equation 1 − t ) y µµ − 2ty µ + n n + 1 y =0

Legendre equation of order P.
t) − 1
is called the Legendre Polynomial. Pn(1) = 1
z·
)· ! z¹·
Legendre polynomial Pn(t) =
t) − 1 =t
z
P0(t) = 1 ; P1(t) = )° ! z¹
P2(t) = )$ )! z¹$ t ) − 1 = ; = ) 3t ) − 1
z$ ) )¹$ –
º
tr − 1 = 24 5t r − 3t ; = 5t r − 3t
z» r
)» r! z¹» º ¼ )
P3(t) =
If Pn is a Legendre polynomial | ½X) d wd =

)
)Xm
If Pn(t) and Pm(t) are Legendre polynomials | ½X ¾ w¾ = 0; Rc ¿ ≠ S
2
= Rc ¿ = S
2X +1
Hermite polynomial and Hermite equation:
− 2d + Sh = 0
“$† “†
“} $ “}
y µµ − 2xy µ + ny = 0
Hermite equation of order n is
Hn(x) = −1 › %› (
Solution Hn(x) to the Hermite equation is called the Hermite polynomial
X }$ “
À
}$
“} À
R Á€ d = 1 RR Á d = 2d RRR Á) d = 4d ) − 2
RF Ár d = 8d r − 12d F Á– d = 16d – − 48d ) + 12
X
7 9
)
−1 Ã S! d X )Ã
ÁX d = Â Ã
Ä! S − 2Ä ! 2
ÃÅ€
Generating function ›
Important Properties:
)Æ} Æ $
Ç
| Ç
Á¿ d ÁS d › }$
wd = 0
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ÁXm d = 2d ÁX d − ÁXµ d
ÁXµ d = 2X ÁX d
ÁXm d = 2d ÁX d − 2SÁX d
Ç
Gamma Functions:
i) Г (x) = |€ ¾ } › Æ w¾ ii) Г (1) =1 ; Г ! # = √È

)
iii) Г (x+1) = d Г (x) ; Г (n) = (n – 1) Г (n – 1) = (n – 1) !
É d, h = |€ ¾ } 1 − ¾ w¾
Beta Functions:
†
É d, h = É h, d
É d, h =
Г Г
Г m
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UNIT – II (PROBABILITY AND THEORY OF ERRORS)

Sample Space:
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called a sample
space.
Random
Sample Space n(s)
ËH, TÎ
Experiment
ËHH, HT, TH, TTÎ

Tossing a coin 2
Tossing three coins ËHHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTTÎ 8
Tossing two coins 4
Ë1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6Î
1,1 , 1,2 , 1,3 , 1,4 , 1,5 , 1,6
Rolling a dice 16
Ò Õ
Ð 2,1 , 2,2 , 2,3 , 2,4 , 2,5 , 2,6 Ð
Ð Ð
3,1 , 3,2 , 3,3 , 3,4 , 3,5 , 3,6
Ñ 4,1 , 4,2 , 4,3 , 4,4 , 4,5 , 4,6 Ô
Rolling 2 dice 36
Ð
Ð 5,1 , 5,2 , 5,3 , 5,4 , 5,5 , 5,6 ÐÐ
Ï 6,1 , 6,2 , 6,3 , 6,4 , 6,5 , 6,6 Ó
n(s) = 52 cards - Black (26), → Spade (13), Club (13)

Red – (26) →Heart (13), Diamond (13)
(King Queen, J Ace) – No. 2 to 10
if A∩ B =Ë Î
Two events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive (disjoint events)
X ¦ Ø/ÙÚÛy Ü Ý ‘Û‘ 1Ü/y ÚÞÛ ¹Ü ß

X × à . /‘¹áÝ Ø/ÙÚÛy Ü Ý ‘Û‘ á â
Probability of event A P(A) = ;
Problems:
In tossing a fair coin twice, find the probability of getting i) 2 heads ii) at least
S = ËHH, HT, TH, TTÎ n(s) = 4

1 head iii) at least 1 tail.
i) A = 2 heads (exactly 2 heads) ; A = ËHHÎ n(A) = 1 ; P(A) =

–
r
ii) B = at least 1 head (Number of heads 1 and more)
B = ËHH, HT, THÎ ; P(B) =
–
r
iii) C = at least I tail (Number of tail 1 and less)
B = ËHH, HT, THÎ ; P(C) =
–
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An integer is chosen from the first twenty natural numbers. What is the
S = Ë1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 … … … … . .20Î
probability that it is prime number?
A : Prime Number : A = Ë2, 3,5,7,11,13,17,19Î

n(s) = 20
;=
º )
)€ ä
B : Greater than 15 ; B = Ë16,17,18,19,20Î
P(A) =
;= –
ä
)€
P(B) =
C : Multiple of 6
r
C = Ë6,12,18Î ; P(C) =
)€
Two unbiased dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting i) a sum 8
ii) a doublet iii) a sum 8 or a doublet
n(s) = 36
ä
i) A : a sum 8 ; A = Ë 2,6 , 3,5 , 4,4 , 5,3 , 6,2 Î n(A) = 5 ; P(A) =
r¼
¼
ii) B : a doublet ; B = Ë 1,1 , 2,2 , 3,3 , 4,4, , 5,5, , 6,6 Î ; P(B) =
r¼
iii) P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩ å
= + − ;= ;=
ä ¼ € ä
r¼ r¼ r¼ r¼ º
From a well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards, one card is drawn at random.
Find the probability of getting i) a red card ii) an Ace card iii) a black king
iv) a spade or a Queen
; = )
)¼
n(s) = 52
ä)
i) A : A red card n(A) = 26 ; P(A) =
; =
–
ä) r
ii) B : An Ace card n(B) = 4 ; P(B) =
–
ä)
iii) C : A Black King n(C) = 1 ; P(C) =
P(D) = P(Spade) + P(Queen) – P(Spade ∩ Queen)

iv) D : A spade or a Queen
− 52 ; ä) ; =
4 4 ¼ –
= +
r
ä) 52 r
A bag contains 5 red balls and some blue balls. If the probability of drawing a
blue from the bag is thrice that of drawing a red ball, then find the number of
n(s) = 5 red balls + d blue balls ; = 5 + d

blue balls in the bag.
= 3! # ; d = 15
P (Blue Ball) = 3 P (Red Ball)
} ä
äm} äm}
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Find the probability that a leap year selected at random will have 53 Fridays?
n(s) = 366 days ; = 52 weeks + 2 days
Ë æES, çèS , çèS, éE› , éE›, ê›w , ê›w, éℎE , éℎE, \HR , \HR, æv¾ , æv¾, æESÎ
S1 =
)
ë
P(S1) =
¬ iii) P(í
find i) P(B) ii) P(A∩ ì ¬∩ì
¬
If P(A) = 0.36 P(A or B) = 0.90 and P(A and B) = 0.25
P(A) = 0.36 ; P(A or B) = P(A∪B) = 0.90 ; P(A and B) = P(A∩B) = 0.25

i) P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B) ;
0.90 = 0.63 + P(B) – 0.25
¬ = P(A) – P(A∩B) ; = 0.36 – 0.25; 0.11

ii) P(A∩ B
P(B) = 0.79
iii) P(A¬∩B ¬ = P ïïïïïïï

A ∪ B ; 1 – P(A∪B) ; = 0.10
¬ ), P(A∪B), P(A∩ ì
¬ and P(í ¬∩ì
If A an dB are mutually executive events P(A) = 0.25 and P(B) = 0.44.
Find P(í
¬) = 1 – P(A) ; 1 – 0.28 ; = 0.72

Mutually exclusive P(A∩B) = 0 ; P(A) = 0.25 and P(B) = 0.44
P(A
P(A∩ B ¬ = P(A) = 0.23 ; P(A ¬ ∩ B = P(B) = 0.44

P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) ; = 0.28 + 0.44 ; = 0.72
The probability that a girl will get an admission in IIT is 0.16 the probability
that she will get an admission in Government Medical College is 0.24, and
the probability that she will get both is 0.11. Find the probability that i) She
will get at least one of the two seats ii) She will get only one of the 2 seats.
P(A) = 0.16, P(B) = 0.24, P(A∩B) = 0.11
= P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩ B ; 0.16 + 0.24 – 0.11 ; = 0.29

i) P (atleast one of the seats) = P(A∪B)
¬ + P(A
= P(A∩ B ¬ ∩ B ; = P(A) – P(A∩ B +P(B) – P(A∩ B
ii) P(Only one of the two seats)
= 0.16 – 0.11 + 0.14 – 0.11 ; = 0.18
If A and B are independent events P(A∩ B = P(A) P(B)

Notes :
If A and B are independent events ⟹ £̅ and åï ; ⟹ £̅ and å ; ⟹ £ and åï
Conditional probability by ½ ! # = ;½! # =

are also independent.
¦ ò ¦∩ñ ñ ò ¦∩ñ
ñ ò ñ ¦ ò ¦
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If A and B are independent ó ! # = P(A) ; ó ! # = P(B)

ô õ
õ ô
The probability mass function P(X = d = Sa} ö } ÷X } where d= 0, 1, ……

Binomial Distribution:
Here n – Number of trial ; p – Probability of success for 1 trial

Q – Probability of failure for 1 trial
d - Number of success required

P +q = 1 ; q = 1 – p or p = 1 – q
Mean =np ; variance = npq ; SD = pSö÷

Discovered by James Bernoulli
Bernoulli Trials:
i) Any trial, results in a success or a failure
ii) There are finite number of trials which are independent
iii) The probability of success is same in each trial
Problems:
Let X be a binomially distributed variable with mean 2 and standard deviation
ø
√ù
. Find n
Mean np = 2 ………….. (1)
) –
SD pSö÷ =
√r r
; npq = ……….(2)
q = ⟹ ½ =
ü
)
= =
) Xúû »
Xú ) r r
Since np = 2; ⟹ Sx = 2 ; n = 6
r
Probability function: ½ X = d = Sa} ÷ X }
} ) ¼ }
= 6Ž} ! # ! #
r r
½ X = d = Sa} ö } ÷ X }
; = 5a} ö } ÷ ä }
In a Binomial distribution if n = 5 and P(X =3) = 2P(X=2) then find P.
5ar ½r ÷ ) = 2 5a) ½) ÷ r ; P = 2q
P(X = 3) = 2 P(X = 2)
½ = 2 1− P) ; P = 2 – 2P ; 3P = 2 ⟹ P =
(p+q = 1)
)
r
A die is thrown 64 times and getting an even number is considered as a

success. Find the mean and variance.
;P= ;⟹q=
r
n = 64
¼ ) )
P (Success) = P (Even number) ; = (p+q = 1)
)
Mean = np ; = 64 x ; = 32
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) )
Variance = npq ; = 64 x x ; = 16
SD = √’vH = 4
7 coins are tossed simultaneously what is the probability of getting a) exactly

four heads b) atleast 2 heads
N = 7 (Trial)
)
P (Success) = P (head) =
) )
P= ,q=
) ë } ë
½ X = d = Sa} ö } ÷ X }
; = 7a} !)# !)# ; = 7a} !)#
ë
i) P (Exactly 4 heads) = P (X =4)
= 7a– ! # ; = x
ë ¼ ä – rä
) – r ) )º )º
;=
ë ë
ii) P (atleast 2 heads) = P(X = 2,3,4,5,6,7)
= 1 – P(X = 0, 1) ; = 1 - š7Ž€ ! # + 7Ž ! # œ ; = 1 −
rä
) ) )º
(8) ;
ä
¼
=
Poisson distribution:
P(X= d = ; Here ± = np
þ
}!
n – Number of trial ; p – Probability of success for 1 trial
q – Probability of failure for 1 trial
Mean = ± = np ; Variance = ± = np ; SD = √±
q – 1 in Poisson dist ; where n is large
Mean = Variance (in Poisson distribution)
Problems:
= ø. ø (Mean)
If the mean of the Poisson distribution is 2.25 then standard deviation is
SD = √± ; =
))ä ä$ ä
€€ €$ €
;= ; SD = ; = 1.5
In a Poisson distribution if P(X =2) = P(X=3) then find
P(X= d =
þ
}!
; P(X =2) = P(X=3)
= = ;±=3
þ $ þ » $ »
)! r! )! r!
;
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Let X has a Poisson distribution with mean 4. Find P(X = 0) if ( = . ù
± = 4 ; P(X= d = ; P(X= 0 =
þ þ ü– þ ü–
}! }! €!
; =
= ; = 0.0183
€.€ ºr
20% of the items produced in a factory are found to be defective. Find the
defective. ( ø = . ù ù
probability that in a sample of 10 items chosen at random exactly 2 will be
; n = 10 ; ± = np = 2
)€
€€
P=
P(X= d =
þ þ $)
}! }!
; =
P (Exactly 2) = P(X = 2)
;=
þ $) €. rär –
; = 0.2706
)! )
=
Normal Distribution:
A continuous random variable X is said to follow a normal distribution with
$
parameter μ and σ if the probability function is c d = › /)! #
√)
Properties of Normal Distribution:
It is symmetrical about the line X = μ (mean)

The normal curve is bell shaped
mean = median = mode = μ

The height of the normal curve is maximum at X = μ and
√)
is the maximum
height.
The points of inflection are at X = μ ± σ

The normal curve is asymptotic to the base line
Since the curve is symmetrical about X = μ the skewness is zero.
P μ−σ<d < + = 0.6826

Area property
P μ − 2σ < d < + 2 = 0.9544

P μ − 3σ < d < + 3 = 0.9973
A normal distribution is a close approximation to the binomial distribution
It is also a limiting form of a Poisson distribution is as λ → ∞ Poisson

when n is very large and P is close to ½ .(ie) Neither P nor q is so small.
β = 0 and β) = 3
distribution tende to normal distribution.
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Standard normal distribution:

P.d.f ϕ z = e
° $
$
√)—
The formula that enables us to change from the d scale to the z – scale
Mean and variance of normal distribution are μ and σ)

Z=
Mean and variance of standard normal distribution are 0 and 1
β) = 3, γ) = 0 then the curve is mesokurtic

Important Notes:
β) < 3, γ) < 0 then the curve is Plabykurtic

β) > 3, γ) > 0 then the curve is Leptokurtic
–
ä
Mean deviation about mean =
)
r
Quartile deviation about mean =
Ç Ç
Q. D : M.D : S.D = 10 : 12 : 15
€
| Ç
c d wd = 1 and | Ç
c d wd = 0.5 ; |€ c d wd = 0.5
Problems:
ø
The random variable X follows normal distribution ! " = #

"
/ø! #
ø
then find C.
$ $
› ; = C›
°
/)! # /)! #
$
√)
√) ä√)
= 100 ; =5 ;C= ;=
Mean = 100 ; SD =5
=%
!
If in a Poisson distribution P(X = 0) = K then the variance is
› = K ; › = & ; λ = log &
In a binomial distribution mean is 4 and variance 3 fine its mode.
= ;÷ = ; ⟹ ½ =
Xúû r r
np = 4, npq = 3
Xú – – –
np = 4 ⟹ S x 4
1
= 4 ; n = 16
mode = integral part of (n+1)P
= 4.25 (not an integer)
=4
If (n+1)P is an integer mode = (n+1)P and (n+1)P – 1
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If ± is an integer mode = ± and ± − 1

Mode of Poisson distribution:
If ± is an not an integer mode = „±…
The equation of straight line trend h = v + •d (Line of best fit)

Principle of least squares:
Normal equations are na + b∑ d = ∑ h

a∑ d + • ∑ d ) = ∑ dh
Given are ∑ d = 15, ∑ h = 204, ∑ dh = 748 and ∑ d ) = 55 the required

straight line fitted for the data is
Assume a = 0 ⟹ b = 13.6 ; y = a + bd ; y = 13.6

From normal equation na + 15b = 204 ; 15a + 55b = 748
d 1 2 3 4 6 8
Fir a straight line
h 2.4 3 3.6 4 5 6
∑ d = 24 , ∑ h = 24 , ∑ dh = 113.2 , ∑ d ) = 130, n = 6
Normal equation: 6a + 24b = 24 ; 24a + 130b = 113.2
The line of best fit y = a + bd ; h = 1.96 + 0.506 d

a = 1.96 b = 0.506
Regression line of h on d : h − hï = ɤ d − d̅
†
Regression Lines:
}
Regression line of d on h : d − d̅ = ɤ h − hï
}
†
The line h = v + •d is called the line of regression of h on d when satisfies
the residual condition s = E „ h − v − •d ) … is minimum.
The line d = v + •h is called the line of regression of d on h when satisfies
the residual condition s = E „ d − v − •h ) … is minimum.
Regression coefficient of h on d : •†} = ɤ
†
}
Regression coefficient of d on h : •}† = ɤ
}
†
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Correlation coefficient between X and Y, ɤ =

Correlation:
ÝÜ1 ,

Limits (Range) −1 to 1
Two independent variables uncorrelated ɤ = 0
Regression line of h on d ⟹ h = vd + •
Regression line of d on h ⟹ d = Žh + w
Here d̅ = ; hï = ; Here ɤ = √ac
)Œ m “ *“ m )
*Œ *Œ
For the variable d and h, the regression equations are as 7d − 3h − 18 = 0
and 4d − h − 11 = 0.
i) Find the arithmetic means of d and h ii ) Find correlation coefficient
7d − 3h − 18 ……………….. (1) ; 4d − h − 11 ……………….. (2)
Solving 1 and 2 d = 3, h = 1
Arithmetic means d̅ , hï = (3, 1)
Consider 1 as regression line of h on d ; 7d − 3h − 18 = 0
h = d − 6
ë
h = vd + •
r
Here v =
7
3
Consider 1 as regression line of d on h ; 4d − h − 11 = 0
d = h − ; Here Ž =
1
d = Žh + w
– – 4
Now ɤ = √ac ; = x
ë
r –
ɤ= =
√ë √ë
√ ) )√r
[ɤ must be <1]
Monomial expression : 7, 3v, 5dh, 75v•

Hints:
Binomial expression : 7 + 3v• , v + 5•, d + 2h

Trinomial expression : v + 2• + 3Ž, 5d − 2h + 7
GROUP THEORY:
Group Definition:
A non – empty set G, together with an operation * (ie) (G, *) is said to be a
Closure axiom : a, b ∈ G ⟹ a * b ∈ G
group if it satisfies the following axioms.
Identify axiom : There exists an identify element e ∈ G such that

Associative axiom : V a, b, c∈ G ; a * (b*c) = (a*b) *c
Inverse axiom : : V a∈ G there exists an element a-1∈ G such that

a*e=e*a=a
a * a-1 = a-1*a = e
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Abelian group:
V a, b∈ G ⟹ a * b = b * a
A group (G, *) is said to be abelian if it satisfies commutative property.
Semi group: G satisfies only closure and Associative axiom.

Monrid : G satisfies closure, Associative and identify axiom.
Order of a group: Number of distinct elements in a group is called the order of
Eg: G = Ë1, −1Î O (G) = 2 ; G = Ë1, +, +) Î O (G) = 3 ;

a group and it denoted by 0 (G)
G = Ë1, −1, R, −RÎ O (G) = 4

Important Results:
(N, +) is a semi group , (N,°) is a monoid
(E, +) is a group , (E,°) is a Semi group
(z, +) is a group , (z,°) is a monoid
(Q, +) is a group , (Q,°) is a groip
(R, +) is a group , (R,°) is a monoid
(Q − Ë0Î, °) is a group ; (R − Ë0Î, °) is a group ; (C − Ë0Î, °) is a group

(c, +) is a group , (c,°) is a monoid
N – set of natural numbers Ë1,2,3, … . Î

Hints:
E – set of even numbers Ë… , −2, 0 , 2, … . Î

J – set of integers Ë… . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, … . Î
Q – set of Rational numbers
R – set of Real numbers
C – set of complex numbers
Oder of an element:
Let (G, *) be a group. If a∈ G then order of a is the smallest positive integer n
satisfies an = e
Find the order of each element of the group G = Ë1, +, +) Î
Order of 1 is 1 ; order of + is 3 ; order of + ) is 3

Here e = 1 (multiplication)
Find the order of each element of the group G = Ë1, −1, R, −RÎ with respect to
Here e = 1 ; Order of 1 is 1 ; Order of −1 is 2 ; Order of R is 4 ;

multiplication.
Order of −R is 4
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(z6, +6) in the group 0(4) is here e = 0 ; 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 = 0

(z5, − Ë0Î, °5 in the group 0 (3) is here e = 1 ; 3x3x3x3x = 81 ; 0(3) = 4
(z4, +6) in the group 0(0) order of identify elements is = 1
(z7, − Ë0Î, °7 in the group 0 (1) is 0(1) = 1
(z, *) is an infinite abelian group where * is defined as a*b = a +b – 2 then
find the identify element of (z, *) and inverse of a∈z.
ii) To find inverse : Det. a * a-1 = e ; a * a-1 – 2 = 2 ;

i) To find identify element ; Det. a*e = a ; a + e – z = a ; e = 2
a-1 = 2 − v + 2 ; a-1 = 4 − v
d d
The set G of all matrices of the from ! # where d ∈ . − Ë0Î is a group
d d
d d › ›
i) To find identify element Let A = ! #. Det AE = A ; E = ! #
under matrix multiplication find identify and inverse.
d d › ›
2d› 2d› d d
7 9=7 9 ; 2d› = d ; › = ) ⟹ E = /) )
0
2d› 2d› d d
) )
= 7d d
d d
ii) To find inverse
Def. AA-1 = E A = ! # £ 9
d d d d
1 1
72dd 2dd 9 = 12 22
2dd 2dd 1 1
2 2
2dd =
)
;d =
–}
⟹£ = /–} –}
0
–} –}
Properties of a group:
The identify element of a group is unique
The identify element is it own inverse › = ›

The inverse element of a group is unique
v =v
v∗• = • ∗v
For abelian group v ∗ • =v ∗•
Homomorphism : Let (G,0) and (] µ ,∗ be two groups then a mapping
c ∶ ] → ] µ is called a homomorphism if c d°h = c d ∗ c h
The homomorphism f is called isomorphism if. f is one – one and onto.
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UNIT – III (CLASSICAL MECHANICS)

GENERALIZED CO – ORDINATES:
Constrains introduce two types of difficulties in the solution of mechanical
problems. In the case of Holonomic Constrains the first difficulty is solved by
the introduction of Generalized Co-Ordinates.
Assuming that there is no constrains the total number of coordinates
necessary to specify a system are 3N.
In the case of constrains, the number of coordinates will be less than 3N.
(The number of independent of variables necessary to specify the position of
every particle in the system is known as generalized co-ordinates.)
The generalized co-ordinates are denoted by q1, q2, q3, ….qf.
The degrees of freedom f = 3N – K.
The number of generalized coordinates is equal to the number of degrees of
freedom.
If there is no constraint the no. of dimension involved in the motion is equal to
the number of degrees of freedom.
In generalized coordinates each q’s will be function of Cartesian co-ordinates
and viceversa.
The use of generalized coordinates reduced the number of variables to
specify the system.
In order to choose a suitable set of generalized co-ordinates in a given
problem, we must take into account the following conditions.
i) Their values determine the configuration of the system
ii) They must be varied arbitrarily and independently of each other, without
violating the constraints on the system.
iii) There is no uniqueness in the choice of generalized coordinates. Then they
must simplify mathematical calculation without affecting informative and
enlightening solution.
SMALLEST POSSIBLE NUMBER OF VARIABLES: (GENERALIZED CO – ORDINATES)
The number of coordinates satisfying the first two conditions is the number of
degrees of freedom.
In rigid body motion, the generalized coordinates should be choosen the
conventional orthogonal position coordinates or may be angle coordinates.
In double pendulum, the amplitudes in a Fourier series expansion of ri may
be used as generalized coordinates.
Unlike Cartesian coordinates, generalized coordinates are not divided into
three convenient groups of coordinates.
When a parfticle moves in a plane it may be described by Cartesian
coordinates x , y or the spherical polar coordinates r,θ
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6
x = q1 , y = q2 (or) q1 = r = px ) + y) , q2 = 5 = tan-1
"
spherical coordinates r,θ, ϕ.

When the plan involves some spherical symmetry, it is suitable to use
‰ †
q1 = r = px) + y ) + z ) ; q2 = θ = cot-1 ; q3 = ϕ = tan-1
px2 +y 2 }
The Cartesian coordinates can be expressed as functions of generalized
coordinates and time.
In simple pendulum, the generalized coordinate used is θ alone.

xi = xi (q1, q2, q3 …. qn , t); yi = yi (q1, q2, q3 …. qn , t); zi = zi (q1, q2, q3 …. qn , t)
In Fly – wheel, the generalized coordinate used is θ alone.
used are θ, ϕ.
In the case of particles on the surface of sphere the generalized coordinate
In the hydrogen molecule x y, z and ϕ, θ generalized coordinates are used.

In beads of an abacus, the generalized coordinates x is used.
In the case of particles moving on inside surface of the generalized
r;
coordinates used are r,θ
The generalized displacement 7H8 = ∑<Å D÷= = 7÷=

9 Û
ˆû:
3?
The generalized velocity for an unconstrained system is H>8 = ∑c=1 R ÷> = + R
DH D÷
D÷j D¾
3?
The generalized velocity for an constrained system is H>8 = ∑c=1 R ÷> = + R
DH DH
D÷j D¾
If a generalized coordinate has the dimensions of momentum the generalized
velocity will have the dimensions of force. ML2T-2
ˆ@
= mjH> which is called generalized linear
Û>
The generalized momentum pr =
= mjH ) N> which is called generalized

ˆ@
momentum.
Â>
The generalized momentum pθ =
DH
angular momentum. ML2T-2
\. R
) 8 D÷j
Generalized force
D’ – ALEMBERTS PRINCIPLE:
∑ \8* . DH8 = 0.
D’ – Alembert’s principle is based on the principle of virtual work is
The system is subjected to an infinitesimal displacement consistent unit the

forces constraints imposed on the system at the given time.
The change in the configuration of the system is not associated with a change
in time “t”. (ie) there is no actual displacement during which forces and
constraints may change and hence the displacement is termed as virtual
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displacement.
Suppose the system is in equilibrium (ie) the total force on every particle is
vanish. ∑ \8 . DH8 = 0.
zero the work done by this force in a small virtual displacement will
of constraints (f).(ie) Fi= \8* + c8 . Fi + → reversal effective force.

The total force of system is expressed as the sum of applied force and forces
A system of particles is in equilibrium only if the total virtual work of the actual
The condition for equilibrium of a system is ∑ \8* . DH8 = 0.

(or) applied force is zero. This is known as principle of virtual work.
reversed forces (−ö>8 ). −ö>8 → reversed force of inertia.

To interpret the equilibrium of the system, D’- Alembert’s adopted an idea of a
action of a force equal to the actual force plus reversed effective force ö>8 .
D’ – Alembert conserved that a system will remain in equilibrium under the
Fi −ö>8 = 0
D’ – Alembert’s principle is ∑ \8 − ö>8 . DH8 = 0
LAGRANGIAN EQUATION OF MOTION:
A system of particles which requires n (or) f independent generalized
coordinates (or degrees of freedom) to specify the states of its particles.
Qj = ∑8
The coordinate transformation equations are ri = ri (q1, q2, q3…..qn, t)
Û9
ˆû:
is called the component of the generalized force.
The position q coordinates q’s need not have the dimension of length.
of force but is necessary that the product Qj D÷= must have the dimension of
The component of the generalized force Q’s is not necessary have dimension
work.
B C − ˆû = Do
“ ˆ@ ˆ@
“Æ ˆû> : :
The general form of the Lagrangian’s equation is
This equation has been derived for a system involving no constraints.
This equation also holds for the system involving holonomic constraints,
because in the case of “System is the equations of constraints may be used
to minimize the degree of freedom and the generalized coordinates to specify
the state of the particle of the system.
If the system is conservative, all the forces using the system can be derived
from a potential function V. It is purely dependent on coordinates.
(or) š B C− œ=0
“ ˆ @ ” ˆ @ ”
Fi −∇8 ’ = −
8
yE “Æ ˆû> : ˆû:
Lagrange’s equation of motion for the conservative system is
š B C− œ=0
“ ˆF ˆF
“Æ ˆû> : ˆû:
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The Lagrangian L = T – V. L is known as Lagrangian function (or) Langrangian

difference between total kinetic and potential energy.
Lagrangian is defined as the difference between the total kinetic and
potential energies of the system.
If potentials are velocity dependent called generalized potentials.
For non – conservative system, Lagrangian L = T – U (qj÷> = ) called generalized

NON – CONSERVATIVE SYSTEM:
potential.
Lagrangian equation of motion for non – conservative system
B C − ˆû = Do
“ ˆF ˆF
“Æ ˆû>: :
Lagrangian for the case of electromagnetic forces on moving charges is an
example of non – conservative system.
If a system involves frictions forces (or) in general dissipative forces, such a
system can be described in terms of extended Lagrangian formulation.
\8“ = − g= X> = (or) \8“ ∝ g= X> =

Frictional forces are found to be proportional to the velocity of the particle
dissipation function gives as f = ∑= g= X> =)

This frictional forces are defined interms of a new quantity called Rayleigh
)
Lagrangian equation for a systems containing dissipative force is,
B C − ˆû + ˆû> = 0
“ ˆF ˆF ˆ<
“Æ ˆû> : : :
APPLICATIONS OF LAGRANGIAN EQUATION:
Lagrangian equations are frequently chosen as the fundamentals equations
of classical mechanics in place of Newton’s law.
F = q 7H + V x B 9
In an electromagnetic field the force on a particle of charge q is given by
E = −∇ϕ −
ˆ¦
The electric field in terms of scalar and vector potential is
Œ ˆÆ
The Lagrangian in an electromagnetic field will be L = T – U = T – qϕ +
Œ
V. A
homogeneous quadratic function of velocities. Kinetic Energy = ∑=o ÷=o ÷> = ÷> o .
If the equations of transformation do not involve time then kinetic Energy is a
This is true only iuf transformation equations do not contain time explicitly.
For holonomic seleronomous system, kinetic energy is always a
homogeneous quadratic from in the generalized velocities.
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1. LINEAR HARMONIC OSCILLATOR (LHO) [1 D]:
! # − ˆ} = 0
Lagrangian equation of motion for one dimension (say x) can be written as
“ ˆF ˆF
“Æ ˆ}>
Kinetic energy one dimension LHO system is T = md> )
)
Potential energy of one dimension LHO system is V = − | −gd wd = gd ) + Ž
)
Lagrangian for one dimensional LHO is given as L = md> − gd (or) ) 1 2

) 2
L=T–V
mdI + kx = 0 (or) it may also be written as dI + +) d = 0 with + is the frequency

The Lagrangian equation of motion for one dimensional LHO is given as
of oscillation + − ; +) =
o o
J J
2. SIMPLE PENDULUM:
! # − Â = 0
The Lagrangian equation of motion for simple pendulum is given by
“ ˆF ˆF
“Æ Â>
Kinetic energy of the simple pendulum is T = ¿b ) N> )
)
¿b) N> ) + mg cosθ

Potential energy of the simple pendulum is v = – mg cosθ
)
The Lagrangian “L” for simple pendulum is L =
θI = − QRSN (or) θI + QRSN = 0

K K
The Lagrange’s equation of motion for simple pendulum is written as
L L
For small angular displacement QRSN = N, then Lagrangian equation of motion
is θI + N = 0
K
L
The period of oscillation for the SHM of a simple pendulum T = 2È

L
K
The solution of the Lagranges equation of motion is given by
N = N€ QRS B ¾ + YC
K
L
3. SPHERICAL PENDULUM:
In simple pendulum the bob moves on a circle, but a pendulum in which the
bob is constrained to move on a sphere rather than on a circle is called
The generalized coordinates used in spherical pendulum are θ and ϕ

spherical pendulum.
The kinetic energy of the bob is T = ¿H ) θ> ) + sin2θϕ> ) )

)
¿H ) θ> ) + sin2θϕ> ) ) − mgrcosθ.

The potential energy of the bob is v = mgrcosθ.
)
The Lagrangian for spherical pendulum L =
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! # − Â = 0 and “Æ !ˆx> # − ˆx = 0
The Lagrangian equation for such a system can be written as
“ ˆF ˆF “ ˆF ˆF
“Æ Â>
¿H ) NI ) − ¿H ) QRSN ŽèQNY> ) − ¿uH QRSN = 0 and %QRS ) Nϕ> ( = 0

Lagrange’s equation of motion for its spherical pendulum is given as
“
“Æ
4. ISOTROPIC OSCILLATOR (IN 3D):
An isotropic oscillator can be considered as the vibrating particle that is acted
upon by a force directed always towards or away from the equilibrium
position.
The magnitude of which is varies linear by with the distance from the
equilibrium position.
The kinetic energy of an isotropic oscillator is T = ¿ d> ) + h> ) + i> )

(a) Cartesian Coordinates (in 3D):
)
K d) + h) + i)
)
The potential energy is V =
L = ¿ d> ) + h> ) + i> ) − K d ) + h ) + i )

The Lagrangian for an isotropic oscillator is given as
) )
coordinate is given by ¿d I + gd = 0 ; ¿h I + gh = 0 ; ¿i I + gi = 0
The Lagrange’s equation of motion for an isotropic oscillator in Cartesian
The kinetic energy of the particle is T = ¿%H> ) + H ) N> ) + QRS) NY> ) (

(b)Polar Coordinates:
)
K H)
)
The potential energy is V =
L = ¿%H> ) + H ) N> ) + QRS) NY> ) ( − K H )

The Lagrangian for an isotropic oscillator in polar coordinates is
) )
coordinates are ¿HI − ¿HN> ) − ¿HQRS) NY> ) + gH = 0

Lagrange’s equation of motion for an 3D, isotropic oscillator in Polar
%¿H ) N> ( − ¿H ) QRSN ŽèQNY> = 0 ; %¿H ) QRSNY> ( = 0

“ “
“Æ “Æ
5. PARTICLE MOVING ON THE SURFACE OF EARTH:
The Lagrange’s equation of particle moving on the surface of the earth can be
Here the generalized coordinates used are N and ϕ

find using spherical polar coordinates.
The kinetic energy of the particle is T = ¿H ) %N> ) + QRS) NY> ) (

)
V = H H, N, Y
The potential energy will be a function of the particles coordinates then
L = ¿H ) %N> ) + QRS) NY> ) ( − H H, N, Y

The Lagrangian for a particle moving on the surface will be
)
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are ¿H ) NI − ¿H ) QRSN ŽèQNY> ) + =0;

The Lagrange’s equation of motion for a particle moving on the earth surface
Û
Â
¿H ) QRS) NY + 2¿H QRSN ŽèQN N> Y> + = 0 ; L = ¿%H> ) H ) N> ) ( +
Û o
Â ) U
6. PARTICLE MOVING UNDER A CENTRAL FORCE:
Central force is that force which is always directed away or towards a fixed
centre and the magnitudes of which is a function of the distance from the
¿%H> ) H ) N> ) (
fixed centre.
)
The kinetic energy of the particle is T =
o
The potential energy V = −
U
L = ¿%H> ) H ) N> ) ( +
The Lagrangian for the particle moving in a centre force is
o
) U
of the central force is ¿HI − ¿HN> ) + = 0 ; 2¿HHN> + ¿H> ) NI = 0

The Lagrangian equation of motion for a particle moving under the influence
o
U$
7. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT:
The Lagrangian for an electrical circuit consisting of finite L, c, e is expressed
is LC = TM - VE
TM is the magnetic energy of the electrical circuit which is analogous to the
kinetic energy of the mechanical system.
VE is the electrical energy of the electrical circuit which is analogous to the
potential energy of the mechanical system.
The Lagrangian equation of motion for an electrical circuit can be written as
B M C − ˆûM = D=
“ ˆF ˆF
“Æ ˆû> : :
If the system is free then D= = 0 ; B MC − ˆûM = 0

“ ˆF ˆF
“Æ ˆû> : :
8. COMPOUND PENDULUM:
A rigid body capable of oscillating in a vertical plane abort a fixed horizontal
The kinetic energy of the rigid body is T = Iθ> )

axis is called a compound pendulum.
)
The potential energy is V = −¿ub ŽèQN
Iθ> ) + ¿ub ŽèQN
)
The Lagrangian for compound pendulum is L =
θI + ª QRSN = 0, when N is small then QRSN = N, θI + N N = 0

JKL JKL
The Lagrangian equation of motion used in compound pendulum is
The period of oscillation of the compound pendulum is T = 2È

N
JKL
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The moment of inertia of compound pendulum is I = ¿g ) + ¿b)

9. ATWOOD’S MACHINE:
Atwood machine is thermionic conservative system with one degree of
¿ + ¿) d> )
freedom. If the pulley is frictionless constrains are seleronomic.
)
The potential energy V = ¿ − ¿) ud + ’€
The kinetic energy of the system is T =
The Lagrangian for the system is L =

)
¿ + ¿) d> ) − ¿ − ¿) ud + ’€
The Lagrangian equation of motion for the Atwood Machine is "I =
O Oø
O mOø
.g
In this case constraints is time dependent given by the relation θ> = +

10. BEAD SLIDING ON A UNIFORMLY ROTATING WIRE IN A FORCE FREE SPACE:
The kinetic energy is T = ¿„H> + H ) + ) …

)
The Lagrange’s equation of motion in this case will be ¿HI − ¿HN> ) = 0 (or)
HI = H+)
This shows that the bead moves outwards because of centripetal
acceleration.
move under the action of their gravitational interaction is dI ) =

PJ°
The Lagrangian equation of motion of two particles of masses m1 and m2
}$
LAGRANGIAN FORMULATION OF CONSERVATION THEOREMS:
If the lagrangian of a system is not the function of a given coordinates qk,
½= = ˆû> is termed as generalized momentum, thus ½= =constant , which

then the coordinate qk is said to be cyclic (or) ignorable.
ˆF
:
means that the generalized momentum conjugate to a cyclic coordinate is
conserved.
Conservation of linear momentum states that of a given component of the
total applied force vanishes the corresponding component of the linear
½o .n.L = constant. Thus the conservation theorem angular momentum states

momentum is conserved.
that if the rotation coordibnate qk is cyclic (ie) if the component of applied

torque along the axis of rotation vanishes, then the component of total
angular momentum along the axis of rotation is conserved.
Energy conservation theorem states that if the Lagrangian function does not
contain the time explicitly the total energy of the conservative system is
conserved.
Superiority Lagrangian approach over Newtanion approach:
(i) Lagrange’s equations of motion are invariant inform with respect to
transformation of the coordinates.
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(ii) They put emphasis on energy and work rather than on force.
(iii) They are expressed in generalized coordinates, the use of which means
that q’s do not have to refer directly to the position (or) displacements of
actual particles.
HAMILTONIAN FORMULATION:
In Lagrangian formulation, independent variables are generalized coordinates
and time. The generalized velocities also appear explicitly in the formulation,
but since these are simply time derivative of generalized coordinates, they are
to be treated ultimately as dependent variables.
Hamiltonian way is to remove this dependence and introduce new
independent variables called generalized momentum½8 .
Hamiltonian H (÷8 , ½8 , ¾) is a generalized function of generalized, coordinates,
generalized momentum and time.
PHASE SPACE:
In Lagrangian formulation there are 3N equations of motion of the second
order for a system containing “n” particles in the absence of holonomic
constraints.
For general consideration it is more convenient to write 60 partial differential
equations of the first order in place of 3 N equations of second order.
For these purpose there must be 6N degrees of freedom or 6N dimensional
space known as phase space sometimes also called the Γ – space.
In phase space momenta are also regarded as independent variables like
space coordinates.
A single particle in phase space is specified by 6 coordinates, 3 position
coordinates and 3 momentum coordinates.
This size dimensional phase space sometimes called -spaces. The
Γ – space is a superposition of -spaces.
H – First order equation, L – Second order equation.
There is only one possible path in phase space.
This shows that there is less arbitrariness about the path in phase space as
compared to the path in configuration space. Path in Phase space almost
refers to actual dynamical path.
The Hamiltonian function is defined as H = ∑ ½8 ÷> 8 − Q ÷8 ÷> 8

HAMILTONIAN:
H indicates Hamiltonian and assign to it a basis of %÷R ½R (

H%÷R ½R ( = ∑ ½R ÷> R − Q%÷R ÷> R (. If H does not involve time, it is said to be a
constant of motion. When H represents the total energy E, as the
transformations equations should not involve time explicitly.
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÷> 8 = , ½8> = − and − =

ˆR ˆR ˆF ˆR
HAMILTONIAN’S CANONICAL EQUATION OF MOTION:
ˆò9 ˆû9 ˆÆ ˆÆ
These equations are known as Hamilton’s canonical equation of motion.
These equations constitute a set of 2n first order equations of motion,
replacing the second order Lagrange’s equations.
If a coordinate is cyclic, it would reduce the number of variables by two in new
formulation.
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HAMILTONIAN:
Like Lagrangian, Hamiltonian H also possesses the dimensional of energy but
in all circumstances it is not equal to the total energy E.
(i) The system be conservative one ie) Potential energy is coordinate
dependent and not velocity dependent.
∑ ½8 ÷> 8 = 2é
(ii) Coordinate transformation equations be independent of time, so that
These two conditions are necessary for Hamiltonian H to represent the total
energy E
In Lagrangian approach, the two variables÷8 and ÷> 8 are not given equal
ADVANTAGE OF HAMILTONIAN APPROACH:
states. In Hamiltonian coordinates and moment are placed at equal footing.

DEDUCTION OF CANONICAL EQUATION FROM A VARIATIONAL PRINCH:
Æ$
Hamiltonian’s principle’s is stated as 7N = 7 |Æ Qw¾ = 0
°
Æ$ Æ$
7 ∑8 |Æ ½8 w÷8 − 7 |Æ Á w¾ = 0. Which is referred as the modified Hamilton’s
° °
principle. The 7variation can be expressed as 7 → w ∝

ˆ
ˆS
Æ$
Modified Hamilton principle in terms of parameter can be expressed as
7N = w ∝ ; = w ∝ | „∑ ½8 ÷> 8 − Á ÷8 ÷> 8 , ¾ …w¾ = 0.

ˆN ˆ
ˆS ˆS Æ°
APPLICATIONS OF HAMILTONS EQUATIONS OF MOTION:
The Kinetic energy of the bob is T = ¿b ) N> )

1. SIMPLE PENDULUM:
)
The Potential energy is given by v = mgb 1 − cosθ)
The Hamiltonian for simple pendulum is given as H = ∑ ½A θ> − Q
¿b) N> ) + mgb 1 − cosθ)
)
The Hamiltonian equation of motion for this will be θ> =
TU
JL $
½A = −¿ub sin θ
;
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The Hamiltonian’s equation of motion of simple pendulum is θI + QRSN = 0

K
L
For small angular displacement QRSN = N, then Hamilton’s equation of motion
is θI + N = 0
K
L
2. COMPOUND PENDULUM:
A rigid body capable of oscillating in a vertical plane abort a fixed horizontal
The kinetic energy of the rigid body is T = Iθ> )

axis is called a compound pendulum.
)
The potential energy is V = −¿ub ŽèQN
The Hamiltonian’s for compound pendulum is H =
)
Iθ> ) − ¿ub ŽèQN
θI + ª QRSN = 0, when N is small then QRSN = N, θI + N N = 0

JKL JKL
The Hamiltonian’s equation of motion used in compound pendulum is
3. ISOTROPIC HARMONIC OSCILLATOR (IN 2D):

(a) Cartesian Coordinates (in 2D):
T = ¿%½} ) + ½† ) (
The kinetic energy of the isotropic oscillator in two dimension is
)
The potential energy of the oscillator is V =
)
K d) + h)
H = ¿%½} ) + ½† ) ( + K d ) + h )
The Hamiltonian’s for the harmonic oscillator is Cartesian coordinates is
) )
oscillator in Cartesian coordinate is given by ¿d I + gd = 0 ; ¿h I + gh = 0

The Hamiltonian’s equation of motion two dimensional isotropic harmonic
(or) d I + J d = 0
o
(b)Polar Coordinates:
The Hamiltonian’s for an harmonic isotropic oscillator in polar coordinates is
H = ¿ !½U ) + # + ) K H)
òV$
) U$
4. LINEAR HARMONIC OSCILLATOR (LHO):
Since the system is conservative and the constrains is independent of time,
Kinetic energy one dimension LHO system is T = md> )

Hamiltonian will represent the total energy of the system.
)
Potential energy of one dimension LHO system is V = gd )
)
+ 2 gd2 (or)
ò$ 1
)J
Hamiltonian for LHO is given as H =
The Hamiltonian equation of motion of a linear Harmonic oscillator is
mdI + kx = 0. This relation shows that the motion is simple harmonic
oscillator.
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5. PARTICLEIN A CENTRAL FIELD OF FORCE:

In such a field, force is always directed towards the centre. Here potential
energy is the function of coordinates and the system is conservative so that
¿%H> ) H ) N> ) (
Hamiltonian represents the total energy.
)
The kinetic energy of the particle is T =
The potential energy of the particle is V = v(r)
+ )JU +’ H
òW$ V ò$
)J $
The Hamiltonian for this system H =
¿HI = + \ H , represents equation of motion involving the actual force

J”V$
U
J”V$
U
and centrifugal force .
Since in central force motion, whole of the force is along the radius vector, so
J”V$
U
is termed as “fictitious force”
Lagrangian for such a case is L = T − ÷ !ϕ − V. A#

5. HAMILTONIAN FOR A CHARGED PARTICLE IN AN ELCTROMAGNETIC FIELD:
H = ¿F ) + ÷Y
Hamiltonian for charged particle in an electromagnetic field is given by
)
Lagrangian – II order differential equation,
Hamiltonian – I Order differential equation
CONSERVATION THEOREM AND SYMMETRY FUNCTION:
If space is homogeneous, the Hamiltonian of system will be invariant under
translation. The homogenizing of space leads to the law of conservation of
linear momentum.
If space is isotropic, the Hamiltonian of system does not change under
rotation. The isotropy of space leads to the law of conservation of angular
momentum.
The Homogeneity of time leads to the law of conservative of total energy. The
symmetry of space leads to the theorems of conservation of linear and
angular momenta. The symmetry of time leads to the conservation theorem of
energy.
=0
The consequence of homogeneity of time is that Hamiltonian of system does
ˆR
ˆÆ
not depend upon time explicitly.(ie)
PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION:
The important variational principle associated with Hamiltonian formulation is
the principle of least action. This is a more general type of variation of the
path of a system which allows time as well as position coordinates to vary.
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At the end points of the path position coordinates are held fixed but changes
in the time are permitted.
Æ$
The time integral of twice the kinetic energy is called the action. In
mechanics, the action can be expressed as A = |Æ ∑ ½8 ÷> 8 w¾

°
The principle of least action states that the variation of action along the
Æ$
actual path between given time interval is least (ie) ∆ |Æ ∑ ½R ÷> R w¾ = 0 (or)
°
Æ$
∆ |Æ 2éw¾ = 0 for conservative system.
°
FEATURES OF Y AND ∆ VARIATION:
In 7 variation process, we compared all conceivable paths connecting two
given points A and B at two given time’s t1 and t2. The system must travel
from one end point A to another end point B in same time for all the paths
compared.
System point is speeded up (or) slowed in order to make the total travel time
along every path the same and energy may or may not be conserved along
In ∆ variation process, we shall restrict the comparison to all paths involving

the paths.
no violation of the conservation of energy but relax the condition that all paths
takes the same length of time. System point is speeded up (or) slowed down
EXPRESSION FOR ∆ :
in order to make H constant along actual and varied paths.
The expression for ∆ is given by ∆≡ 7 + ∆¾

“
“Æ
It is to be noted that ∆ operation and time differentiation cannot be
interchanged in this case but which is allowed in the case of 7 variation.
The ∆ variation for any function f = c%÷8, ÷> 8 , ¾( is given by ∆c = 7c + . ∆¾
ˆ<
ˆÆ
In brief this variation can described as
(i) End points time may be different for every path. (ie)Time of travel along
different paths may be different, and will in fact happen if all paths are
real.
Æ$
(ii) End points position coordinates are held fixed, which is also possible in
real paths, and H is conserved along every path. The quantity |Æ ½8 ÷> 8 is
°
generally called Hamiltonian’s characteristic function.
Æ$
A = ∆ |Æ 2éw¾ = 0. Which is an another form of principle of least action.
°
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OTHER FORMS OF LEAST ACTION PRINCIPLE:

If the coordinate transformation do not involve time explicitly, then
Æ$
∑ ½8 ÷> 8 = 2é, so the principle of least action A = ∆ |Æ 2éw¾ = 0 (or)
°
Æ$
A = ∆ |Æ éw¾ = 0
°
If the system is not involving any external force, is conserved, P. Least action
Æ$
is A = ∆ |Æ w¾ = 0 (or) ∆ ¾) − ¾ =0
°
This condition leads to a very important principle called “Fermat’s principle in
Æ$
geometrical optics” A = ∆ |Æ w¾ = 0 (or) ∆ ¾) − ¾ =0
°
According to Format’s principle, a light ray travels between two points along
such a path that the time taken is the least.
Æ$
Jacobi form principle of least action can be written as ∆ |Æ p2 Á − ’ wA = 0
°
The principle of least action in terms of are length of particle trajectory is
Æ$ Æ$
given as ∆ |Æ p2¿ Á − ’ wQ = 0 (or) ∆ |Æ p Á − ’ wQ = 0
∑ ½8 w÷8 − ½8 wD8 = w\. Which is the condition for transformation to be
° °
canonical.
THEORY OF SMALL OSCILLATION:
The displacements of the particles are restricted to small deviations from
position of stable equilibrium. We shall consider only conservative system in
which the potential energy is a function of position only.
The constraints that depend on time will be excluded. A system of particles is
said to be in stable equilibrium if all the particles are and remain at rest.
In conservative force field, generalized forces acting on each particle must
vanish (ie) D= = − B C
Û
ˆû:
when evaluated at these ÷€= .We shall be interested only in motions for which
The equilibrium to the stable, only if the potential energy must be a minimum
displacements are small, every relevant dynamical quantity may be expended

in a Taylor series.
as L = ∑=,o%é=o E>= E> o − ’=o E= Eo (

Near the equilibrium configuration of the system, Lagrangian may be written
B C − ˆ@ = 0
“ ˆF ˆF
“Æ ˆ@> : :
Lagranges equation of motion in our notation appears as
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The equation of motion for the coupled system is ∑o%é=o EI o + ’=o Eo ( = 0

(or) matrix from T EI + vu = 0 this is represents the equation of motion
The solution of the above equation is Eo = £o › 8[Æ (or) a*o › 8[Æ

near equilibrium.
T EI + vu = 0 may also be written as ’v − G ) é* = 0

PROPERTIES OF T, V AND \:
WE can proceed to show that +þ) (or) ±þ are all real. When +þ) (or) ±þ are all
real, all components voþ
X,J
cd will also be real.
The Eigen frequency may be written as ±þ = +þ) ∑ ’=o v= voL . This shows that
+þ) is a positive quantity.
The Eigen frequencies are all real and the motion for a given +þ) will be
If +þ) ≠ +J . There∑=o ]=o v=J voL = 0, which is called the orthogonality

completely oscillatory about the position of stable equilibrium.
)
property ∑jg ]jg vj¿ vgb = 1, which is called the normalized property.
∑=o ]=o v=J voL = 7Jþ , which is termed as orthonormality condition.
The normality property ∑=o ]=o v=J voL = 1 may be written in matrix form as
aT Ta = 1.
NORMAL COORDINATES AND NORMAL FREQUENCIES OF VIBRATION:
For a solution of equations of motion where only one single frequency
(normal) is involved in the solution and is such a case, the coordinate
appearing in it will be called the normal coordinate.
Therefore, the generalized coordinates, each one of them executing
oscillations of one single frequency are called normal coordinates.
^ and therefore of Lagrangian is effected by means of linear transformation.

The transformation of equations of notation into such coordinates denoted by
We define the new set of coordinates ô related to the original coordinates E=

by the defining equations E= = ∑o v=o ô →can be expressed in the form of
column matrix and given as E = v. ^.
kinetic and potential energy in terms of ^.

In order to find out Lagrangian in new coordinates, we shall first express
The potential energy is V = ∑þ +þ) ^› )

)
The kinetic energy is T = ∑þ> ^þ)
)
X X
The Lagrangian in the new coordinate system will be
∑ ^> þ) − ∑þÅ +þ) ^þ)

) þÅ )
L=
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The Lagrangian equation of motion in the new coordinates are

X
∑þÅ Î þ + +þ) ^þ = 0
therefore ^ , ^) , ^r are termed as normal coordinates.

Thus each coordinate executes only one single frequency oscillation and
The solution of equationÎ þ + +þ) ^þ = 0 will be

(i) ^þ = £þ ŽèQ+þ ¾ + åþ QRS+þ ¾. If +þ) > 0 finite stable
(ii) ^þ = £þ ¾ + åþ . If +þ) = 0 infinite unstable
(iii) ^þ = £þ › [_Æ + åþ › [_Æ . If +þ) < 0 infinite unstable
In first case, since +þ) are red and positive, all coordinates always remain finite
+þ) > 0
for any time “t” and we then say that the equilibrium is stable for the case
The coordinates become infinite as the time advances and consequently such
solution refers to unstable equilibrium.
In ^þ = £þ ŽèQ2Èγþ ¾ + åþ QRS2Èγþ ¾…..(1) We choose the arbitrary constant

NORMAL MODES:
except, Ae and Be are zero. Then only coordinate ^þ will vary periodically with
time, which all the other coordinates will remain zero for all times. Such a
Equation 1, may be written in the form of ^þ = £þ ŽèQ +þÆ + 7þ . Here 7þ is the

situation corresponds to a normal mode of vibration.
The old coordinates are given by E= = ∑o v=o £o ŽèQ +oÆ + 7o

phase factor.
The angular momentum is given by L = Iω

MOMENTS AND PRODUCT OF INERTIA:
When I operates on the angular velocity + physically different vector, the

angular momentum L, results. I is a different physical entity termed as the
The diagonal elements ²}} , ²†† , ²‰‰ are called the moments of inertia
moment of inertia tensor.
²}} = ∑8 ¿8 %h8) + i8) ( ; ²†† = ∑8 ¿8 %i8) + d8) ( ; ²‰‰ = ∑8 ¿8 %d8) + h8) ( ;

coefficients.
²}† = ²†} = − ∑ ¿8 d8 h8 ; ²†‰ = ²‰† = − ∑ ¿8 h8 i8 ; ²‰} = ²}‰ = − ∑ ¿8 i8 d8 ;

are termed as the products of inertia associated with the corresponding
I is asymmetric tensor and is additive in nature. The moments of inertia of a

coordinate planes.
I → Symmetry tensor of Rank

body are the sums of those of its parts.
A mathematical structure having nine component in three dimensions is
For a continuous body L = | A H „H ) + − H. + H…wH

termed a tensor of rank two.
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The product of inertia all vanish when one of the axes of body lies along the
axes of symmetry.
EULER’S ANGLE:
When we generate the primed axes (body set of axes) from unprimed axes
(space set of axes) through three successive rotations so called Euler Angles.
Each transformation (rotation) is an orthogonal transformation and final
configuration primed axes will be orthogonal transformation.
The most useful set of generalized coordinates for a rigid body are Euler’s
Angle, which are the angles of rotation about specified axes, executing in a
specific sequence.
Three independent parameters which would completely specify the
orientation of rigid body called Euler’s Angles. Body set of axes to space set of
axes.
In order to account for the rotatory motion, we shall carry out the
transformation from space set of axes to body set of axes.
FIRST ROTATION:
takes new position y1, z1. This new plane contains the body i µ axis. The
The space set of axes is rotated about the space z axis so that the y-z plane
rotation angle is Y
The transformation to this new set of axis x1, y,z from x,y,z axes can be
R = RŽèQY+j sinY ; j = −R QRSY + jŽèQY; g = g

represented by the equations.
−QRSY
The matrix of transformation is D = cosY sinY 0
cosY 0
R j g
0 0 1
SECOND ROTATION:
body i µ axis. The rotation angle is N.

Second rotation is performed about new x1 axis so that z1 axis coincides with
The transformation to this new set of axes x2.y2, i µ from x1.y1,z1 set of axes
R) = R ; j) = j ŽèQN + g QRSN; g) = −j QRSN + g ŽèQN

can be represented by the equations.
1 0 0
The matrix of transformation will be C = •0 ŽèQN QRSN ž
0 −QRSN ŽèQN
This transformation brings x2y2 plane into the plane d µ h µ of the body set of
axes.
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Third rotation is performed about z2 axis (ie) about i µ . The new axis x3
THIRD ROTATION:
coincides with body d µ axis and the axis y3 coincides with h µ axis.
set of axes. The rotation angle is Ψ. The transformation to this new set of
Third rotation completes the transformation from space set of axes to body
axes x3y3z3 which coincides with body set of axis d µ h µ i′ can be represented by
R = R) ŽèQΨ +j) sinΨ ; j = −R) QRSΨ + j) ŽèQΨ; g = g)

the equation.
ŽèQΨ QRSΨ 0
The matrix of transformation will be B = •−QRSΨ ŽèQΨ 0ž
0 0 1
In each rotation, the rotation is in the anticlockwise direction (or) counter
clockwise direction and all the rotations are in same direction
The complete matrix of transformation A will be A = BCD
The resultant transformation A = BCD is an orthogonal transformation. The
by A = A© . It is also an orthogonal matrix.

inverse transformation from body set of axes to the space set of axes is given
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION:

The equation of motion of rigid body is called Euler equation. The motion of
rigid body with one point fixed will take place under the action of torque N in
such a way that its total angular momentum varies at the rate equal to N (ie)
! #=?
“F
“Æ
The time derivative refers to the space axes, for the equation holds only in an
inertial system. In a coordinate system rotating with body, we have the
following relation between the two time derivatives
! # =! # ++xG
“ “
“Æ •ú*Œþ “Æ )b“†
In terms of body axes is, therefore ! # ++xL=N

“
“Æ )b“†
The principle momenta of inertia and the body base vectors R, j, g are
constant in time with respect to the body coordinate system.
?} = ² +> } − ²) − ²r +† +‰ ; ?† = ²) +> † − ²r − ² +‰ +} ;
The Euler’s equation of motion of a rigid body with one point fixed are
?‰ = ²r +> ‰ − ² − ²) +} +† ;
The alternative method to the Euler’s equation is the Lagrange’s method
The Lagrangian L or T – V should be function of Y, N, Ψ only.

using Euler’s angles as the generalized coordinates.
L=T%Y> , N> , Ψ> , Y, N, c( − ’ Y, N, Ψ (or) %² +}) + ²) +†) + ²r +‰) ( − ’ Y, N, Ψ

For conservative forces the Lagrangian can be written as
)
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?} = ²}‰ +> − ²†‰ +) ; ?† = ²†‰ +> − ²}‰ +) ; ?‰ = ²‰‰ +>

Euler’s equation of motion about a fixed axis are
The last equation is consistent write the physics motion. The first two
equation determines the constraining torques which are required to prevent
the axis of rotation from charging its direction.
SYMMETRI TOP:
The symmetric top is variety of rigid bodies Childs top and gyroscope are the
examples of symmetric top. The force acting on the top is the force of gravity
acting in downward direction. The Euler’s angles are the most convenient set
of generalized coordinates to describe the motion of the symmetric top.
L = T – V = %² +}µ + ²) +†µ ( + ²r +‰µ − ¿ub ŽèQN

The Lagrangian L for the symmetric top is
) ) )
)
L = ² %N> ) + Y> ) QRS) N( + %Ψ> + Y> ŽèQN( − ¿ubŽèQN

In terms of Euler’s angles, the Lagrangian L written as
N» )
) )
Symmetric top produces variety of motion like translation motion precession,
Notations and Spin.
to angle Y
Precession: Which is rotation about space z-axis such a rotation corresponds
a rotation corresponds to angle N

Nutation: Which is rotation about intermediate x1 axis (or) line of nodes such
Spin: Which is rotation about i µ axis , such a rotation corresponds to anglec.

The spin velocity about i µ axis is +‰µ given by %Y> ŽèQN + c>(
Nutation corresponds to motion of body i µ axis between two N angles, say
N &N) in i µ h µ plane.
As the precession about z axis is present, motion of i µ axis from N ¾è N) (or)
vice versa will not be confined in a plane i µ h µ but will be delineated
(ie) i µ axis will trace out a curve, while moving from N ¾è N) (or) vice versa.
The variation in the angle N is refered to as the motion of the symmetry axis
If the minimum effective potential equals the energy E, the angles N keeps
of the top and is an up and down motion of the symmetry axis.
fixed at value N€ and the top precesses with the constant angular velocity and
given by Y> =
) * Œb•A
•8X$ A
absent (ie) i µ axis remains fixed at N€ , there will be two angular frequencies
The calculation of angular velocity of precession an spin when nutation is
Ψ> N» ± 7e)N»$ –JKL > N° N» Œb•A 9

of procession Y> € given by Y> € =
) N° N» Œb•A
………(1)
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Thus corresponding to position sign of the radical, precession will be fast
We can solve equation 1 for Y> € in terms of +‰µ , the angular velocity about
while that with negative sign is called slow precession.
iµ axis called spin angular velocity and is given by

$ >
Y> € =
N» +′i ± š N»$ [fg –JK N° Œb•A œ
) N° Œb•A
The minimum spin angular velocity +‰µ is given +‰µ

4¿u%²1 ŽèQN (
J8X = ! N»$
#
the angle N€ . When +‰µ > +‰µ J8X quantity under radical will not be zero and
Below the minimum spin angular velocity, the top cannot process uniformly at
hence two values of Y> € are given by Y> € = ≈

) *Œb•A m N» [fg
•8XA N° ²1 ŽèQN0
and
Y> € = ≈²
) *Œb•A JKL
•8XA 3 [f
g
top (large +‰µ )

It is the show precession which is ordinarily observed with a rapidly spinning
FAST TOP:
velocity +‰µ and is initially at rest at an angle N and then released.

The fast top is a top spinning very rapidly about the figure axis with angular
i) initial angle N = N; ii) initially at rest N> = 0,Y> = 0;

The initial condition for the fast top are
iii) spinning with+‰µ Ψ> = Ψ> € = +′i
maximum allowable change in potential energy (ie) ² v) ≥ ¿ub

The rotational kinetic energy about the symmetry axis is much larger than the
The average spin angular velocity for fast top becomes 〈Y> 〉 =
JKL
N» e>
.
Since ² v ) ≫ ¿ub. 7, the amplitude of nutation is small as inferred from
7=
JKL •8XA
N° *$
sinceN = N€ + 7 − 7 µ ŽèQ+¾ the nutation is sinusoidal.
For a rapidly spinning top !m < #the spinning motion is stable, if disturbed,
SLEEPING TOP:
)
it will exhibit a small nutation about the vertical axis.
The minimum spin angular velocity below which the top cannot spin stably
/)
about vertical axis when m < is given by +J8X = 7 9
–JKL N° 4¿ub ²1
) N»$ ²23
(or)
If initially +‰ = +‰µ > +J8X a top will spin with its axis vertical continuously
When friction reduces +‰ below+J8X it will begin to “wobble”

therefore it is called “Spinning top”
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UNIT – IV (STATISTICAL MECHANICS)

Classical Statistics – Maxwell – Boltzmann statistics (0, 1, 2, 3 …….)
Quantum Statistics – Fermi – Dirac statistics (½ spin elementary particle,
Bose Einstein statistics – spin or Integral spin – Photons.
The combined position (d, h, i) and momentum Px, Py, Pz space is called
PHASE SPACE:
Phase Space. A point in the phase space represents the position and
momentum of the particle at some particular instant.
Constraints:
The restriction imposed by physical laws on the distribution of molecules
among the cells in the phase space is called the constraints of the system.
Total number of molecules N , n1 molecules in cell 1, , n2 molecules in cell 2, ,
U
nr molecules in cell r. the constrains required ∑8Å SR = ?
Accessible States:
The permitted number of microstates under the constrains imposed upon the
system are called Accessible states.
Total energy be E, suppose n1 molecules have energy E1, n2 molecules have
U
energy E2. ∑8Å SR ∈ R = H
Ensembles:
An ensemble is defined as a collection of large number of assemblies which
are essentially independent of one another but which have been made
macroscopical as identical as possible.
Micro canonical ensemble:
It is a collection of essentially independent assemblies having the same
energy volume V and number N of the system all the systems are of the same
type.
i) The locus of all the phase points having equal energies in phase space is
called an energy surface or Ergodic surface.
ii) Walls are rigid impermeable well insulated walls.
iii) No exchange of energy or particle takes place.
Canonical ensemble:
It is a collection of essentially independent assembles having the same
temperature (T), Volume (V) and number of identical particles (N).
Walls are rigid, impermeable. diathermia walls
Here system can exchange energy but not particles.
Grand Canonical ensemble:
It is a collection of essentially independent assemblies having the same
temperature (T), volume (V) and chemical potential ( )
Walls are permeable diathermia walls.
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Exchange of energy as well as of particles takes place with the hat reservoir.
LIOVILLE’S THEOREM:
The theorem consists of two points.
1) The principle of conservation of density in phase space:
This part states the conservation of density in phase space (ie) the rate of
= 0 ; ρ = constant.
change of density of phase point in phase space is zero.
ˆn
ˆÆ
DΓ = 0 ; DΓ = constant.
2) The principle of conservation of extension of Phase – Space:
“
“Æ
The volume at the disposal of a particular number of phase points is
conserved throughout the Phase space.
Microstates:
Each arrangement of specified system or molecules with their representation
points in particulars cell is called microstates. (or)
A microstate of an ensemble may be defined by the specification of the
individual position of phase points for each, system or molecule of the
ensemble.
Macrostates:
A macrostate of the ensemble may be defined by the specification of phase
point in each cell (ie) by specifying the numbers only and overlooking the
identities of the system or molecules.
There may be different microstates corresponding to the some microstate.
Identical but indistinguishable 0, 1, 2, 3, 4……
Particles of zero or integral spin – Obey Bose Einstein statistics, Photons are
the particle of this kind, Helium at low temperature obey Bose Einstein
Identical but indistinguishable particles of spin ½ : , , ,

statistics.
r ä ë
) ) ) )
Obey Pauli’s exclusion principle and Fermi – Dirac statistics.
Fermions are the particles of this kind. Ex. Electrons, Protons, Neutrons.
MAXWELL BOLTZMAN STATISTICS:
It used to determine equilibrium start of the system means which is most
probability.
When the gas is equilibrium the probability is maximum.
This can tell us how a fixed amount of energy is distributed among various
member of a assembly identical particle.
Consider a system having n distinguishable particles. Let these particles are
having energies. ∈ , ∈) , ∈r … . . ∈8 respectively.

divided in to quantum groups such that n1, n2 , ……ni particles lie I groups
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MOST PROBABLE DISTRIBUTION:
X‰ X$
Most probable distribution is a number of particles in each cell is proportional
to the size of the cell. Ri =
X X
S) - Number of particles in cell i ; n – Total number of particles
or q2 =
gz – The probability of any one particle in cell.
Phase space is divided in to 6 dimensional cells whose sides are wd, wh, wi
Division of phase space in to cells:
and wA} , wA† , wA‰ such cells are called Phase cells.
qû° qû$ ……qûr qò° qò$ qò
s<
h - Any arbitrary constant, 7 - 7÷8 7½8 , hf – size of each cell.
Number of Phase cells in the volume element is =
The assembles in general consist of three types of particles.

Identical but distinguishable particles:
Obey Maxwell Boltzmann law – Molecules of a gas are the particle of this
kind. Let gi be the statistical weight of it quantum group the conditions in
Maxwell – Boltzmann statistics are.
ii) Each Eigen states of R th quantum group may contain 0, 1, 2, ……ni particle.
i) Particles are distinguishable (ie) there are no symmetry restrictions.
(ie) S = S1 + S2 + … … SR = ∑ SR = constant.
iii) The total no of particles in the entire system is always constant.
The sum of energies of all the particles in different quantum groups taken
Number of particle = . m, É are constant.

together constitute the total energy of the system.
K8
þ tuv∈9
É = Ã@ › = in terms of temperature. SR = uR › xy
S ; ; x9
w w
MAXWELL’S LAW OF DISTRIBUTION OF VELOCITIES:
»
wd = S !) # .› d> ) + h> ) + i> ) /2g

J $ J
Ã@
having components of velocity in the range d> to d> + wd> , h> to h> + wh> and
Which is the form of the Maxwell distribution law for the number of molecules
i> to i> + wi>

wS = › z{ › w ∈ gives the number of molecules with kinetic
) X ∈
/)
Ã@ »/$
energy (Translational) lying between ∈ and ∈ +wH in any direction. This is

known as Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution law of energies.
In Maxwell – Boltzmann statistics of perfect gas the average kinetic energy
Mean speed: The mean speed | is the speed of all particles divided by the
per molecular is 3/2 KT
total number of particles.

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|= = 1.59 ; | = 1.59
ºÃ@ º Ã@
J J
- Average (or) Mean speed.
3Äé
Mean Square speed:
|) =
¿
Root mean Square Speed:
== ; ’UJ• > ’J > ’Jú = 1.73

rÃ@ Ã@
Rms = p Ž )
J J
Most Probable speed:
S
For the most probable speed the probability of the speed must be maximum.
Rmv of the molecular is defining by the equation C2 = |€ a ) w?

X
rmp : Ψ ¿ : rms - 1.1 : 13 : 1.22
Mean free path:
The path covered by molecules between any two consecutive collision is a
straight line and is called mean free path.
Mean free path ± =

Number of collision occurs the path appears zigzag.
×
;
According to Boltzmann mean free path ± =
r
– “$X
According to Boltzmann mean free path ± =
√) “ $ X
BOSE – EINSTEIN STATISTICS:
The particles are indistinguishable so, the interchange of two particles
between two energy states will not produce any new state.
The contain of B.E Statistics are partial not affect.
distinction between the different ways in which SR particles can be chosen.

1) The particles are indistinguishable from each other. So, that there is no
2) Each cell or sub shell of R¾ℎ quantum state may contain 0, 1, 2, ….

SR identical particles.
The sum of energies of all the particle in the different quantum groups taken
Number of particles energy of momentum SR =

together constitutes the total energy of the system.
K8
þ tuvM9
This represents the most probable distribution of the elements among varies
energy levels for a system.
Obeying Bose – Einstein statistics number of particle ground state low that is
why the process dropping at ground Bose Einstein T<TC
FERMI - DIRAC STATISTICS:
In MB statistics or BE statistics, there is no restriction on the particles to be
present in any energy state.
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But in case of Fermi – Dirac statistics, applicable to particle like electrons and
obeying Pauli Exclusion Principle.
Only one particle can occupy only a single energy state. Thus in Fermi – Dirac
statistics. The conditions are
restriction between different ways in which SR particles are chosen.

i) The particles are indistinguishable from each other. (ie) there is no
ii) Each sub – level (or) cell may contain 0 or one particle. Obviously uR must
be greater than or equal to SR.
taken together constitute the, total energy of the system. SR = +1

iii) The sum of energies of the entire particle in the different quantum groups
K8
þ tuvM9
; SR = +1
K8
m=− ;É=
}<
Ã@ Ã@ M•
•
z{uM
~þ z{ €
SR = + 1. Maximum = Ei = Ef ; h = =
K8 K K
þ Mr M9 z{ R A
Fermi Energy: At absolute zero of temperature the maximum kinetic energy
that a free electron can have is called Fermi Energy.
BLACK BODY RADIATION:
The most important application of Bose – Einstein statistics to
electromagnetic radiation in thermal equilibrium called “Black Body
Radiation”
s‚
In quantum theory , radians energy occurs energy packets or photons or right
¯
quanta of energy h• and momentum photons have zero rest mass and a
spin quantum number of 1 like all particles with spin 1 ; like all a particles
with spin 1 then obey Bose – Einstein statistics.
Consider a black body radiation chamber of volume V containing radiation in
º s Ã@ – $
equilibrium with the walls at temperature T. Total Energy density is
= !s# ; = • @– - Stefan – Boltzmann law.

@ @
B Œ» $ B
º Ãü ü
ä¯ » s»
Where b = . Wien constructed black body in the form of cylinder.
Lamer and Karlban bolometer is used to measure the intensity of heat.
ELECTRON GAS:
Electrons in the metal are free to move exactly like the particle of gas.
Free electron gas in a solid Obeys Fermi - Dirac statistics. A metal can be
considered to be composed of a system of fixed positive nuclei and a number
of mobile electrons referred to as the electron gas.
)/r
! #
s$ rX }ƒ
)J º ” Ã
; Fermi Temperature IF =
Zero point energy E0 = 3/5 n∈ c
Fermi Energy Ef =
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All the levels below Ef are completely filled.

All the levels above Ef are completely.
=
At T = 0K all electrons have energies less than or equal to Fermi energy.
.$
„ »· $/»
) …. € $† &‡ ! #
Degeneracy factor of electron gas
†ˆ5
€$
.ä @
=
For electron gas, the classical statistics U is not valid, and can be applied only
at temperatures of the order of 105 K .
At low temperature, it is necessary to are f – 0 statistics to study electron gas
) X∈< )@ Xs$
ä B 3n 2/3
; P= rB
)€JB! #
in the metals. Pressure of electron gas P0 = ;
8πv
Which means at ≈ 105 atom.
Normal temperature the pressure of the gas is sufficiently high.
PAULI’S THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM:
In metals free conduction electrons are present. As each atom is endowed
with intrinsic magnetic momentμ. It acts a elementary magnet. Thus all free
electrons acting as elementary magnet can orient themselves in the direction
s
of an applied magnetic field B and make metals highly paramagnetic.
)
Let us consider an assemble of N free fermions of spin each of which is
T$
- μ. B and the single
)Ù
described by a single particle Hamiltonian. H =
– SB. Where S = ±1
ò$
)J
particle, energy levels. Eis =
Intensity of magnetization I =
©Ü¹ Þ ‹ " Û¹áÝ ‹ ‘‘
8ÜÞ/ÙÛ
=
THERMIONIC EMISSION:
X
In free electron model of a metal, the zero of the energy is taken at the
)
energy state up to the energy value ∈ f.
bottom. At the absolve zero of temperature, the electrons will till lowest
metals is equal to ∈ m − Œc and is defined as the work function ϕ of the

The minimum amount of energy necessary to remove an electron from the
metal.
Emission current density per unit area J = AT2 ›
•
þ
z{ . e Y is called wave
– JþÃ$
function. e Y = ∈ m − Œc ; A =
s»
This equation is called Richardson – Dushmam equation of thermionic
emission.
As the temperature of the filament is doubled, thermionic current increases
four times.
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Gas Degeneracy: The deviation from perfect gas behavious exhibited by Bose
The gas degeneracy is obviously a function of . D = › } . = K•‰Æ

X
– Einstein gas is termed as degeneracy.
„ „
Zt – Translation portion function.
PHONON GAS:
Quantum of acoustical energy is commonly referred as Phonon. Phonon
vibrates with the frequency of 104 to 1013 cycles per second.
Low frequency part is acoustic range. High frequency part is infra red range
I solid it travels like a short elastic waves. In solid travels with the velocity of
sound. In elastic ether medium, travels with the velocity of light.
s
Indistinguishable particle. More phonons can be created by increasing the
temperature of the crystal. Momentum P =
Properties of liquid helium (An application of BE statistics)
Liquefaction of Helium:
Helium was the last gas to be liquefied because of it extremely low critical
pressure. Tc = − 5.25K.
Temperature of barium Tc for helium is 33K. Kammerlingh Onnes pre cooled
helium to 23K by means of liquid hydrogen boiling and reduced pressure and
then liquefied it by subjecting it to JT experiment.
Properties of liquid helium:
Kammerlingh ones formed a specific discontinuity in the density of helium at
2.19K. The density of liquid helium increases as the temperature degreasers
from 4K to 2.19K.
The density becomes maximum (146.2 kg / m3) at 2.19K. This liquid helium
which is contracting when cooled, suddenly begin to expand below 2.19K
Later Keeson also found another specific discontinuity at 2.19K.
He measured the specific heat capacity of helium at different temperature.
As helium is gradually cooled from 4.2 K the specific heat capacities remain
constant at finite and near 2.19K it increases a little.
Exactly at 2.19K specific heat capacity increases suddenly to a many large
The graph resembles the Greek letter ± and hence in this temperature at
value. Then it gradually falls as the temperature is reduce from 2.19K
which the specific heat capacity charges abruptly is called the ± point.
The properties of liquid helium above and below ± point are quite different.
Liquid helium above 2.19K is called Helium I and it behave in a normal
manner.
Liquid helium below 2.19K is called helium II, becomes of its abnormal
properties.
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Helium - II is called super fluid why?

Coefficient of viscosity of liquid, increase with decrease in temperature.
Viscosity of liquid helium decrease with decrease in temperature.
The viscosity of Helium – II is almost and it an flow rapidly through narrow
capillary tube. Hence it is called a super fluid.
Some peculiar properties of Helium - II
i) Extreme fluidly:
Helium – II has practically zero viscosity and is called a super fluid.
ii) High heat conductivity:
Helium – II has on extraordinary high coefficient of thermal conductivity.
Helium – II is said to be about 800 times more conducting than copper
electrical thermal.
Principle of equi-portion of energy:
The low states that the total 12.E of a dynamical system certifying of a large
number of particle. In thermal is equally divided among its all the degrees of
freedom.
The average energy associated with each degree of freedom is ½ KT.
Relation between the partition function (z) and thermodynamic quantities:
Various thermo dynamical quantities such as energy (E), Helm – Hottz free
! #
energy E, entropy and specific heat Cv etc….
ˆ Ž@ $ ˆ‰
ˆ@ ‰ ˆ@
Energy E = RT2 (logz) ;
.é2 Di
Helm – hottz free energy F = - RT log z and Cv = ! # = ˆ@ š ! #œ
ˆ} ˆ
ˆ@ ” i Dé
; TB = Ž); Tc = Ž) = 2 TB (a, b) Nature of the Gas

º* * )*
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE:
)ëŽ)
TC =
Some important Point:
All accessible microstates, corresponding to possible macrostates are equally
probable.
An equilibrium macroscopic state is one for which the number approximation
to find n? log n! – n logn - n
The classical portion function z gives the sum of states of the system.
following way. S = NK log z + KT

The portion function z is related to the thermo dynamical quantities in the
r
)
More Points in phase space:
The phase space available to the 3 – dimensional harmonic oscillator having
energy between E and E +dE is given by 7£ = 2È 7H.

J
o
a – semi Major axis, A – Area of the ellipse, b- Semi minor axis = Èv•
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. Volume of phase space ∆| = 4È½) w½. ’

J
o
A = 2ÈH
Number of phase cells in given energy range of harmonic oscillator
M
= = s‚
ßyÛ Ü T. ‘Û ‘• ÝÛ • }
ßyÛ Ü • .‘Û ÝÛÞÞ s
;=
Number of Phase cells in the given energy range for 3 – dimensional free
particle. H3 – Volume of phase cell. The unit of phase space volume is
kg3 m6 s-3 or J3s3
GIBB’S FUNCTION:
G = F + PV ; G = H – TS : G = U – TS + PV
Gibbs function is non – Pdv.
Gibb’s function has also be called the free energy of a system.
Gibb’s function is also known as thermo dynamical potential.
Gibb’s function is the difference between enthalpy and latent energy. Gibb’s
function is constant is sublimation.
GIBB’S PARADEX:
It the particulars in the two systems are the same if for convenience we take
Va = Vb = V; na = nb = n
We get Sab = Sa + Sb + 2nk – log › )

We have to consider 3n particles in a volume 2V
Which shows that by joining two moles of two different gasses by removing a
additional factor. 2nk – log › )

portion between than the entropy of the joint system increases by an
Which cannot be accounted this is called Gibb’s Paradox.

Gibb’s paradox can be resolved , by the removal of partition , by considering
the two systems as the same. Hence the gas molecules are completely
identical and indistinguishable. Gibb’s paradox is this resolved by a concept
of quantum mechanics.
Gibb’s paradox in statistical mechanics can be resolved if the Maxwell –
Boltzmann constant is divided by N !
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UNIT – V (ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY)

ELECTROSTATICS:
If Δq is the net charge enclosed by volumeΔ|. A = ∆| → 0

∆û
Volume density of charge (‘) :
∆“
Unit – Coulomb / m3
[In terms of elementary charge q = ne]
N – Number of charged particles in unit volume, e – Charge in each particle.
” = ∆ → 0 ∆Q
∆÷
Surface charge density (”):
∆7
. is the surface with negligible thickness.
Unit - Coulomb / m2
= ∆b → 0
∆÷
Linear density of charge ( ):
∆b
. Unit: Coulomb / m
û° û$ û° û$
COULOMB’S LAW:
F∝ N or F = g
U$ U$ – ∈
N ;k= = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2
∈€ - is called permittivity of the medium. ∈€ = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
r N
•° •$
Fared per metre (or) C2 N-1m-2
–—∈y»
Coulomb’s law is applicable for values of r greater than 10-14 m. F =
∈ = ∈€ ∈U
Hfè ; C =
û: û
U » =b – ∈
The vector form of the law is Fj0 = C = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2
r
•— •
– ∈ y» ˜€
Fj0 =
∑=Å
• •—
In case of a discrete distribution of charge:
Hjè
– ∈ y» ˜€
Fo =
| U » w÷
In case of a continuous distribution of charge.
• U
\è =
– ∈
Electric Intensity:
The space around a charge in which its influence is felt is known as electric
field. The strength at any point inside the electric field is defined by the fire
experienced by a unit positive charge.
Placed at that point:
If a charge of q coulomb is place at a point a force of F Newton is experienced
ƒ Ø û.U
û ™ – ∈ U»
E= . Unit or Vm-1 . Vector form : E =
∑X=Å Hfè
û:
In case of discrete distribution of charge:
– ∈ U:»
E =
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| U » w÷
In the case of continuous distribution of charge:
U
H=
– ∈
•
– ∈ W
Electric Potential: V = ; Unit : Volt
grad! # = − 7−uHvw !U #9 ; = grad !– # ; E = −grad V

U • û
U U»
;E=– ∈ W ∈ U
The scalar function of position where negative gradient gives the electric
fields is called electric potential.
Electric potential at a point is as the amount of work done in moving a
positive charge from infinity to that point against electric forces.
GAUSS’S LAW:
∈
This law states that the electric flux linked with a closed surface times , the
charge enclosed by it. Y = ∮ E. ds cosθ =
û
∈
n
Differential form of Gauss’s Law: div D = A or div E =
∈
Divergence of electric flux density is equal to the charge density ∇H = .
∈€
Application of Gauss’s law:
Useful indenturing field and potential distribution about bodies having
symmetrical geometry.
Div œ = A . This equation shows the relation between D and charge density A
Poisson’s Equation:
D – Electric flux density (Displacement vector) .(ie) D = ∈ 0H ; Div ∈ 0H = A

DivH =
n
since E = - grad V ; grad V = ∆V ; ∇. ∇’ = −
A
∈ ∈0
A
∇ ’=
)
− .
∈0
This is known as Poisson’s equation. This is useful in i) Vacuum
For charge free region = 0 ; ∇) ’ = 0 This is Laplace equation.

tube 2) Gaseous discharge probe.
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS:

The boundary condition pertaining to potential, normal component of the
displaces vector and tangential component of Electric field intensity (E)
Electrostatic Potential:
It must be zero if the boundary is earthed as the potential of earth is taken to
be zero.
It must go to zero at infinite of charge distribution are of finite extent.
It must be constant throughout any conductor since a conductor is an equi-
potential surface for charge at rest.
It must be continuous potential would mean an infinitely large field in terms.
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Normal component of displacement vector:

If = 0 for charge free region. (ie) The normal component of electric
displacement vector is continuous across a charge free boundary tangential
components.
If the boundary is between a conductor and a dielectric (ie) When the medium
Since E is a conservative field ∮ H. wb in closed path is zero.

is conductor.
When two medium is dielectric of G and ∈ 2 tangential component of E is

continuous across the boundary.
angles N and N) the normal in media of permittivity ∈ and ∈) respectively

If at a point boundary between two dielectric with the electric field make
= ∈° . (ie) The larger the permittivity of the medium greater is the

¹ A° ∈
¹ A$ $
then
angle of the field direction from the normal.
MAXWELL’S EQUATION:
= 0 (ie) ∇. J + ˆÆ = 0
Equation of Continuity:
ˆò ˆò
ˆÆ
Div J +
+ =0
)n
(ie) The electric charge is conserved. Let J = H then
∈ n )Æ
It shows the charge density in the volume decreases exponentially with time
at rate such that after time t ie t = T
= 0 ; ∇. J = 0 ; =0
The time dependent electromagnetic field equations are called Maxwell’s
ˆò ˆò
Equation. ∇. J +
ˆÆ ˆÆ
Displacement Current:
The modified form of Ampere’s Circuital law is ∇xH = J +
∂P
∂t
Displacement current is a current only in the sense of produces a magnetic
field. It has none other properties of current. Eg. Displacement current can
Here ∇xH = J is the Ampere’s circuital law. These two time dependent fields
have finite volume in perfect vacuum where there are no charges of any type.
is do not possible to deal separately but they are interlinked and give rise to
Gauss’s Law for electric fields of charge field’s div D = ∇. D = ρ

electromagnetic field.
In case for charge area region ρ = 0; ∇. D = 0

Unit : Coulomb / metre2 or C/m2
Gauss’s Law for magnetic fields of charge field’s div B = ∇. B = 0

Unit : Weber / metre2 or Tesla.
Faraday’s law in circuital form for induced electromotive force produced by
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with path yields.
∂B
If flux change also emf change. Curl E = ∇x B = −
∂t
. Unit Volt / metre.
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Non – Conducting Medium: ρ = 0 ; = 0, J = H = 0

Maxwell’s equation becomes ∇. E = 0, ∇. B = 0, ∇. H = 0, ∇x D =∈U ∈€
ˆ}
ˆÆ
∇x E =
ˆR
U € ˆÆ
In a free space as ∈U = U =1ρ= =0
Then Maxwell’s equation becomes ∇. E = 0, ∇. B = 0, ∇. H = 0, ∇x H=∈€
ˆ}
ˆÆ
∇x E =
ˆR
€ ˆÆ . Steady state means constant.
Integral forms of Maxwell’s equation:
|• œ . wQ = |” öwF = D. Total charge in volume Q
|• å. wQ = 0
∮ ›Á . wb = t|• !] + # wQ
ˆ„
ˆÆ
∮ ›H . wb = − ˆÆ |• å wQ
ˆ
Physical Significance:
|• œ . wv = |” öwF = v
The total electric flux density œ through the surface enclosing a volume is
equal to the charges a within the volume.
|• œ . wv = 0
The net magnetic flux emerging through and closed surface is zero.
∮ ›Á . wb = t|• !] + # wQ
ˆ„
ˆÆ
Motive force around a closed path is equal to the conduction current plus the
∮ ›H . wb = − ˆÆ |• å wQ
time derivate of the electric flux density through any surface bounded by path.
ˆ
Electro motive force around a closed path is equal to the time derivative of
the magnetic flux density and surface enclosed is the path.
ˆ„
ˆÆ
The time derivative of the electric flux density is called displacement
current.
The term electric current that include born conduction current and
displacement current.
These interpretation of Maxwell’s equation is often referred as world state of
Maxwell’s equation.
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POYNTING THEOREM:
Electromagnetic waves propagated by the source are received by the receiver.
That means there is a transfer of energy from the source to the receivers.
There is a simple and direct relation between rate of energy transfer,
Poynting theorem states the vector product of electric intensities E and

amplitudes of electric and magnetic intensity of the electromagnetic waves.
magnetic field intensity H at any point measure of the rate of energy flow per
Rate of energy flow per unit are a = E x H

unit area.
Mathematically we can write P = E x H
|” H. ]. wF = − ˆÆ |” ! + # wF ; = |• %E x H(. wQ
ˆ @R $ ∈}$
) )
of the surface in a direction dr to the plane containing E and H permit area.

It is interpreted as the amount of the field energy passing through with area
à Ûy" =b@Lþ
∆ ¹
P= ; = J$ •þŒ
or watt / m2
|” H. ]. wF - Represent the instantaneous power dissipated in the volume V.

Physical Interpretation:
| ! + # wF.Poynting vector at any arbitrary points in the field varies

ˆ @R $ ∈} $
ˆÆ ” ) )
inversely as the square of the distance from the point source of radiation. The
definition of pointing vector is not a mandatory (ie) Changeable.
If poynting vector is zero. V here no electromagnetic energy can flow across a
closed surface but it no net field energy is flowing across a closed surface the
In case of time varying fields S = E x H gives the instantaneous value of the

poynting vector may or may not be zero.
pointing vector and the average value is defined as the average over one
complete period.
|” H. ]. wF = − ˆÆ |” ! + # wF
ˆ @R $ ∈}$
) )
From the law of conservation of energy.
Rate of energy dissipation in a volume = The rate of at which the energy
stored in volume is decreasing the rate at which the energy is entering the
volume from outside.
| ”%E x H(wQ represent the rate of flow of energy inward through the surface
of the volume.
| ”%E x H(wQ represent the rate of flow of energy outward through the surface
S enclosing the volume V.
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Electromagnetic potentials H and q:
equation divB = 0. Vector B is always solenoid. Consequently B can be

Vector potential is measured by weber / metre . In one of the Maxwell’s
represented, as the curl of another vector say A. B = curlA.

; Curl!E + ∂t # = 0. (ie) the field of the vectorE +
D
curlE = − %curlA(
∂A ß
D¾ ¹
is
irrotational and must be equal to the gradient of some scalar functions.
= −∇ϕ ; E = −grad ϕ − D¾
ˆ¦
E+
D£
= −grad ϕ ; E +
ß
¹ ˆÆ
Vector A and the scalar ϕ are function of position and time. These are
electromagnetic potentials the scalar ϕ scalar potential. The vector A - Vector
potential.
The permanent dipole moments of the molecules are distributed randomly in
all directions and change direction, because of the thermal motion of the
molecules. When an electric field is applied there is attend any for the
permanent dipoles to align themselves parallel to the field. This orientation
gives rise to orientational or dipolar Polarizability.
For a polar molecule having dipole moment PO at absolute temperature T is
given by, m€ =
T€$
r&©
K – Boltzmann’s constant. Unit Cm3 - CGS system.
Fared – m2 – SI System ; 1 Fared – m2 = 9x1015 cm3
IONIC OR ATOMIC POLARIZABILITY:
I a molecule characterized by ionic bonds, molecules are compared of +ve
and –ve ions. The application of an electric field to any such molecules will
trend to displace the +ve ions relative to the –ve ions.
For a Polyatomic molecule: m8 = ! +Ù #
•$
Ÿ€$ Ù° $
=∈
XS ∈W
r∈ W m)
is Clasius moss offion relation.
∑8 = ∈H+2 gives the required relation between polarizability and dielectric

SR m R ∈ −1
3∈0 H
constant. = Γ ∈y = μ) =∈y
∑8 =
SR m R 2 −1
3∈0 2 +2 this is called Lorentz formula.

Breakdown voltage V and thickness t of the dielectric is given by the relation
¦Æ $
r
V= , A is constant depending open the nature of the medium.
OSILLATING ELECTRIC DIPOLE:
As electric dipole is termed by a pair of charges of equal magnitude and
defined p = ÷wb. Where wb has direction from –ve to the charge along the time
opposite sign separated by a small distance. The dipole moment of a dipole in
joining the change regarding oscillating dipole.

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ELECTROSTATICS OF DIELECTRIC MEDIA:

Dielectric is a substance with in no mobile electrons are necessary for electric
conduction. When voltage applied to such an insulators exceeds a certain
value then it breaks down and allows heavy electric current to flow through it.
If the insulator is solid medium than it get punctured or cracked.
Dielectric strength of an insulator – Dielectric medium is gives by maximum
potential difference with a unit thickness of the medium can with stand
; ∈U = ¡
without breaking down that is the dielectric strength is given by the potential
áÛÞz á 1 Ý//Ù ¡
áÛÞz á záÛÞÛÝ¹yáÝ
gradience. Unit : Vm-1 . Dielectric constant =
∈U = 1 + ¢›. Dielectric strength decreases with increasing thickness.
RADIATION FROM AN OSCILLATING DIPOLE:
£ ¤
The varies quantities of in terms for an oscillating dipoles.
– U
is independent of θ and ϕ and varies as r-1 with distance r.
i) Vector Potential: A = from this equation it is clear that vector potential
Vector potential is everywhere parallel to polar axis wb

ii) Scalar Potential: ϕ = ; =
ò Œb•A ò U
– ¥ U$ – ¥ U$
Scalar potential varies as cos θ and zero in equatorial plane. Where the field
U$
of the two charges cancel exactly. The scalar potential varies as for small
U
value of r and as for large values of r.
£ ¦¤g§¨9ÀV £ ¦¤gg§¨9ÀV
iii) Magnetic Induction B: B = 7
– U$
+ – U©
9
B varies as sin θ and so, is minimum along the axis of the dipole and one
U$ U
along the equatorial plane. The B varies as for small value of r and as for
Poynting Vector: 〈æ〉 = ; 〈æ〉 varies as QRS) N

large values of r.
[ü òª$ •8X$ A
r) $ ¡ U $ ¯ »
The flow of energy along the axis of the dipole is zero and maximum an
equatorial plane.
; P ∝ +–
Radiated Power:
[ü òª $
) ¡ ¯»
P=
The power radiated by an electric dipole proportional to the fourth power of
the frequency. The light emitted by an exited atom or the radio waves
transmitted by a radio antenna are the example of electric dipole radiation.
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RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS:
BASIC IDEAS:
Classical or Newtonian mechanics deals the motion of bodies travelling at
velocities that are very much less than the velocity that are very much less
than the velocity of light, according to it space, time and mass are all absolute
and invariant.
Concept of Space:
Newton assumed that space is absolute and exist in itself without relation to
anything external and remains under all circumstances. Eg. Length of an
object is independent of the conditions under which it is measured.
Concept of Time:
Time also absolute, by its very nature flowing uniformly without reference to
anything external. Eg. The internal of time between two events has the same
value for all observers irrespective of their state of motion.
It two events are simultaneous for an observer; they are simultaneous for all
observers. (ie) Simultaneity is absolute.
Concept of Mass:
In Newtonian Mechanics the mass of a body does not depend on the velocity
of its motion.
The mass of an isolated system of bodies does not change with any
processes occurring within the system. (ie) law of conservation of mass.
Frame of Reference:
A system of co-ordaining axes which defines the position of a particle in two or
Eg. Cartesian co-ordinates d, h, i

three dimensional space known as a frame of reference.
Un-accelerated reference frame in uniform motion of translation relative to

one another are called Galilean frames or Inertial frame.
Accelerated frames are called Non – Inertial frames.
Galilean Transformation:
position of the event by d, h, i. Co-ordinates similarly O’ in S’ by d’, h’, i’.

Let S and S’ be two inertial frames. The observer O in frames S determine the
of two frames differ by vt. Hence d’ = d – F¾.h’ = h and i’ = i

The distance moved by S’ in the x direction in time t = vt, so that x-coordinates
= ; “Æ = ; = “Æ ; ’ = E – F ; = v’ = v so that the
“} ′ “} “† ′ “† “‰ ′ “‰ “@′ “@
“Æ “Æ “Æ “Æ “Æ “Æ
accelerations as measured by the two observers in the two frames are the
same. Hence we say that the acceleration is invariant under Galilean
transform.
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Ethers:
It provides all space, light propagate through ether as the sound waves in air,
the relative motion between earth and ether can be detected. We can choose
fixed frame of reference in stationary ether. We can express all motion
relative to this frame. Galilean transformation filled to explain the laws of
electrodynamics.
LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION:
Lorentz devised a new transformed equation under which velocity of light in
vacuum remains constant independent of the relative motion of source and
observer.
Einstein special theory of velocity:
It deals with system known as inertial or un-accelerated system (ie) the
system moves in uniform rectangular motion relative to one another. It’s
postulates the fundamental laws of physics same form for all inertial system.
2) The velocity of light in vacuum is independent of the relative motion of the
source and observer.
General Theory of Relativity:
It deals with non – inertial accelerated system. It is applicable to the laws of
gravitation and explains it more refined, manner than given by Newton.
LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION IN LENGTH CONTRACTION :
From this equation b < b€ ; b = b€ 1 −

8$
Ý$
Eg. A spherical body appear to be an observer spheroid to a moving observer.
Here b€ is proper length, it is determined by an observer at t=rest with respect

Similarly square as rectangular and circle as ellipse.
to the object. The shortening or contraction in the length of an object along

it’s direction of motion is known as Lorentz Fitzgerald contraction.
There is no contraction along perpendicular to the direction of motion. The
contraction becomes appropriable when v≈ c. The contraction is reciprocal.
TIME DILATION:
Æ
The time interval measured by a clock at rest relative to the observer is called
¬$
the proper time interval (t0) then t =
-$
Let t – be the time interval in S and ¾’ be time interval in Q’ and æ’ have a
velocity F with respect to S. Here t>¾€
We conclude that a clock will be found to run slow due to velocity between
clock and observer. It is known as apparent retarded of clock.
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J
Variation of mass with velocity:
¬$
m= m > m0
-$
If ≈ Ž ; m→ m if shows no material body can have a velocity equal to or
with velocity was given by Kanfmann and Bucherer . Which É ray emitting
greater than the velocity of light. The first verification of the increase in mass
from radioactive materials? Photons sis equal to velocity of light.

MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE:
dEk = C2dm where dE – Change in kinetic energy of the moving particle with
velocity v and moving mass ‘m’
Ek = mC2 – m0C2. The total energy of the body at velocity “V” is
mC2 = Ek + m0C2
mc2 – Energy of the particle at moving velocity V
m0C2 – Rest mass energy (ie) internal energy stored in the particle
E = mc2. This is Einstein’s Mass Energy relation
This relation states that a universal equivalence between mass and energy. It
means mass may appear energy and Energy as mass. This equation forms
basis for nuclear reaction such as fission and fusion.
Unified Mass Unit:
)
The unified mass unit (u) is the rest mass of carbon – 12 atoms.
(ie) 1u = 1.66 x 10-27kg ; E = m0C2 = 1.66 x 10-27 x (3 x108)2 = 1.49 x 10-10J
.–… € °
.¼ € °®
= 931.3 MeV.
Relation between E, m0C2 and P:
J ¯$
¬$
P = mv ; E = mC2 = we get E2 = mo2C4 + P2C2
-$
Minkowski’s four dimensional space, time coordinate is d, h, i.
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UNIT – VI (SPECTROSCOPY)
Spectroscopy is the most powerful tools for study of atomic and molecular
structure.
ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY:
It deals with the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with atoms, which
are most commonly in their lowest energy state called the ground state.
MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY:
It deals with interaction of electromagnetic radiation with molecules, this
results in transition between rotational, vibrarional and in electronic
transition.
Eint = Eelec + Evib + Erot ; Ee > Ev > Erot ; Ee≈ 10r ; ∆H” ≈ 10¼
These energies of the diatomic molecule may be writes as .
If Ee and EV constant, then the transition between in different rotational

energy level gives pure rotation spectra.
Ee is constant, we get the transition between rotational and vibratinal level.
Which gives vibration – rotation spectrum, these spectra are in near IR region.
Transition between electronic state, vibration and rotational levels we get
electronic spectrum, these spectra lies visible and UV region. These are also
called Photo electron spectra (PES)
Raman spectra relate to vibrational and or rotational transition in molecules
but here only scattering is measured but not the absorption of radiation. The
scattered light is having same frequency as that of the incident beam is called
Rayleigh scattering and a small amount of light having different frequency
than the incident is known as Raman Scattering. A Raman spectrum lies in
visible region.
ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY:
Emission spectrum classified as line continuous and band spectra.
Line Spectra: This is obtained when the light emitting substance is in the
atomic state. This is also called atomic spectrum. Eg. These spectra obtained
from the light sources like mercury, sodium, neon, discharge tube etc…
ROTATIONAL SPECTRA:
(102 – 103 ¿) and microwave region (≈103 – 104 ¿)

Which arise from transition between rotational states? It is observed in for IR
Molecules which have permanent electric dipole moment can absorb or emit
electromagnetic radiation. Rotational spectra absorbed in absorption spectra.
PRINCIPAL AXES OF ROTATION:
designed as IA, IB and IC or d, h, i.

A body has three principal moment of inertia, one about each axis usually
Three directions of rotation may be taken as 1) about the bond axis

2) End – over – end rotation in the plane of the paper.
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3) End – over – end rotation at right angles to the plane.

Linear molecules:
The molecules in which arranged in a straight line such a HCl and Co2. Here
rotation are same & very small and approximately zero. So that
Symmetric Top: IB = IC ≠ IA ; IA ≠ 0. If IB = IC > IA the molecules are called

IB = IC + IA = 0
problets , the IB = IC < IA the molecules are called oblats.
Asymmetric Top: IA ≠ IB ≠ IC Eg. H2O, CH2 = CHCl.

Spherical Top: IA = IB = IC Eg. CH4
The hetero nuclear molecules such as HF, HCl, HBr, CO etc exhibit rotational
spectra.
The homo nuclear diatomic molecules such as H2, O2, N2 … symmetric linear
molecules such as … CO2 spherical top poly atomic molecules such as CH4
does not exhibit rotational spectra.
CH4 – Diactive molecules CO2 – Inactive molecules.
These homo nuclear molecular have no permanent dipole moment and hence
there is no emission of IR radiation.
Homo nuclear molecules show rotational Raman spectra which is an effect
arising due to the polarizability of the molecules.
The molecules such as H2, Cl2… are not having dipole moment, these
molecules are microwave inactive on other hand the molecules like HCl,
CH3Cl an having dipole moment and their interaction will give to a spectrum.
Such molecules are said to be microwave active.
Micro wave consist almost of absorption spectrum and the substance must
be gaseous state in solid, liquid or gaseous state.
ROTATIONAL ENERGY FOR DIATOMIC MOLECULE:
The simplest model of a rotating diatomic molecule is that of a rigid rotator.
. ; r2 = J . I = M µ R) = μr€)
J$ J°
I = m1r12 + m2r22 ; m1r1 = m2r2 r1 + r2 = R
J° mJ$ ° mJ$
r1 =
μ - Reduced mass ; μ = J
J° J$
° mJ$
Angular momentum of the rotating diatomic molecule is L = pJ J + 1 ℏ

J = 0, 1, 2, 3….
; L = I+
² ²m .$
º—$ ª
L2 = J (J +1) ℏ ; J is the rotational quantum number.
Rotational kinetic Energy of the diatomic molecules: Ej =
)
Thus the rotator can have a discrete let of energy levels.

Rotational Transition occurs only in those molecules which posses permanent
electric dipole moment.
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Non – Polar: Diatomic molecules H2 symmetric poly atomic molecules CO2 ,
Selection rule for rotational diatomic molecules: ∆J = ±1 ; ∆J = −1 ;

CH4 do not exhibit rotational spectra.
∆J = +1 ; ∆h = ±1
At room temperature maximum:
Boltzmann distribution. Nj = N0 › }=/Ã@

The population of various rotational level can be calculated by using
Population rises to maximum and diminishes population is maximum at
−
&© L
).™³ )
J=
absorbed photon is ∆U = J+1

Rotational spectra are always obtained in absorption. The frequency of
ℏ
)—ª™
The spectrum of rigid molecules consisted equally spaced lines. (ie) Constant
separation 2B. The rotational energy in the lowest energy level is zero.
Good number of rotational energy levels are well populated at ordinary
temperature.
For a non rigid rotator the analytical expression for the transition is (wave
− 4œ ] + 1
numbers) are non rigid rotation.
)ñ µm r
Ž8K8“ ŽbÆ*Æ8bX
U=
Vibrational energy for diatomic:
Molecules – Vibrating diatomic molecules behaves the oscillation oscillator.
If the energy of the atom is increased the oscillation will be more vigorous.
The bond behaves like a spring and obey’s Hook’s law. c = −g H − H›

The bond is length is disturbed from equilibrium length re to now length r.
Energy curve is parabolic. E = g H − H› )

)
The bond length Ve → H

m1 and m2 are two bodies connected by spring
Restoring force an each diatomic molecule is given by

¿ = −g H − H› ………….(1)
“ $ U°
“Æ $
¿) = −g H − H› ………….(2)
“ $ U$
“Æ $
J$ U J° U
K is a force constant. Measures shiftiness of the bond.
J° mJ$ J° mJ$
r1 = ; r2 =
substituting this value in equation 1 and 2
+ d=0 ; + +) d = 0 ; + ) =
“$ } o “$ } o
“Æ $ £ “Æ $ £
Frequency c = F€ =
o
) £
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o
) Œ £
Wave Number : J = m-1
Eigen values for the energy of linear harmonic oscillator is given by
HF = !+ + # ℎF or + F +
) )
cm-1
sB
)
Zero point energy :
Vibrational spectra will be observed only in the hetro diatomic molecules. HF,
HCl, HBr. Homo nuclear have no dipole moment.
All vibrational lines obtained from harmonic oscillator have the same energy.
Pure vibrational spectra are observed only in liquids. Because interaction
The vibratioanl spectrum is expected to consists of a single band at ωcm

between neighbouring molecules prevent their rotational motion.
The observation of a very intense band in the infra red spectrum thus leads to
the conclusion that is a vibrational spectrum, the nuclei carrying out harmonic
vibrations along inter nuclear axis.
Observed in near infra red region ≈ 1 - 102

Rotational and vibrational spectra of diatomic molecule:
Only for molecules having permanent dipole moments. Hetro nuclear

diatomic molecules exhibit this spectral Eg. HCl.
Observed in absorption. A hetro nuclear diatomic vibrating molecules
accompanied by an oscillating dipole moment.
Homo nuclear diatomic molecules are zero dipole moment for all inter nuclear
distances fail to interact with radiation and so give no vibrational spectra.
Diatomic molecule can execute rotation and vibration quite in depending. This
∆U = ±1, ±2 for vibration ; ∆J = ±1 for rotation.

is called Born Opponent linear approximation selection rules.
Total energy due to vibration and rotation is given by Etotal = Er + Er joules

+ !E + # ℏ ! #
² ²m ℏ$ √o
)ª ) J
E=
Spacing between the lines in both the P and R branch is ∆U =

ℏ
)—ª
HBr – Exhibit vibration and rotation molecular spectrum - Absorption
Spectrum.
Electronic spectra of molecules:
F= + +
}_° }_$ }·° }·$ }W° }W$
Give rise to the transition between rotation vibration and electronic transition
s s s
For rotation spectra ∆J = ±1 , For vibrational spectra ∆U = ±1

Selection rules are identical with diatomic molecule
For in harmonic: ∆J = ±1 ; ∆U = ±1, ±2, ±3

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RAMAN SPECTRA:
A beam of monochromatic light is passed through an organic liquid such
benzene or tolerance the scattered light contain other frequencies in addition
the original frequency this is called Raman Effect.
The spectrum of scatted light is found to consist of lines with same frequency
(Rayleigh Line). Additional weak lines of changed frequencies (Raman lines)
Line on low frequency side – Stokes line, Line on high frequency side – Anti
stokes line.
Stoke lines are more intense than Anti-stoke lines. Most of the Raman lines
are strongly polarized. Raman Spectrum is characteristics of the scattering
substance. In Rayleigh scattering or coherent scattering there is no change in
wavelength.
Raman scattering is called in coherent. Scattering because it contains
modified wavelength as well as original wavelength.
In low resolution , the Raman displacement ∆F agrees exactly with the wave
Raman Effect is optical liquid of Compton Effect only is to optical region.
number, at the main vibrational – rotational absorption band in the main

infrared spectrum of the molecules.
For all these diatomic molecules for which both the Raman Spectra and IR
spectra are observed.
For homo nuclear molecules H2, N2, O2 … the IR spectrum does not occur but
Raman Spectrum occur. Under high resolution, the exciting line is found to
have on both sides close, approximately equidistance line this is pure
rotational spectra. The separation between successive rotational line is very
nearly twice the separation between successive lines in the for IR spectrum.
They constitute vibrational Raman spectrum.
Experimental arrangement for Raman spectra:
Intense line – source with distinct lines in the blue – violet region.
Raman Tube: Filled with experimental liquids.
Spectrograph: High height gathering power combined with good resolution.
Raman spectra of gases are generally weaker them liquids.
Classical Theory:
When a beam of visible ultraviolet light falls upon a molecules the rapidly.
Oscillating electric field of the beam induces an oscillating clinic dipole
moment in the molecule irrespective of whether the molecule has a
The field associated with a light beam of frequency F, \ \€ QRS2ÈF′¾

permanent dipole moment or not. The molecule is said to be polarized.
Induced dipole moment in a vibrating molecule. ½U = m\

m - Polarizability of the molecule ; m = m€ F € + m 2ÈF¾
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½U = m\ ; m = m€ F € + m h 2È 2FUbÆ ¾
Induced dipole moment in a rotating molecule:
distances Fb•Œ or either side of Rayleigh line F and also rotational Raman
In the spectrum of the scattered light one obtains vibrational Raman Lines at
lines at distance 2FUbÆ on either of Rayleigh line F′

The molecule need not have a permanent dipole moment for its Raman
spectra to appear. Like HCl, the homo nuclear molecules N2, O2, H2 show
Raman spectra although they do not show IR spectra.
The classical explanation has the discrepancies:
According to classical theory, the Raman lines and the two sides of the
Rayleigh line must be of the same intensity actually , the Raman lines on the
While Fb•Œ has a fixed value FUbÆ can classically, take any value. Therefore
high frequency side (Anti – stokes) are too weak to be observed.
classically, the rotational Raman spectrum must be continuous on either side

of the un-displaced line. This is disc certainly of observation.
Quantum Theory:
According to quantum explanation of Raman effect when an incident photon
E”, the total energy hcF + H remains conserved.

of energy hcF collides with a scattered molecule initially in a stationary state
; Raman Shift ∆V = .Ý
sŒB ∆} sŒBm ∆} ∆à
sŒ sŒ
The vibrational Raman Shift is |∆F|B = +
Stokes line : ; Anti-stokes line :
The rotational Raman Shift is |∆F|B = 4å !] + # ; = 6B, 10B, 14B, 18B

Pure rotational Raman Spectrum:
r
)
The line separation (4B) is twice as great as that in the for IR spectrum of the
same molecule. In homo nucleus molecules like A2, D2, N2 , the rotational
lines are alternate line weak and strong. In O2 every alternate line is missing.
Raman Effect for determining information regarding the structure of the
diatomic and poly atomic molecules.
To determine force constant and bond length. Raman Effect is also
incoherent scattering and is considered and optical analogue of the Compton
Effect.
Raman Effect in crystal is complementary to X – ray crystal study.
ELECTRONIC SPECTRA:
Appeared invisible and ultraviolet region. Involving a charge in all the three
electronic, vibrational and rotational energies of the molecule. Studied in both
emission and absorption. All molecules exhibit electronic spectra. Homo
nuclear molecules H2, O2, N2 give electronic spectra because, the
instantaneous dipole moment changes during the redistribution of electronic
change which accompanies the electronic transition.
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Electronic state of diatomic molecules:

When one of the atoms forming a diatomic molecule is electrically excited
that is, its valence electron is pushed in to an orbital further from the nucleus,
the molecule is said to be in an electrically exciting state.
The various possible electron arrangements for a given molecule form a
pattern of allowed electronic states. For the molecules.
Each electronic state of the molecules has a different potential energy curve
characterized by a, minimum at an equilibrium inter nuclear distance a
dissociation limit. A let of discrete vibrational levels and let of discrete
rotational levels.
When a transition of the molecule from one electronic state to the other take
place, the emitted or absorbed radiation fall in the visible or ultra violet
portion of the electromagnetic of electronic bond system in emission.
An electronic transmission involves a change is all the three electronic
U = (é› µ − é›′′ + ] µ − ]′′ + \ µ − \′′

vibrational and rotational energies of the molecules. The Wave number ,
(Electronic) (Vibrational) (Rotational)
The spin angular moments of …… nucleus is pI I + 1 ℏ

Quantum Descriptions:
The magnetic moment = H x spin angular momentum

= H x pI I + 1 ;E=− Á= ² ²+1 Á
. y. /)
)— )—
Then
Then two energy level for mI = +½ − ½ ; E1 = − ! # Á; E2 = + ! # Á

Us Us
) ) ) )
Source:
IR incandesant lamp, Nernst Glower, Globar source, Mercury Arc
Monochromator : Prism , Grating
Microwave sources :Klystron’s Magnetron , Gunn diode, Beam direction –
using wave guides.
Tungsten lamp, Hydrogen discharge lamp, Deuterium lamp, xenon discharge
lamp, mercury arc.
Detectors: Barrier layer cell, photo cell, photo multiplier tube.
Vibrations of Poly atomic molecules:
For Non – linear = 3N – 6 fundamental vibration. Linear = 3N – 5
Fundamental vibration also called normal modes of vibrations.
Eg. For water (Non – linear) = 3 Normal mode of vibrations
CO2 (linear ) = 4 Normal mode of vibrations
Absorption electronic spectra gives more information about molecules than
emission spectra. The total energy of a diatomic molecule is made up of
rotational , vibrational and electronic energies.
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FRANK – CONDON PRINCIPLE:

It state that an electronic transition takes place so rapidly that a vibrating
molecule does not change its inter nuclear distance during the transition.
This principle is able to account for the intensities of lines in vibrational
electronic spectra. Molecules posses’ permanent dipole moment give pure
rotational spectra, while a vibrational spectrum requires a change of dipole
moment.
At electronic spectra requires changes in electronic distribution in a molecule
are always accompanied by a dipole moment change this is called vibrational
course structure.
When it accompanied with rotational changes it is known as rotational fine
structure. Frank – Condon principle explains photo chemical association. It is
used to determine the intensities of band spectra. It reveals the various from
of hydrogen present in molecule. It provides both qualitative and quantitative
analysis of organic compounds.
HUND’S COUPLING SCHEME:
The rotational energy depends upon the modes of the coupling between the
various angular momenta . F. Hund (1926) described four types of coupling
depending upon which of the different interaction determinate. These
molecular models are Hund’s cases.
This case occurs for states corresponding to ± > 0, where ±- electronic

Hund’s Coupling case (a):
angular momentum component. The interaction of the nuclear rotation with

electronic orbital and spin motion is weak.
In this case (a) the magnetic field generated by the orbiting electrons is
sufficiently strong to couple the spin vector to the inter nuclear axis.
In this case (b) , the magnetic field generated by orbiting electrons is so weak
that the spin vector is no longer coupled to inter nuclear axis.
In this case (c) this case rarely found among the less stable enticed state of
It occurs when the interaction between I and S is stronger than its inter
its heavier molecules particularly the halogen
nuclear axis.
the outer electron generating the orbital angular momentum I and S for
In case (d) this case occurs in some heavily excited state of H2 and He2, when
removed from the nuclei and inner electron.

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NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR):

NMR is the branch of spectroscopy which radio frequency waves induce
transition between magnetic energy levels of nuclei of a molecule.
NMR is a powerful tool for investigating nuclear structure; it is used to study
the shape and structure of the molecule.
Resonance frequency gives characteristics of the nucleus and strength of the
applied filed.
NMR may be used to detect the presence of a particular nucleus in a
number of resonating nuclei ∝ estimated than quantitatively.

compound. The strength of the NMR signal is directly proportional to the
The number of signals in the NMR indicates the different kinds of proton that
a molecules contains.
Intensities of the signals tells about the how many protons of each kind there
are, The splitting of a signal in to several peaks tells about the environment of
the proton with respect to the other nearby proton.
CHEMICAL SHIFT:
All nuclei are associated with electrons in atoms and molecules. When placed
in a magnetic field the surrounding electron cloud tends to circulate in such a
direction as to produce a field opposing that applied. Such shift in the
position of NMR absorption due to shielding and de-shielding of proton by
The chemical shift 7 = x 10¼ öö¿

ionized Magnetic field of electrons are known as Chemical Shift.
R Uþ< R ×*JúLþ
R Uþ<
x 10– öö¿ ; 7 - Repressed in ppm.

¸ •*JúLþ ¸ Uþ<
¸ Uþ<
If the induced magnetic field opposes the applied field , the proton is shielded
B=0
If it reinforces the applied magnetic field the field felt by proton is reinforced
and proton said to be de-shielded. The total filed experienced by the nucleus
≈ 10 ä depends electron density around the proton. Beff = B0(1 – )

is Beff = Bapplied – Binduced
Chemical shifts separation measured in hertz or tesla. It is directly

proportional to Bo.
Spin Lattice Interaction:
The transfer energy from spin system to other degrees of freedom is referred
to a relaxation. The spins in the upper state transfer excess energy to the
surrounding. This interact is called spin lattice interaction or spin lattice
The time required for n(H) to becomes n(0)/e Ce. E = ½ +

relaxation.
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DIPOLE – DIPOLE INTERACTION:

For a system contain lying “N” magic moment. Local in s rigid lattice the
;
Hamiltonian of the dipole dipole interaction is given by
H = ∑8,= −
£9 £9 r £9 .U8= £9 U8=
U8 » = U8 $ =
As a result of this there will be a addition field in the site of nucleus, this field
adds or opposite applied field depending on whether the other nucleus are
particle or anti-parallel nucleus in quantities.
In liquid infraction is variable but in solids it will be most dominant.
Infra red spectra (Pure rotational):
S. No. Vibration Rotational Raman Spectra
Vibrational transition V = 0, 1 Some in vibrational stokes,
1
Raman band
Energy of the absorbed radiation No such relationship
must be equal to the energy between incident radiation
2
difference between two states of the and scattered molecules
molecules.
Presence of permanent dipole Not necessary but, once due
3 moment is must for the production to the polarizability of the
of spectra molecule.
In poly atomic molecule , the Raman and infra red data give information
regarding the shape.
CO2 and CS2 ; O – C – O , S – C – S both are linear and symmetric.
N2O : N = N – O Linear and Non – symmetric
Transition must be represented by vertical lines , vibrational changes produce
a course structure, Rotational changes produce of time structure
Interval Rule:
Linde discovered a rule regarding the interval in frequency between the
difference levels constituting a multiple. It states that the frequency internal
between two levels with total angular momenta (J +1) and J respectively is
proportional to (J+1)
Zeeman Effect:
Magneto optical phenomenon discovered by Zeeman.
It a source of light producing line spectrum is placed in a Magnetic field the
spectral lines are split up in to components
When the soliciting occurs in to two or three lines is called normal Zeeman
effect. The splitting of a spectral line into more than three components in a
ordinary weak magnetic field called anomalous Zeeman effect.
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Explained by using the idea of the spin of the electron. Raman effect in
crystals is complementary to X – Ray crystal study and provides information
about the binding forces in crystals.
Spinning Electron:
To explain observed fine structure of spectral lines and to explain the
anomalous Zeeman Effect. This concept was introduced.
To explain the splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field three more
quantum numbers are introduced.
1) Magnetic orbital quantum number (mR)
2) Magnetic spin quantum number (ms)
3) Magnetic Total angular momentum quantum number (mj)
Stern – Garlach experiment provided on excellent proof of the space
quantization of atom.
The idea of space quantization leads to an explanation of Zeeman Effect.
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UNIT – VII (SOLID STATE PHYSICS)

DENSITY OF STATES:
The density of states is defined as the number of electronic states per unit
energy range. The density of states of a free electron gas is given by
/)
Z(E) = 4b ! #
J
)}À X
In free electron gas there are two quantum states.
DENSITY OF STATES CURVE:
According to free electron theory the density of state curve is a parabola
without any discontinuous. I case of real crystal unit periodic pot, lattice, there
are different zones which are separated by forbidden region and the zones
have fixed number of energy states.
The density of states curve in a real crystal terminates at the end of each
zone. If there is an overlap between the first and second zone, the material is
a conductor. If there is a small separation between the two densities of states
curve, the material is semiconductor. If the separation between the two
densities of state curve is large the material is insulator.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITIES (” :
The electrical conductivity may be defined as the quantity of electricity that
flows in unit time per unit area of cross section of the conductor per unit
potential gradient.
=
Xþ $ B
¼Ã¹ @
The quantity of electricity is q = AE+. The electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivities are different for different material due to the
difference in free electrons.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (º :
per second is given by Q = SF±

The quantity of heat passing through a cross section of the rod per unit area
“}
r “Æ
From kinetic theory of gases E = Äñ é. The thermal conductivity K = SF±Äñ
r
) )
Free electron theory is founded to be successful to explain the thermal
conductivity.
WIEDEMANN AND FRANZ LAW:
It states that the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity
at any temperature (but not at low temperature) is a constant for all metals.
)
= = 3 ! þ¹ # é = Qé
@sþUJ*L ŒbX“@ŒÆ8B8Æ† Ã Ã
}LþŒÆU8Œ*L ŒbX“@ŒÆ8B8Æ†
Ã
The ratio of is independent of the nature of the metal.
Ã
The ratio is proportional to the absolute temperature
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Ã Ä )
! å#
$
{ r ›
The Lorentz number L is defined as L = .
The value of Lorentz number is gives as L = 2.72 x 10-13 esrc / deg2 (or)
L = 2.45 x 10-8 watt.ohm / deg2
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS:
i) First law of Thermodynamics:
Jules law gives the relation between the work done and the heat produced. It
is true when the whole of the work done is used in producing heat (or) vice
versa. But in practice, when a certain amount of heat is supplied to a system
the hole of the heat energy may not be converted in to work, part of the heat
may be used in doing external work and the rest of the heat might be used in
including the internal energy of the molecules.
Mathematical expression for first law of thermodynamics is δH=w»+δW
First law of thermodynamics states that the amount of heat given to a system
is equal to the sum of the increase in the internal energy of the system and
the external work done.
For a cyclic process, the change with internal energy of the system is zero
First law of thermodynamics for cyclic process therefore given by ∮ δH =∮ δW

because the system is brought back to the original condition.
for a system undergoing any number of complete cycles∮ δH =∮ δW (or)

This equation represents Joule’s law. From the first law of thermodynamics,
H=W
ii) Second law of Thermodynamics:
A heat engine is concerned with the conservation of heat energy into
mechanical work. A refrigerator is a device to cool a certain space below the
temperature of its surrounding.
The first law of thermodynamics is a quantitative statement which does not
preclude the possibility of existence of either a heat engine or a refrigerator.
The first law of thermodynamics does not contradict the existence of a 100%
efficient heat engine or a self – acting refrigerator.
A new term reservoir is used to explain the second law. A reservoir is a device
having infinite thermal capacity and which can absorb, retain (or) reject
unlimited quantity of heat without any change in its temperature.
In a heat engine, the engine draw’s heat from the source and after doing
some external work, it rejects the remaining heat to the sink.
The source and sink are of infinite thermal capacity and they maintain
constant temperature.
According to Kelvin, it is impossible to get a continuously supply of work from
a body by cooling it to a temperature lower that of its surroundings.
The working substance can do work only if its temperature is higher that that
of the surroundings.
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According to Claussius it is impossible to make heat flow from a body at a

lower temperature to a body at a flow higher temperature without doing
external work on the working substance. This past is applicable in the case of
the plants and refrigerator.
The second law of thermodynamics plays an important part for practical parts
such as heat engine and refrigerators.
The first law of thermodynamics only given the relation between the work
done and heat produced. The second law of thermodynamics given the
condition under which heat can be converted into work.
MAXWELL’S THERMODYNAMICAL RELATIONS:
From the two laws of thermodynamics, Maxwell’s was able to device Six
fundamental thermo-dynamical relations.
The state of the system can be specified by any pair of quantities
(viz) Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and entropy (S)
From the first law of thermodynamics δH=w»+δW
δH=w»+PdV ; dU = δH – PdV
qR
@
From the second law of thermodynamics ds = , δH = Tds ; dU = Tds – P dV ;
Tds = dU + δW (or) Tds = dU + PdV
PHASE TRANSITION:
The Claussius – Clapeyron Latent heat equation is ! #=@

First order Phase Transition:
“ò F
“@ ”$ ”°
Classius – Clapeyron equation holds good in the first order phase transition.
In this process, there is transference of heat and hence there is change in
entropy and volume. The first order transition can be defined as that one in
which the Gibb’s function with respect to pressure and temperature change
discontinuously at the transition point.
Second order Phase Transition:
In this process, there is no transference of heat and there is no change of
volume. It has been found in the case of transition from liquid helium I to
liquid helium II. Second order phase transition can be defined as the
phenomenon that takes place with no change in entropy and volume at
constant temperature and pressure.
Examples:
1. Transition of liquid helium I to liquid helium II
2. Transition of a ferromagnetic material to a paramagnetic material.
3. Transition of super conducting metal into a ordinary conductor in the
absence of a magnetic field.
4. Order – disorder transition in chemical compound and alloys.
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In the case of second order phase transition there is no discontinuously of

Gibb’s function with respect to pressure and temperature.
However the second order derivatives change discontinuously.
PRODUCTION OF LOW TEMPERATURES:
There is no limit for high temperatures but there is a limit for low temperature.
The lowest temperature correspondents to 0K (–273.160C) called the
absolute temperature.
Temperature below zero degree centigrade can be obtained with the help of
freezing mixtures. Temperature upto –650C can be obtained with KOH & ice.
With the liquefaction of gases temp lower than –650C could be achieved.
With liquid helium boiling under normal pressure a temperature of –268.90C
can be reached. By boiling liquid helium under reduced pressure temperature
of the order of 1 K could be obtained.
With liquid helium (isotope He3) boiling under reduced pressure a
temperature of 0.4k can be reached. Temperature below 0.4K can be leaded
by adiabatic demagnetization method due to Debye & Giauque.
MEASUREMENT OF LOW TEMPERATURES:
Liquid Thermometer:
With alcohol thermometer temperature up to –1000C can be measured. With
mercury in glass temperature up to –300C can be measured. The accuracy in
about 0.10C.
Gas Thermometer:
Constant volume hydrogen thermometer can be used to measure up to
–2500C. Constant volume helium thermometer temperature to –2680C can
be determined.
Resistance Thermometer:
With potential resistance thermometer temperature up to –1900C can be
measured accurately. Its accuracy is 0.010C
Thermo electric Thermometer:
With Cu – constant (or) Pt – Silver thermocouple, temperature up to –2500C
can be measured. Its accuracy is 0.050C
Vapour pressure Thermometer:
These can be used to measure –2680C. Below –2680C helium Vapour
pressure thermometer is used. It can be used up to –2720C
Magnetic Thermometer:
Near about the absolute zero temperature magnetic thermometers are used.
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LIQUIFICATION OF GASES Ag, Cu:

Liquefaction of O2 by picket using cascade process
Using Jule – Kelvin principle H2, air, helium are liquefied. The thermal
conductivity of He – II gas an abnormally. High value and its many times more
than that of Cu and Ag. He – II gas a higher heat of vaporization and smaller
tension.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF SOLIDS:
Delong and Petit Law: (Classical Theory)
The product of atomic weight and the specific heat at constant volume for all
elements in a solid state is a constant (ie) A x CV = Constant for all element in
solid.
The value of constant = 2.52 x 104 Jules. According to this theory atomic heat
capacity of a substance is constant at all temp. Nernst and Linder man found
that the atomic heat capacity varies directly proportional to the various
temperature. (ie) i) CV increases to max. with increase of high temperature
ii) CV decreases to zero with decrease of temperature
The variation of specific heat capacity with temperature could not be
explained on the basis of classical theory of heat.
Einstein Theory:
The first attempt to explain the variation (or) discrepancies in the classical
theory of hest was made by Einstein 1906 on the basis of Quantum theory.
Classically the atoms of the solid considered as the simple harmonic
oscillator having continuous Energy.
Einstein assumed that the atoms are again identical independent harmonic
oscillator with a single natural frequency but their energy is not continuous
discrete.
In this, the energies are quantized and they have only discrete values of
hF, 2ℎF …. En = nhF
At first, Einstein used (Planks results latter on Quantum mechanical result.
given by E = !S + # ℎF = !S + # ℏ+€
According the quantum mechanics the energy of the harmonic oscillator is
) )
sB
Einstein Assumption that, each atom has three degrees of freedom. The
_¾·
mean energy per degree of freedom is as calculated by plank by the
z{
rsB
application of quantum theory. Energy of each atom = _¾· .
z{
r;sB
Total internal energy of solid = (U) = _¾·
z{
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ℏ¿
)
Atomic heat capacity CV = 3NKB ! #
ℏ[ þ ¹{
z
$
Ã¹ @ ℏ¿
•þ ¹{
z ž
ℏ+0
Einstein temperature N} =
Äå
,
Atomic heat capacity in terms of Einstein temperature is
VM
AM )
CV = 3NKB ! #
þ{
$
@ VM
Oþ { P
AM )
At high temperature CV = 3NKB (or) 3R (ie) CV approaches classical result.
At low temperature CV = 3NKB ! # › ≫1

VM
{
@
At low temperature the lattice specific heat is proportional to T3 law. CV ∝ T3
When T≪ N} (Low) the specific heat is proportional to › { which indicates

VM
that the Einstein function falls on rapidly than it should at low temperature.
For many metallic elements the Einstein temperature lies between
100 – 2000C and thus the transition from low to high temperature should
occur in the temperature range.
DEBYE THEORY:
At low temperature the Einstein curve deviates from the exptal curve. Einstein
assumed that the atoms of the crystal vibrate independent at the same
frequency.
Debye assumes that atoms not as isolated oscillator all vibrating at the same
frequency but as a system of coupled oscillator producing a spectrum of
natural frequency.
Difference: Debye considered the vibrational modes of a crystal as a hole
where as Einstein considered that the vibration of a single atom with
assumption that atomic vibrations are independent of each other.
DEBYE APPOXIMATION:
As long as the wavelength of the wave is large as compared with the inter-
atomic distances the crystal can be recorded as a continuous.
= 4È ! + # • ) wÁ
The number of independent modes of vibration per unit volume in the crystal
)
¯_» ¯y»
…; s •» “•
The energy of the solid E = » _¾·
¸Â
z{
s•
The average energy of an oscillator having frequency • is _¾·
z{
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The Debye temperature is given as N„ =

s‚Â
Ã¹
|
þ .} ü “}
The specific heat capacity of crystal CV = 9NKB »
}Â þ $
In turns of Debye temperature the specific heat capacity

VÃ
(or) 3R FD ! Ã#
r {
›d .d4 wd A
CV = 9NKB ! # |€
@
A Ã ›d −1 2 @
VÃ
– {
›d .d4wd
FD is called the Debye function and is give as FD = 3! # |€
@
A Ã ›d −1 2
At high temperature the energy of the crystal is (E) = 3NKBT and the specific
heat capacity of the crystal is [CV = 3NKB = 3R]. This result in accordance
agreed with the classical result.
At low temperature: The specific heat capacity of the crystal
È – ?Äñ !A # . This is known as Debye T3 law.
) @ r
ä Ã
CV =
}Â »
Ã¹ @ r
The energy of the crystal E = 9NKBT ! # |€ þ
} “}
s‚
E ∝ T4 Phonons and Photons obey law. This result is analogues to Stefan’s
law for the density of Black Body Radiation
WE can say that Phonons and Photons obey T4 law only at the same statistics
with the difference that phonons obey T4 law only at low temperature. While
Photons obey T4 law at all temperature.
cube of the absolute temperature CV ∝ T3

At low temperature the specific heat capacity in directly proportional to the
Solid ÄÅ Solid ÄÅ Solid ÄÅ

Na 150 Fe 420 NaCl 281
K 100 Co 385 KCl 230
Ag 215 Al 390 AgCl 183
Au 170 Sn 260 AgBr 144
zn 250 Pt 225 CaFz 474
PROPERTIES OF DIAMAGNETISM:
It was discovered by Michael Faraday. Sb, Bi, Hg, Au and Cu all the examples
of the diamagnetic substances.
For diamagnetic substances <0 and is independent of temperature. In the
absence of external applied field the net magnetic moment of a diamagnetic
material is zero. With the application of an external magnetic field a net
dipole moment, opposing the field is induced with atoms (or) molecules. In
paramagnetic material there is also a diamagnetic effect but CE is much
weaker than that of the paramagnetism.
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LANGEVIN THEORY OF DIAMAGNETISM:
¿ = current x area ; m = +€ H )
þ
The magnetic moment of the electron rotating with circular orbits is given by
)
The Lorentz force acting on the electron is given as FL = −e(V xB) = −eBr+
The condition of stable motion is given by ¿H+) = − ›åH+

‰þ $
– ¡ U$
+ = +€ − ›
ñ
)J
. From this , the result of establishing a field of flux density
velocity !− # å. This is called Larmer Theorem. The change in magnetic

B is to set up a processional motion of the electronic orbits with angular
þ
)J
moment of the electron is ∆¿ = −

ñþ $ U $
–J
The induced moment per atom becomes ∆¿*ÆbJ = −

ñþ ∑ U $
–J
∑ H)
;ñþ $
–J
The magnetization M =
∑ H)
£ ;þ $
Volume susceptibility of the material ¢ =
‹
Æ ¼J
=
?Ç < H2 >
− 0 ›2
¢=
6¿
¢ is independent of the field strength and temperature . This is agreed with
Curie’s experimental results.
PARAMAGNETISM:
susceptibility ¢ > 0 and depends on temperature according to Curie law.

Al, O2, Pt are examples of paramagnetic substances. Their magnetic
Para magnetism occurs in those substances where the individual atoms, ions
or molecules posses a permanent magnetic dipole moment.
LANGEVIN THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM:
He considered a paramagnetic gas in which each atom or molecule possess a
permanent magnetic moment
The mutual magnitude interaction between the different gas particulars is
neglected. When the paramagnetic gas is subjected to an external magnitude
field, the state of magnetization will be determined by 2 factors 1) The
applied magnetic fields 2) The thermal agitation
The applied magnetic field which tends to alien the magnetic axes molecules
units own direction.
The probability that a dipole is included at an angle N to the filed direction in

The thermal agitation that works to disorganize the orderly state so produced.
È©É¨V
thermal equilibrium is proportional › z¹ {
=
| £ ÝÜ‘ A“U
| “U
The average magnetization with field direction is given by
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= 7cot ℎm − S9 = Q m . Q m is called Langevin function.

The Langevin function Q m = 7cot ℎm − 9
S
At low temperature (T) (or) large applied field (H, the Lagevin function L m
tends to unity L m = 1
The average magnetization at low temperature = . Saturation is reached
When Á ≪ Äñ é. (ie) Temperature is high and H is small, the Langevin

when all the atomic dipole are parallel to B.
function becomes L m = =
S £R ;£$ R
r rÃ¹ @ rÃ¹ @
. The magnetization becomes M =
Magnetic susceptibility ¢ = =
ç 2 a
3Äå é é
Langevin theory could not account for the infinite relation between Para and
Ferro magnetion.
QUANTUM THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM:
In classical theory it has been stated that any orientation of electronic orbits
to field direction is possible. Quantum theory contradicts this statement and
suggests the there can be only certain permitted orientations of epic (atom)
orbits.
These allowed orientation of an atom, when placed in a magnetic filed the
field direction are given by cos N =
ÊË
µ
çµ - has the (2J+1) possible values of J, (J-1)J-2)….0. J - resultant Quantum
çµ ñ u. The magnetic potential of the atom is = −çµ ñ uÁ

number. The component of magnetic moment parallel to the H is equal to
Assuming that the Maxwell – Boltzmann statistics is applicable the number of

ÌË ¹ ÍÈ
atoms of the gas having quantum number. çµ will be proportional to › z¹ {
The total magnetic moment per unit volume along the lines of force will be
Ë ÌË ¹ ÍÈ
∑Ì Î Ë ÊË £¹ Kþ z¹{
Ë
M= Ë ÌË ¹ ÍÈ
∑Ì þ z¹ {
ËÎ Ë
ÌË ¹ÍÈ
z¹ {
≪
When , the temperature is high (or) the applied field H is small
;K$ £¹
$
µ µm R
rÃ¹ @
M=
The values of ∑ÊµÅ µ ç] = ; ∑ÊµÅ µ1 = 2] + 1

µ ) µ µm )µm µ
r
;
∑µÊµÅ µ ç] =0
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?u2 2å ] ]+1 ;£Ë$

The paramagnetic susceptibility is ¢ =
3Äå é rÃ¹ @
(or)
Where )
µ =] ]+1 )
ñ µ = 2p½þ<< ñ
The effective no. of Bohr Magnetron (Peff) = up] ] + 1
For ground state of the atom J = S and L = 3. (Peff) = upæ æ + 1
Effective number of Weiss magnetron = 4.97 Peff. ; 4.97 up] ] + 1
Effective number of Weiss magnetron is 4.97 times the effective no. of Bohr
magnetron.
When the energy of transition between two states (h•) is very large compared
to KBT is called wide multiples.
?u2 2å ] ]+1
In this case susceptibility is given by ¢ =
3Äå é
. Which obey Curie law.
When the energy of transition is very small compared to KBT ℎ• ≪ Äñ é it is
known as narrow multiple.
In this case, the probability of occupation of high levels is higher (or) greater.
The expression for magnetic susceptibility is given as
? 2]
¢=
3Äå é
[L(L+1)=4S(S+1)]
ÊË £¹ KR
Ã¹ @
When is not small compared with unity (ie) at low temperature and
strong magnetic fields, the magnetization
M = ç• 7 cot ℎ m− cot ℎ 9
)µm )µm *
) ) )µ )=
QUANTUM THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM:
When a unit volume of the solid is placed in a magnetic field, the
magnetization is given by M = ç• 7 cot ℎ m− cot ℎ 9
)µm )µm *
) ) )µ )=
The value of m for paramagnetic solid is m = ]. ¢ =

µK£¹ Rþ
Ã¹ @
The value of m for paramagnetic solid is m =

µK£¹ Rþ µK£¹ Rm R
Ã¹ @ Ã¹ @
;=
For spontaneous magnetization H = 0
The straight line T<N intersects the curve at non zero point which means
there is some value of M/Ms although external field is zero.
Temperature less than Curie temperature, spontaneous magnetization
results. The line T = 0 represents the tangent to the Curie at the origin at
spontaneous magnetization for T = N

which M/Ms is zero. Consequently there cannot be any possibility of
Near the origin m ≪ 1, the Brillouin function can be written as

åµ m = ! #m
µm
rµ
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>
µm Ã¹ @
rµ ;£¹
$
The condition for spontaneous magnetization is
The total magnetic moment per atom =) = ñ) u) ])
At temperatures less than Ferro magnetic Curie pointN, spontaneous
magnetization occurs. T< N. At = 0, T = 0, Ferromagnetic substance changes
to paramagnetic substance and this above Curie point the substance will
]+1 ;£Ë
$
behave as paramagnetic.The curie temperature N is given by Q ≈
3] Ã¹
.
For the transition metals such as Ni, Co, Fe the value of N is quite large so
that ± will also be quite large. The magnetization of Ferro magnetic materials
arises due to electron spin rather than due to orbital motion.
FERRIMAGNETISM:
It is as special case of anti Ferro magnetism where the opposed moment are
of different magnitudes and large net magnetization results
Ferri magnetic substances are called Ferrides. The important Ferrides are Mn,
Zn Ferrides. The D.C resistivity of Ferrides is 104 to 1011 times as large as that
of iron. Because of which they can used in transformer copper at much higher
frequencies than iron.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY:
It was discovered by H. K. Onnes on his experiments on electrical
conductivities of metal at low temperature. The pure mercury shows super
conducting properties at 4.2K. As this transition occurs over a very small
temperature range of about 0.050C. The phenomenon is given the name
superconductivity.
The temperature, at which the resistance disappears in zero magnetic fields,
is called the transition turns. Above the critical temperature the substance in
The resistivity of the metal may be written as A =

J
the normal states but below TC it enter and super conducting state.
Xþ $“
The transition temperature for different elements and alloys are given below.
Element TC (k) Element TC (k)
Teernetium 11.2 Nb3Ge 23.2
Niobium 9.46 Nb3Ga 20.3
Lead 7.18 Nb3Sn 18.05
Tantulam 4.48 NbN 16.0
Hg 4.15 MO N 12.0
Indium 3.14 MO3 Ir 8.5
Candium 0.56 N1B1 4.25
Ti 0.40 AUBe 2.64
Iridium 0.14 T12Co 3.44
W(Tungsten) 0.015 T1Co 0.71
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When impurities are added to the super conducting material, the super
conducting properly is not lost but the transition temperature is lowered.
Onnes found that the superconducting transition is reverse.
None of the rare earths appears to be superconductor. Group V and VII
metals find to have high transition temperatures. Li, Na and k remain normal
conductor down to 0.08k , 0.09k and 0.08k respectively.
Cu, Ag and Au are found to be normal conductor even at temperature down to
0.05k, 0.35k and 0.05k.
Superconductivity is absent in the Ferromagnetic metals. Monovalent metals
and rare earth elements except Lanthanum.
TYPE OF SUPERCONDUCTOR (I - SOFT):
They exhibit complete Meissner Effect (ie) They are completely diamagnetic.
They have two states 1) Super conducting states 2) Normal States.
The magnetization of normal states is negligible as compared to the
superconducting state.
TYPE OF SUPERCONDUCTOR (II - HARD):
It exits 3 states 1) Super conducting state 2) Mixed (or) Vortex state 3)
Normal state.
Meissnor effect is not occurring in this type. There is gradual fall of
magnetization in the case of type II super conductor where as full is abrupt in
case of type I
The value of He for type II may be 100 times more or even higher than that for
type I metals. Magnetization curres for type I and type II are both reversible in
case of ideal superconductors. Eg. Nb2Ge, y1Ba2, Cu3O7
THERMODYNAMICS EFFECT IN NORMAL AND SUPERCONDUCING STATES:
Entropy: In all super conductors the entropy decreases on cooling below the
critical temperature.
Specific Heat: In normal metals, the electronic specific heat various as the
absolute temperature. In super conductor specific heat various exponentially
with temperature . (ie) Cs∝
þ Ï{Ð
@
MEISSNER EFFECT:
If a superconductor is cooled in a magnetic field to below the transition
temperature, then at the transition lines of induction B are pushed out. The
expulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of a piece of superconducting
material as the material undergoes the transition to the superconducting
phase is known as Meissner Effect.
T<TC, the material becomes superconducting sate and the flux inside is zero
(ie) B = 0. This effect is reversible. (ie) When the temperature is raised from
TC, the flux suddenly penetrates the specimen after it reaches TC and the
substance is in the normal state.
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Á+¿ ;= 1 + ¢ Á = 0 ; R = ¢ = −1
Ê
A bulk superconductor behaves in an external magnetic field as if inside the
specimen B = € €
MEISSNER EFFECTS EXHIBITS (PERFECT DIAMAGNETISM):
adequate to explain the phenomena of super conducting. ∇xHï = −

Before Meissner discovery, Maxwell’s equation were thought quite to be
“ñ
“Æ
∇xH = − “Æ
“ñ
THERMODYNAMICS OF SUPER CONDUCTING:

Thermal conductivity:
The thermal conductivity of super conductor undergoes a continuous change
between the two phases and is usually lower in the superconducting pahse.
For lead at 2K, the thermal conductivity is 18 watt / am.k in normal phase
and 2 watt/cm.k in superconducting phase.
ELECTRODYNAMICS OF SUPERCONDUCTOR:
London Equation:
According to (Meissner Effect), a superconductor will completely eject out the
magnetic flux yet we should account for the penetration of magnetic field into
The penetration depths are much larger than the (103 – 104Å) atomic
the surface of the conductor.
distances. In order to explain the penetration it is desirable to modify a

constitution equation of electrodynamics say ohm’s law, rather than to modify
the Maxwell equation.
Maxwell’s equations are in adequate to explain the electrodynamics of
superconductors.
London derived two field equations to explain the superconducting state of
matter by modifying ohm’s law.
Entropy varies with temperature suggests that the number of normal
conduction electrons decreases below transition temperature, which
superconducting electrons increase.
Based on the above assumption London field two types of electrons namely
1) Normal electrons and 2) Super conducting electrons. London put
forwarded the idea that at any temperature the sum of super electrons and
normal electrons is equal to the conduction electron density in the metal in
the normal state.
Super electrons are not subjected any lattice scattering and are mearly
accelerated in an electric field.
At 0K superconductor consists only super electrons but as the temperature
increases the proportion of normal electrons compared to super electrons
increased and at transition temperature all electrons are normal.
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Super current density Js = −ensVs

i) First Londan Equation:
= H. Which describes the absence of

“µ¨ X¨ þ $
“Æ J
The first London equation is
resistance. From this equation it is possible to have steady current in the
The normal current density is ]; = H which shows that no current is possible

absence of electric field which is the phenomenon of the super conductivity.
in the absence of electric field which is in line with the behavior of the
material in the normal state.
Second London equation is derived from the Maxwell equation Curl E = −

ii) Second Londan Equation:
“ñ
“Æ
The second London equation is gives as
aEHb j = − £ $ å (or) aEHb ]• = Á. It explains the Messisner Effect.
£ X¨ þ $
Ò J
The penetration depth of super current is ±) = and ± has the dimension
J
0 SQ ›
2
of Length.
BCS THEORY:
The microscopic theory put forwarded by Barden, Cooper and Schrieffer
(1957) provided the quantum explanation and explains the properties of
superconductor.
This theory involves the electron interaction through phonons as mediator.
It has its major future the paring of electrons. In BCS theory 1 pair of electros
are used the two electrons which interacts attractively in the phonon field is
called Cooper pair which is the fundamental postulates of BCS theory. These
Cooper pair have certain aspects of single parlay.
The energy of the pair of electrons in the bound state is less than the energy
of the pair in free state. The different of the energy of the two states is the BE
of the Cooper pair and should therefore, be supplied of the pair is broken.
At T<TC, electron – Lattice – electron interaction is stronger than electron –
electron Coulomb interaction.
At T = 0K, pairing is complete, At T = TC pairing is completely broken.
The energy difference between the free state of the electron and the paired
state, appears as the energy gap at the Fermi surface.
The normal electrons states are above the below gap and superconducting
electron states are below the energy gap at the Fermi surface.
Energy gap is a function of temperature unlike to case of constant energy gap
in semiconductors and insulators.
Since pairing is complete at 0K, the difference in energy of free and paired
electron states is max. in other words energy gap is Max. at absolute zero.
At T = TC pairing is dissolved and energy gap reduces to zero.
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The coherent length of the Cooper pair disappears at T = TC. The order of the
coherent length of the Cooper pair is 10-6 m (or) 10-4 cm.
JOSEPHSON EFFECT:
The effect associated with the seen tunneling of superconductor electron pair
is called Josephson Effect. The tunneling of superconducting electron pairs
from a superconductor through a layer of an insulator in to another
superconductor such a junction is called weak junction.
There are two kinds of Josephson Effect. 1) DC Josephson effect
2) AC Josephson effect
DC Josephson Effect:
DC current flows across the junction in the absence of any electric (or)
magnetic field is called DC Josephson effect.
Discussion of Josephson junction phenomena followed by discussion of flux
T is the measure of leakage of Ψ in Ψ) region and Ψ) in Ψ region.

quantization.
If the insulator is thick, T is zero and there is no tunneling. The current “J” of
] = ]€ QRS7 = ]€ QRS N) − N
superconducting pair’s across the junction depends on the phase difference.
AC Josephson Effect:
amplitude vary as 7 ¾ = 7 0 − ! #
The DC voltage across the junction the relative phase of the probability
)þBÆ
ℏ
2›F¾
The superconducting current is given by ] = ]€ QRS 7 7€ − ! #9
ℏ
The current oscillator with + =
)þBÆ
ℏ
A DC voltage of 1 V produces a frequency of 483.6 MHz.
BLOACH THEOREM:
The schroedinger wave equation for an electron moving in one dimensional
+ H − ’€ Ψ = 0
ˆ$ ; )J
ˆ} $ ℏ$
The solution of this equation is Ψ x = e±8o}
with constant potential is
The time dependent solution can be obtained by multiplying Ψ x by › ℏ

9My
The potential energy of the electron moving in a periodic potential satisfy the
Bloach theorem is a mathematical statement regarding the form of one ›̅

equation V(x) = V(X+a)
Ψ x = e8o} uÓ x is called Bloach function.

wave function for a perfectly periodic potential.
Ψ ¢ + v = › 8o }m* Eo d + v = Ψ d = › 8o*
The Bloach function has the property
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+ H − ’€ Ψ = 0 consists of two linear solution.

ˆ$ ; )J
ˆ} $ ℏ$
The solution of
± = ±) =
S° mÔ$ mp S° mÔ$ $ – S° mÔ$ p S° mÔ$ $ –
) )
m + É) are the real function of energy E
,
For energy range in which m + É) ) < 4 the two roots are complex.
For energy range in which m + É) ) > 4 the two roots are real.
The solution of Schroedinger wave equation in this region„ m + É) ) < 4…can
be expressed in the form of Bloach function Ψ d = e±Rgd Ed d
There are no electronic states in this region m + É) ) > 4 corresponding to
real roots ± and ±)
The energy spectrum of an electron in a periodic potential consists of allowed
and forbidden energy regions (or) bands. The complex value of corresponds
to allowed energy bands. The real values of corresponds to forbidden
energy bands.
SQUID – Super conducting Quantum Interface Device
The relation J = J0QRS 77 € − 9 provides the for one family of Josephson in

Josephson Effect (SQUID):
)þBÆ
ℏ
device called SQUID. SQUID is a double J0 Quantum interferometer.
THE KRONIG – PENNEY MODEL:
One of the simplest examples of one dimensional periodic potential has been
treated by Kronig and Penney. In this , the potential energy of an electron has
the form of a periodic array of square wells and it is possible to obtain exact
In region such as 0 < d < v = 0. The potential energy is assumed equal to

Schroedinger equation. The period of the potential is (a+b)
zero. In the region such as – • < d < œthe potential energy is V0.
The energy spectrum of electrons consists of a number of allowed energy
bands separated by forbidden bands. The width of the allowed energy bands
increases with increase energy values.
allowed band decreases. For P (BE) → m the allowed energy region becomes
With increasing binding energy of the electrons, the width of the particular
infinitely narrow and the energy spectrum is a line spectrum.

The energy of the electron HX =
X $ $ ℏ$
)J*$
. This equation shows the energy
levels of a particle in a constant potential box of atomic for large tunneling
through the barrier becomes inproble.
For P = 0, the curve becomes a parabola, the same as that of free electron.
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Josephson Effect
flux is Y =
The SQUID is a ring of SC interrupted by a Josephson junction. The quantized
ℏ s
þ )þ
(or) = = 2.068 x 10-15wb.
In DC Josephson effect DC voltage of 1 V produces a frequency of
483.6 MHz.
The AC Josephson effect is caused by the coupling between the wave in one
superconductor and the wave in the other, crudely it is analogues to the
classical beat phenomenon seen in the superposition of two waves of
different frequencies.
The wave function of a Cooper pair on the two sides of the junction differ in
)þ”
s
energy by 2 eV and hence differ in frequency by
The layer of insulation acts as a pot barrier for the Cooper pairs.
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UNIT – VIII (QUANTUM MECHANICS)

SCHROEDINGER EQUATION:
Schroedinger stated with de-Broglie relationship ± =

s
i) Time–independent Schroedinger Equation:
ú
and developed it into a
mathematical theory known as wave mechanics.
This theory describes the behavious of atomic system and their interaction
with other particles and electromagnetic radiation.
The differential equation of motion in three dimension in accordance with
classical (or) Maxwell wave equation can be written as ∇) Ψ =
$;
Õ$ ¹$
The solution of the classical equation is Ψ H, ¾ = Ψ ¾ › [Æ
here the wave
amplitude at r is periodic is t.
The time- independent Schroedinger equation is given as
∇) Ψ = E−V Ψ = 0
º—$ Ù
.$
be written as ∇) Ψ = E−V Ψ=0

)Ù
The schroedinger time independent wave equation in usually used form, may
ℏ$
∇) is called the Laplacian operator which is given as ∇) = ˆ} $ + ˆ†$ + ˆ‰ $

ˆ$ ˆ$ ˆ$
ii) Schroedinger Equation for free particle:

For free particle, the potential energy of the particle will be zero (ie) V = 0
∇) Ψ = Ψ=0
The schroedinger equation for a free particle is given by
)Ùà
ℏ$
The wave function Ψ H, ¾ varies harmonically with time m› [Æ

iii) Time–dependent Schroedinger Equation:
Ö ) Ψ = −ℏ)
Schroedinger time –dependent equation is given as
!− )J ∇) + ’# Ψ = Rℏ ˆÆ Ψ Á
ℏ$ ˆ ˆ$ ;
ˆÆ $
!− )J ∇) + ’# Operator is known as the Hamiltonian operator (or) simply

ℏ$
!Rℏ #
Hamiltonian and is denoted by H.
D
D¾
time – dependent equation in the form of operators is given as H Ψ = EΨ
The operator is called the energy operator. Schroedinger
The wave function Ψ H, ¾ = Ψ H › [Æ has a unique property that the
Ψ ∗ Ψ is independent of time despite the fact that Ψ involved time and is equal
probability density.
to the probability density represented by the wave function Ψ, then

Ψ∗ Ψ = Ψ∗ r Ψ r
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Because of this fact, the wave function Ψ is said to represent a stationary

state of the physical system.
The above forms of Schroedinger’s equation describe the motion of a
non – relativistic material particle.
The general solution of the time – dependent Schroedinger equation is
Ψ d, ¾ = ∑ vX ΨX d ›
$×9MÀ y
7 9
¾
Schroedinger attempted the physical interpretation of Ψ in terms of charged

SCHROEDINGER INTERPRETATION:
density. In any electromagnetic wave system, the energy density = A2, so that
According to Schroedinger interpretation the particle density ∝ Ψ) . The

photon density is proportional to A2.
square of absolute value of Ψ. (ie) |Ψ|) is a measure of the particle density.
density. The quantity |Ψ|) = Ψ ∗ Ψ is a measure of charge density as

The charge density will be equal to the product of the charge and the particle
Schroedinger considered.
This interpretation was used to the directional distribution of photoelectrons,
intensity distribution in Compton scattering, the stable states of Bhor atom,
the emission of spectral line etc.
According to Max – Born interpretation,Ψ ∗ Ψ = |Ψ|) represents the probability

MAX - BORN INTERPRETATION (STATISTICAL INTERPRETATION):
density of the particle in the stable Ψ and does not measure the particle
density.
taken as Ψ ∗ Ψ = |Ψ|) . For the total probability of finding the particle

The probability of finding a particle at a given point in space must be real, it is
somewhere is of course, unity. (ie) ∭ |Ψ|) wdwhwi = 1 not modified.

NORMALISED WAVE FUNCTION:
|Ψ|) d| = ΨΨ ∗
The probability of finding the particle in a volume element d| is
In physical problem we course across situation where the particle is bound by

forces to a limited region. The examples of these kinds are the electron in an
atom, the particle in a box with un-penetrable walls.
of course, unity |U |Ψ H, ¾ |) w| = 1 (or) | Ψ H, ¾ Ψ ∗ H, ¾ w| = 1

In such cases the total probability of finding the particle in the entire space is
A wave function which satisfying the above condition equation is said to be

normalized to unity (or) normalized.
particle at infinite distance is zero (ie) ΨΨ ∗ vb. d = ±∞ is zero.

When the particle is bound to the limited regions the probability of finding the
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Any solution of wave function may be normalized y multiplying or dividing by a

constant and it can be readily seen that the result is also a solution of the
It Ψ8 and Ψ= are two different wave functions, these functions will be

wave function.
normalized if | Ψ8∗ Ψ8 w| = 1 and | Ψ=∗ Ψ= w| = 1
If Ψ8 and Ψ= are two Eigen functions, then the wave functions are said to be
ORTHOGONAL WAVE FUNCTIONS:
orthogonal of this satisfy the condition. | Ψ8∗ Ψ= w| = 0 (or) | Ψ=∗ Ψ8 w| = 0
Ç Ç
If the wave function is one dimensional (x-axis), this condition may be
expressed as | Ψ∗ Ψ wd
Ç 8 =
= 0 (or) | Ç
Ψ=∗ Ψ8 wd = 0 | Ψ=∗ Ψ8 wd = 0
These two sets is orthogonal in the interval %– È, È(of d, because the product
Examples : 1, cosd, cos2d, cos3d…., sind, sin2d, sin3d…
integrated between – È, ¾è + È comes out to be zero.

of any number and the complex conjugate of any other number when
The functions which are orthogonal and also normalized are called
orthonormal functions.
OPERATORS ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT OBSERVABLES:
An operator is a rule by means of which a given function is changed into
another function.
Energy Operator:
H Ψ = E Ψ informs that the operator associated with the energy E is
Hamiltonian H (ie) Eop = E = H. The time independent form of
Eop = H = − ∇) + ’
ℏ$
)J
Time dependent value of Hamiltonian is H = Rℏ
ˆ
ˆÆ
; H = E ; H Ψ = E Ψ
The operator associated with momentum POP is POP (or) ½Ø = ∇. This
mℏ
)
operator associated with velocity is given by VOP (or) Fk = ∇

ℏ
8J
The operator associated with potential energy is VOP = V
According to Born the wave function Ψ has probabilistic interpretation

EXPECTATION VALUES:
therefore it is essential to calculate the expected value of any dynamical

quantity defined by the wave function. In physics such dynamical quantities
are space coordinates momenta and energy of the system.
The average (or) expectation value of a dynamical quantity is the
mathematical expectation for the result of a single measurement (or) It may
be defined as ux average of the result of a large number of measurements on
independent systems.
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expressed as 〈c〉 = | ½ d c d wd = | Ψ ∗ c d Ψwd

The average value (or) the expected value of any function f(x) can be
This formula holds only if the wave function is normalized. If the wave
f(x) 〈c 〉 =
function is not normalized the following expression is used for the function
| ;∗ < } ;“}
| ;∗ ;“}
The expectation value of position vector “r” is given
〈H〉 = Ù H ½ H, ¾ w| = Ù Ψ ∗ H, ¾ H Ψ H, ¾ w|
〈’〉 = | ’ H, ¾ ½ H, ¾ w| = | Ψ ∗ H, ¾ ’ H, ¾ Ψ H, ¾ w|
The expectation value of potential energy is given
〈H〉 = | Ψ∗ ÁΨw| = | Ψ ∗ !Rℏ # Ψw|

The expectation value of energy is given
〈½〉 = | Ψ∗ PÚT Ψw| = | Ψ ∗ ! # Ψw|

The average (or) expectation values of momentum is given
ℏ
8
In quantum mechanics, we can measure a quantity only statistically and not
exactly because of consistent with Heisenberg uncertainty.
PARTICLE IN POTENTIAL WELL:
The potential function in their case may be defined as V(x) = ∞ for x<0 and
i) Particle in one – Dimensional infinitely Deep potential well:
x>a = 0 for 0≤ d ≤ v
(ie) Ψ 0 = Ψ v = 0 and Ψ d = finite

The probability of finding the particle at x = 0 and x= a is equal to zero.
The equation of motion of the particle for the region 0<x<a, is written as
+ HΨ = 0
ˆ$ ; )J
ˆ} $ ℏ$
The general solution of the above equation is Ψ d = £QRSgd + åŽèQgd
The energy values is given as HX = S+1
ℏ$ $ )
)J*$
It is clear that inside an infinitely deep pot well the particle can have only
certain values of energy (ie) HX = S+1
ℏ$ $ )
)J*$
The energy spectrum in an infinitely deep potential well is discrete. The
ΨX =
¦ ‘á X }
energy spectrum of a free particle without boundaries is continuous.
F
Xm } ) ‘á X }
The normalized wave function is given by ΨX = !*# sin
)
* * *
=
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ii) Particle in three – Dimensional infinitely Deep potential well:

The schoredinger equation in 3D for a free particle constrained to more in the
+ + + HΨ = 0
ˆ$ ; ˆ$ ; ˆ$ ; )J
ˆ} $ ˆ† $ ˆ‰ $ ℏ$
box is given by
The wave function is given as Ψ d, h, i = £QRS QRS QRS

o X } oÜ XÜ † of Xf ‰
* ) Œ
The energy Eigen values are expresses as
HX},X†,X‰ = 7*$ + )$ + Œ $f 9
$ ℏ$ X$ XÜ
$
X$
)J
The least possible (ie) ground state energy value is given as
Hªªª = 7*$ + )$ + Œ $ 9
$ ℏ$
)J
For spherically symmetric well, the energy Eigen value are
HX},X†,X‰ = %S}) + S†) + S‰) (
$ ℏ$
)J*$
The ground state energy for a spherically symmetrical well is Hªªª =

r $ ℏ$
)J*$
BARRIER PENETRATION:
The potential function is defined as
V(x) = 0 for x<0; = V0 for 0<x<a; = 0 for x>a
E<V0 – reflected ; E>V0 – Transmitter penetrate
If a particle having energy less than V0 (ie) (E<V0) approaches their barrier
from the left, classically the particle will always be reflected and hence will not
penetrate the barrier.
Wave mechanics predicts that the particle has some probability of
(V0 = E) E0 ≥ V0. If E > V0, according to wave mechanics, the particle has a
penetrating to third region the probability of penetration being greater if
finite probability of transmission and hence it is not certain that the particle
will penetrate the barrier.
The transmittance (or) transmission coefficient is given by
9¤
–ò°$ ò$$ •þŒ s$ ! $Ý #
=A
‹ " á¹/zÛ Ü ¹y ‘Ùá¹¹Ûz Ý/yyÛ ¹ ℏ
‹ " á¹/zÛ Ü á ÝázÛ ¹ Ý/yyÛ ¹ $
%ò°$ mò$$ ( ¹ s !
$ 9¤$Ý
# –ò°$ ò$$
T= ;T=
ℏ
The transmittance T is real. The reflectance of the barrier (or) reflection
‹ " á¹/zÛ Ü yÛÞÞÛÝ¹Ûz Ý/yyÛ ¹
‹ " á¹/zÛ Ü á ÝázÛ ¹ Ý/yyÛ ¹
coefficient is given by R =
9¤
ò°$ ò$$ Æ*Xs$ ! ℏ$Ý #
$ 9¤
%ò°$ mò$$ ( ¹ s$ ! $Ý # –ò°$ ò$$
T=
ℏ
The sum of reflectance and transmittance will be unity (ie) R +T=1; R = 1 – T
In this case the intensity of electron waves decreases exponentially with the
thickness of the barrier.
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$9¤$Ý
¼ò°$ ò$$ Æ*Xs$ Jþ ℏ K
When the barrier is thick (ie) R\)* > ℏ. T = $

%ò°$ ò$$ (
and R = 1
› 2¿ ’€ − H
¼ } ” } ) *
”$ ℏ
(or) T = . This is the expression for
transmission coefficient for a very large barrier. The tunneling effect
especially important in thermionic and field emission. In barrier penetration,
the potential function is attractive rather than repressive. The transmittance
coefficient is (T<1) less than one.
If the probability distribution function ΨΨ ∗ is independent of time then the

STATIONARY STATES:
state of the system is to be stationary state.

The wave function can be represented as ΨX =
þ $×9MÀ y
},†,‰,Æ s
which is
This represents the stationary state solution because cψ∗ = ΨΨ ∗

independent of time
WAVE PACKETS:
A wave packet is a localized wave, the amplitude of which is zero except in a
small region of space. When a wave packet is localized in a very small region,
it may be regarded as a point.
In this way the motion of a single particle may be described by the motion of
d − F¾ (or) A cos gd − +¾
wave packet.
)
A plane wave can be expressed as = A cos
The wave function can be expressed as
Ã màÃ
Ψ d, ¾ = Ù Δ g cos gd − + o ¾ wg
Ã màÃ
For a small range of values the vicinity of k0, + o can be expanded as Toyer
series in k. (ie) + o = + á¿ ° á$ ¿
o€ m o o ! áx # m$ o o€ $ B $ C m⋯
áx
x x
w+
The group velocity is the velocity with which the maximum of the modulating
factor drifts along the x – axis. (ie) FK =
wg
+
The phase velocity is given by Fòs =
g
. The velocity of a particle, in both
wH
Newtonian and relativistic mechanics is related to energy and momentum by
Fò =
w½
) “¸
The velocity of the wave packet is identical with that of the particle. (ie)
w+ wH
FK = ° ; Fò = w½
w¾ ) “! #
=
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From the above result, the wave packet moves in exactly the same way as the
classical particle moves.
〈 〉 $ 9〈¤〉
The form of minimum wave packet is Ψ } = „2È Δd )…
›
/– š ü ãä $ m ℏ œ
Which is known as Gaussian Packet.

THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
In classical Physics, the dynamical variables like position coordinates,
components of momenta, components of angular momenta etc.. are
assumed to be measured with arbitrary exactness at any instant of time.
In quantum mechanics the state of the particle is specified by the wave
function. The momentum and wavelength are related by the de-Broglie
relation.
The momentum will be well specified if wavelength is well specified. For the
wavelength to be well specified it is necessary that the wave function shows
some pattern of periodicity.
A long sin wave hens a well defined wavelength. For an irregular current the
concept of wavelength, has no specific meaning (ie) the wave length is very
poorly defined.
∆½∆d ≥ ℏ èH
s
The uncertainity relation between position and momentum is given as
)
The three dimension, the above relation can be written as ∆½S ∆½Ô ≥ ℏ →
when m ≠ É , ∆½S ∆½Ô ≥ 0 →when m = É
∆H∆¾ ≥ ℏ èH
s
The uncertainty relation between time and Energy in given as
)
It is impossible to specify precisely and simultaneously the values of both
members of particular pairs of physical variables that describe the behavior of
the atomic system.
other in the Hamiltonian sense; such as x and px angular position Y and

The members of these pairs of variables are canonically conjugate to each
angular momentum ]‰ energy and time.

(ie) Δ½S Δd ≥ ℏ; Δ]‰ Δϕ ≥ ℏ; ΔHΔ¾ ≥ ℏ (or)
s s ℎ
Δ½Δu ≥ ℏ (or) ; Δ]Δ÷ ≥ ℏ (or) ; ΔHΔ¾ ≥ ℏ or
) ) 2È
Δ½Δd ≥ ; ΔHΔt ≥ ; Δ]Δϕ ≥ ;

Small particle uncertainty principle
ℏ ℏ ℏ
) ) )
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Let Ψ be a well behaved function of the state of the system and this is
EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN FUNCTIONS:
operated on by the operator AÖ such that it satisfies the equation.

Ö Ψ d = ^Ψ d
A
Ö . The number ±
Ö and the operand Ψ d is an Eigen function
is an Eigen value of the operator A
This equation is termed Eigen value equation for the operatorA
Ö.
of A
The Eigen value (^ and the Eigen function Ψ d of the operator A Ö belong to
each other.
sin 4d = 16 sin 4d in this equation the number 16 is an Eigen value of
“$
“} $
“$
“} $
the operator and the operand sin 4x is an Eigen function of the
“$
“} $
operator
“$
“} $
The Eigen value 16 and the Eigen function sin 4x of the operator belong
The operator! #:
to each other.
ℏ æ
å æ"
Ψ=YΨ
The Eigen functions of the momentum operator are found by solving the
ℏ “
8 “}
equation
The solution of the above equationΨ = ce

9
! #ò}
¾ which plane wave. Which
represent the state of definite momentum P(PEigen value), e
9
!¾#ò}
, the particle of
momentum Y. The normalized Eigen functions are Ψ = e
9
! #ò}
¾
√) ℏ
PROPERTIES OF EIGEN FUNCTIONS:
› 8o} which is an Eigen function of the operator !−R “}# being to the Eigen
i) Simultaneous Eigen function:
“
› 8o} = g€ › 8o}
“
“}
value k of the operator because−R
The function › 8o} also an Eigen function of !−R

“$
# (or)
“
“} “} $
belonging to
› 8o} = k2› 8o}

“$
“} $
Eigen value k2, since
Thus › 8o} is simultaneous Eigen function of the operators !−R

−w2
# and B C
“
“} wd2
An operated which is an Eigen function of two (or) more operators is said to
be a simultaneous Eigen function of those operators.
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CΨ, where C is the normalization coefficient and it is given as |Ž|) =

In case of un-normalized functions, the wave function can be expressed as
| ;xçxá
∗
Consider the Eigen value equation A Ö Ψ = ±Ψ and for unnormalising function

DEGENERATE EIGEN VALUE OF EIGEN FUNCTIONS:
A(CΨ) = ±(CΨ)
For an every Eigen value of an operator there can be an infinite number of
When every Eigen functions of the operator belonging to Eigen value ± can be
Eigen functions.
obtained by multiplying it by a constant then we call the Eigen value is non –
When the Eigen function of operator A Ö belonging to Eigen value ± do not have
degenerate.
the form eΨ, then± is said to be degenerate Eigen value of operator AÖ.
For example, the two Eigen function Ψ = £› 8B } and Ψ) = å› 8B } cannot
be converted into one another by multiplication of constant hence they are
degenerate with two fold degenerating.
LINEAR HARMONIC OSCILLATOR:
The wave equation for an oscillator:
In SHM the restoring force is proportional to displacement (ie) F = −gd

A particle undergoing SHM in one dimension is called one dimensional LHO.
+ d=0
“$ } o
“Æ $ J
The wave equation of oscillator as
This equation represents a ± periodic motion of angular frequency + =

o
J
(or) frequency Á =
o
) J
The potential energy of oscillator is V = gd )

)
+ 7H − ) gd ) 9 Ψ = 0
“$; )J
“} $ ℏ$
The wave equation for an harmonic oscillator is
+ ± − ÷) Ψ = 0
“$;
“} $
The final wave equation for LHO is
The asymptotic solution of the above equation when ÷ ) ≥ ± becomes

ASYMPTOTIC SOLUTION:
− ÷)Ψ = 0
“$;
“} $
The solution of the above (or) asymptotic equation is
è$ è$
Ψ=› ±
$ (or) Ψ = › $ is an asymptotic solution of the wave equation.
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Recursion Formula:
è$
The possible solution may be written as Ψ = › $ Y ÷
Recursion formula for LHO is given by vUm) = vU
)•m)Um é
×mUm) ×mUm
The Eigen values of harmonic oscillator is given as HX = !S + # ℏ+

EIGEN VALUES OF HARMONIC OSCILLAOR:
)
The allowed values of harmonic oscillator indicates that the energy levels are
equally spaced.
The expression for zero point energy is written as E0 = ℏ+

Significance of zero point energy:
)
The comparison with the result E = n ℏ+€ obtained by old quantum theory
shows that the only difference is that all the equally spaced energy levels are
ℏ+0 equal to zero point energy.

shifted upward by an amount equal to half the separation of energy levels (ie)
)
Even in the lowest state, the harmonic oscillator has energy > that it would
have if it were at rest in its equilibrium position.
Zero point energy is characteristic of quantum mechanics and is related to
the uncertainty principle
The Eigen function Ψ can be set equal to the product of Hermite polynomial
EIGEN FUNCTION OF HARMONIC OSCILLAOR:
è$
and the factor › (ie) ΨX } = ?X › ÁS ÷
÷2
$ −2
Hermits polynomial can be express as Hn(q) = −1 ›

X û$ “
› û
À $
“ûÀ
The values of Harmite polynomials of different orders are Ho(q) = 1,
H1(q) = 2q; H2(q) = 4q2 – 2; H3(q) = 8q3 – 12q; H4(q) = 16q4 – 48q2 + 12
/)
The normalizing factor (Nn) of the harmonic oscillator is Nn = 7 9
S
)À X!√
m 1/2
Normalized wave function of harmonic oscillator are ΨX } =7 9
2 S!√È
S
The wave function corresponding to the lowest state of energy is

/) $
Ψ€ } = 7 9 ›
S S$
$
√
The probability of finding the oscillator inside the classical limits is 83% which
The selection rule used in LHO is ∆S = ±1

outside the classical limit is only 17%.
The uncertainty relation of oscillator wave function is ∆d∆½ = !S + # ℏ

)
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The commutation relation between (Lx, y) is given by ¦Q},† § = +Rℏ‰

COMMUTATION RULES FOR ANGULAR MOMENTUM:
The commutation rules for ¦Q},} § = 0

The commutation rules for ¦Q‰,† § = −Rℏ}
The commutation rules for ¦Q‰,} § = Rℏ†
The commutation relation between (Lx, Ly) is given by Lx, Ly = RℏQ‰
The commutation relation between (Ly, Lz) is given by Ly, Lz = RℏQ}
The commutation relation between (Lz, Lx) is given by Lz, Lx = RℏQ†
The commutation rules can be obtained symmetrically as L x L = RℏQ
The different components of the angular momentum do not commute
The commutation relation between (L2,Lz) becomes zero (ie) (L2, Lz) = 0
L2 commutes with Lz also commutes with Lx, Ly
The Eigen values of Lz are Lz = mℏ

It is possible to measure simultaneously, L2 and any single component of L.
The Eigen functions of Lz are Ψ = › 8Jx c H, N
angular momentum. ¦]} , ]† § = Rℏ]‰ ; ¦]† , ]‰ § = Rℏ]} ; „]‰ , ]} … = Rℏ]† and also
The total angular momentum “J” has the same commutation rules as orbital
]} , ]} = %]† , ]† ( = ]‰ , ]‰ = 0 ; „]} , ]) … = 0
The commutation relation of JZ with ladder operator J+ (Jx +Rj† is given by
]‰ , ]m = ℏ]m
The commutation relation of JZ with ladder operator J- (Jx +Rj† is given by
]‰ , ] = −ℏ]m
The commutation relation of ]m and] mutually are ]m ] = 2ℏ]‰
Commutation relation of J2 with ]m is given as ]) , ]m = 0
Commutation relation of J2 with ] is given as ]) , ] = 0
PERTURBATION THEORY:
It was developed by Schroedinger (1926). The basic idea is taken from
perturbation theory in classical mechanics. There are two kinds of
perturbation theory i) Time–independent perturbation ii) time–dependent
perturbation
PERTURBATION THEORY:
Steady state (or) Stationary (or) time – independent perturbation theory:
The stationary perturbation theory concerns with finding changes in energy
levels and Eigen functions of a system when a small disturbance is applied.
In this system the Hamiltonian broken up into two parts.
One of which is large and characteristics a system for which wave equation
can be solved exactly which the other part is small and can be traded as
perturbation.
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state Schroedinger equation can be written as HΨ = HΨ

The perturbed Hamiltonian can be written as H =H(0) + H(1). In the perturbed
Time –independent perturbation theory for Non-generate levels:

If corresponding to each energy levels (or) Eigen value there is only one wave
function then the system is known as Non – degenerate.
Á ΨX = HX ΨX
The wave equation for the unperturbed system is given as
€ € € €
The Eigen function ΨX for the perturbed system satisfy the equation
HΨX = HX ΨX
Á ΨX + Á ΨX = HX ΨX + HX ΨX
The first order perturbation equation is given as
€ € € €
Á ΨX + Á ΨX = HX ΨX + HX ΨX + HX ΨX
The second order perturbation equation is given as
€ ) € ) ) €
HX = | ΨX€ ∗ Á ΨX€ w| (or) HX = 〈¿\Áµ \S〉

The energy Eigen value of the First order perturbation is give as
degenerate system is just the expectation value of first order Hamiltonian Á ;

This equation indicates that the first order energy correction for a non –
S
over the unperturbed state.
ΨXµ = ΨX€ − ± ∑JÅ€ ΨX€

〈J\R ç \X〉
}Â }À
The first order wave function is given as
%〈¿\Á \S〉(
The energy Eigen value of the second order perturbation is given as
)
HX =
)
HJ − HX
€ €
The breath decreases inversely as “t”. If there is a group of states that have
energies nearly equal to the initial state, the probability of finding the system
in one (or) another of these states is proportional to “t”.
The probability per unit time, that a transition has taken place when the
perturbation has been on for time “t” is proportional to “t”
TRANSITION TO THE CONTINUOUS (OR) TRANSITION PROBABILITY:
The stationary states of the system will be discrete but separated in energy by
an interval which is inversely proportional to the volume of the box.
The probability of transition of mth state is given as
) – •8X$ [Â_ y
W = |vJ ¾ |) ëÁJþ ë $
ℏ$ [Â_
$
=
)
ëÁJþ ë A J
The transition probability per unit time is given by the equation as
)
ℏ
T=
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This formula has wide application in quantum physics. The theory of

scattering can be explained with the help of this formula.
The transition probability per unit time is sometime called as
“Fermi’s Golden Rule”
The transition probability per unit time is non – zero only between continuous
Transition probability per unit time is proportional to the square of ëÁJþ ë of

states of the same energy.
the perturbation connecting the states.

The Fermi Golden theory is proportional to the density of final states.
Fermi Golden theory is useful in the calculation of the intensity of spectral line
cross section of variation etc…
Probability per unit time is independent of time so sometimes it is called
constant probability.
HARMONIC PERTURBATION:
A most common way of inducing transition between stationary states of
quantum system is by applying a harmonic perturbation. E.g. The oscillating
electric and magnetic fields associated with light can induce transition
between stationary state in atoms.
In harmonic perturbation, the amplitude is given as
°
š − œ …….(1)
RÂ_ þ 9 ¿Â_ ¿ y @ þ 9 ¿Â_ u¿ y
vJ ¾ =
8ℏ [Â_ [ [Â_ m[
The amplitude depends upon the perturbation duration to and does not
depend on time “t”. The probability of transition is appreciable only when the
denominator of first (or) second term of equation 1 is zero.
transferring energy ℏ+ to the system on which it acts this process known as

The second term equation 1 is important of the effect of the perturbation is to
absorption.(ie) Energy is transferred from the perturbing source to the system.

The first term will be important of the effect of perturbation is to receive
energy from the system this is known as emission.
When Em > Ee, the first term needs to be considered and the probability is
° $ y
–¤RÂ_ ¤ •8X$ [Â_ [
given by |vJ ¾ ≥ ¾€ |) = $
ℏ$ [Â_ [ $
When Em > Ee, the second term needs to be considered and the probability is
° $ y
–¤RÂ_ ¤ •8X$ [Â_ m[
given by |vJ ¾ ≥ ¾€ |) = $
ℏ$ [Â_ m[ $
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SCATTERING CROSS - SECTION:

In the consideration of scattering , we shall assume that the interaction
between the projectile particles and the scatter can be represented by a
In the case of two particle collision , the vector r represents the relative
potential function V(r)
coordinate of the particles and the mass m of the scattered particles is
If the mass of the scattered is large + compared to the scattered particles

replaced by reduces mass
the scattered can be assumed to remain at rest during the process.

The collection in which the energy of the incident particle does not change are
called elastic collisions and the scattering as elastic scattering.
When the energy of the particle is altered after its interaction, the scattering
is known as ineleastic.
In general, the potential energy V(r) decreases in magnitude as the distance r
from the scattering centre becomes large. At large distances, therefore
V(r)→0 and the total energy of the particle is mostly kinetic. The particle wave
functions will be those of a free particle at large “r”
The concept of scattering cross – section is used in dealing with the collision
of a beam of particle with scattering centre. Incident film (J) is defined as the
no. of particles crossing per unit time a unit surface placed perpendicular to
N, Y has the dimensions of an area and also known as differential

the direction of propagation of incident on a scattering centre.
=
;yÉyÝì
scattering cross – section. Total scattering cross – section ÆbÆ*L ;
In nuclear physics, the scattering centre’s have linear dimensions of the order
of 10-12 to 10-13. The cross – sections are usually measured in barns (or) milli
barns. 1 barn = 10-24 cm2 (or) 10-28 m2 , 1 milli barn = 10-27 cm2 (or) 10-31 m2
BORN APPROXIMATION:
If the scattering takes place from the scattering centres which are localized
but are weak such that the scattering does not takes place at large distances
from the scattered and the scattered wave is weak in amplitude.
Born approximation can be used to evaluate the scattering amplitude. Born
approximation is applied in cases where the potential energy of the
interaction (V) between the colliding particles is small.
Born approximation is best applied in those cases in which the kinetic energy
of colliding particles is large in comparison unit the interaction energy (ie)
potential energy)
If therefore supplements the method of particle wave.
In Born approximation we have successive approximation. The Born
approximation simply amounts neglecting re-scattering of the scattered wave
provided the scattered wave is small in comparison with the incident wave.
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Ψ(r) = › 8o.U − | ] SH µµ ’ F Ψ H µµ w| µµ
J
The total wave function of the scattering is
µµ
) ℏ$
If the interaction is weak, so that the scattered wave is not too large, the
First Born approximation is Ψ(r) = › 8o.U − | ] H, H µ ’ H › 8o.U w|

J
Raman series will average rapidly
) ℏ$
The asymptotic form of the Green’s function is given as
G( H, H µ = › .
8o g .U g þ
9xW
U
The solution in an asymptotic from of the equation
∆) + ’ H Ψ = Hh is given as Ψ r, θ, ϕ = eáÓ + f θ, ϕ
ℏ$ ÛEíî
)J y
G( H, H µ = › 8o U
In case of free particle the green function is given as
Ug
– U Ug
The scattering amplitude f θ, ϕ is given as
f θ, ϕ = | ›8 ’ H µ w| µ
J o og W
g
) ℏ$
The corresponding differential scattering cross –section is give as
)
σ θ, ϕ =! # | ›8 ’ H µ w| µ
J o og W
g
) ℏ$
cross – section is given as |c N, Y |) = |σ θ, ϕ |

The relation between the scattering amplitude and the differential scattering
The above expression shows that Born scattering amplitude is proportional to

the spatial Fourier transform of scattering potential with respect to
momentum transfer.
S
In spherically symmetric case the scattering amplitude is given as
c N = − |€ H µ sin gH µ ’ H µ w| µ
o
The Born approximation will be valid only whenever the total wave function is
not greatly different from the incident wave function.
interaction energy is small as compared to › 8o.U in the region where V(r) is

Born approximation will be rallied whenever the scattered wave (or)
large.
|F H | ≪ ë›Rg.H ë = 1 (or) |F H |) ≪ 1
Thus the sufficient condition for the validity of Born approximation is
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APPLICATION OF BORN APPROXIMATION:

1. Scattering by a square well potential:
The scattering amplitude in square well potential scattering is give as
c N = 7 9
)£U *» ‘á } } ÝÜ‘ }
ℏ$ }»
The differential scattering cross – section is given as
) )
σ θ , |c 0 |2 , !
2 H0 v3 sin d−d cos d ) 2 H0v3
# 7 9 (or) 7 9 .u d
ℏ2 d3 ℏ2
For low energy Limit:
–£$ ” $ *ï
…ℏü
Differential scattering cross – section is
16È 2 ’20 v6
Æ =
9ℏ4
Total scattering cross – section is given as
£ ” $*ü
ℏ$ }
For High energy limit the total scattering cross – section is
ℏ$ o $
)£
Where E =
Validity of Born approximation in square well potential:
≪1
£ ” *$
ℏ$
For low energy limit it will be given as
≪ 1 (or) ≪1
£ ” * £ ” *
ℏ$ o ℏ$ B
For high energy limit it will be given as
2. Scattering by a screened Coulomb Field:
The scattering amplitude is given as (if potential function is spherically
symmetrical c N =
)£‰‰ g þ $
V
ℏ$ 7S $ m–o $ •8X$ 9
$
)
The differential scattering cross – section is given as σ θ = ! #
g Û$
)£B ü
U
‘á $
≪ 1 (or) ≪1
g Û$ g Û$
ℏB ℏ$ o
For low energy limit the validity condition is
g Û$
ℏB
For high energy limit the validity condition is log (2ka) ≪1
3. Scattering from an exponential potential:
The scattering amplitude is given as c N =

–£ ” *»
$
V
$B°uüz$Ý$ ¨9À$ C
ℏ $
–
a N = !1 + 4g ) v) QRS) ) #
¼£$ U $ *ï A
ℏü
The total scattering cross – section is given by the expression as
2 2 2
2 2
64È 2H20 v6 !4g v # +3!4g v #+3
ÆbÆ*L = • ž
3ℏ4 !1+4g v2#
2 3
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≪1
)£” *$
ℏ$
For low energy limit condition for validity of Born approximation is
≪1
”*
ℏ B
For high energy limit condition for validity of Born approximation is
4. Scattering by a Gaussian potential:
W$
The Gaussian potential is given by V(r) = −F€ › Ý$
The scattering amplitude in this case is given as
c N = ›
–£ ” *» √ o $ *$ •8X$ $
V
)ℏ$
The differential scattering cross –section is given by
’0 2 Èv6 −2g2 v2 QRS2 N
N =! ℏ
#
4
› 2
The condition of validity of Born approximation in scattering of Gaussian

S
potentials is |F 0 | = ð|€ ’ H › )8oU − 1 wHð ≪ 1
£
ℏ$ o
S
The validity condition for low energy in case of Gaussian potential can be
W$
ð|€ › H. wHð ≪ 1 = ≪1
)£” )£” *$
Ý$
ℏ$ )ℏ$
written as
Born approximation for low energy is a good approximation for very weak
≪1
£” Ý
potential only.
)ℏ$x
For high energy limit the validity condition is given as
Born approximation in this case is a very very good approximation for high
incident energy and weak potential.
5. Scattering by a Potential:
The scattering amplitude in gives as
c N = − !3 − 2g2 v2 QRS2 2# ›−g

’0 v5 √È N 2 2 N
v QRS2 2
2
4ℏ
The differential scattering cross –section is given as
N 2
N = − !3 − 2g2 v2 QRS2 2# ›−2g
2 ’2 v10 È 2 2 N
0 v QRS22
4
16ℏ
In case of low energy limit, the condition of validity of born approximation is
≪1
)£ ” *ü
)ℏ$
given by
In case of high energy limit, the condition of validity of born approximation is
≪1
£ ” *» √
–ℏ$ o
given by
Born approximation is a good approximation for weak potential and high
incident energy
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PARTIAL WAVE ANALYSIS BORN APPROXIMATION:

Scattering by spherically symmetric potentials in known partial wave analysis.
The method of partial wave analysis is applied in cases where the method of
Born approximation breaks down (or) fails.
Partial wave analysis method is applicable to spherically symmetric
potentials. For spherically symmetric potential angular momentum of
scattered particle is constant of motion.
When there exists a small (or) short range of potential, only the few Eigen
The schroedinger equation is given as ∇) Ψ + „H − ’ H …Ψ = 0

functions of small angular momenta are affected by this potential.
)J
ℏ$
In spherically symmetric wave the wave function is independent of Y and the
solution of above equation is Ψ = R Û r ½þ ŽèQN
The effect of the scattering potential is to shift the phase of each outgoing
partial wave.
Ç
The scattering amplitude in partial wave analysis is given as
c N = ∑þÅ€ 2b + 1 ½þ ŽèQN› 8q_ . QRS7þ

o
2b + 1 2 ½2› ŽèQNQRS2 7›
∞
N =Â
›=0 g2
The total scattering cross – section in partial wave analysis is given as
4È
= Â 2b + 1 QRS) 7þ
ÆbÆ*L
g )
8
Thus different partial waves contribute independently to the total cross –
cross section vanishes when each of the 7þ is 00 (or) 1800

section. The phase shifts completely determine the scattering and scattering
Scattering cross section is maximum for the values of 7þ =± , 3 , + ⋯ ›¾Ž

) )
*
Phase shifts are related to the potential energy function which is given by the
relation sin 7þ = − |€ \ ñ c ñ wñ
”
} þ
At low energies equal to zero only phase shift for e = 0 partial waves are
important and scattering becomes isotopic.
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OPTICAL THEOREM:
amplitude in the forward direction. (ie) the scattering amplitude for N = 0

The optical theorem related the total scattering cross section to the scattering
= . ²J c 0 . This relation is called the optical theorem. This theorem

–
Æ o
show that the imaginary part of the forward scattering amplitudes measures
the intensity which the incident beam suffers because of the scattering.
KLEIN – GORDEN EQUATION:
Klein – Gorden equation for Free particle:
DΨ H, ¾ ℏ) )
The schroedinger equation in the Hamiltonian form is given by
Rℏ = ∇ Ψ H, ¾ + ’Ψ H, ¾
D¾ 2¿
The relativistic wave equation is given as !∇) − #Ψ = .Ψ
ˆ$ J$ Œ $
Œ $ ˆÆ $ ℏ$
.Ψ
¿20 Ž2
)
Ψ=
ℏ2
This equation is known as the Klein – Gorden equation for particle.
= B∇ −
1 D2
) 2
C
Ž2 D¾2
Which is known as D’ Alembertian Operator.
negative energy Eigen va.ues. (ie) E = ± ℏ) Ž ) g ) + ¿€) Ž – /) (or)

A free particle in relativistic quantum mechanics will have positive and
KG equation is invariant under Lorentz transformation E = pℏ) Ž ) g ) + ¿€) Ž –

KLEIN – GORDEN EQUATION IN PRESENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD:
The equation of motion in an electromagnetic field is given by
ô ÷
w ¿€ F̅ ›
ó ö = −›H − ’x Á
w¾ ó F)ö Ž
ò 1 −
Ž) õ
The Klein – Gorden equation is given as !Rℏ ›Y# !Rℏ ›Y# Ψ H, ¾
ˆ ˆ
ˆÆ ˆÆ
This equation is valid for a particle which has zero spin. Since Pauli’s spin
matrices cannot be included in the above equation.
DIRAC EQUATION:
On 1928 the basis of spin theory, we should expert that of the ›̅ is moving in
Dirac Equation for a Free Electron:
a central field of force, the magnitude of its resultant orbital angular

momentum should be constant. But it turns out that magnitude is not
constant.
ˆ
ˆÆ
The relativistic wave equation are non-linear in E (or) .
The non relativistic equation being linear in . This property does not hold in
ˆ
ˆÆ
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ˆ
ˆÆ
case of relativistic equation on account of their being non-linear in . A
reformulation of relativistic wave theory was given by Dirac. Dirac looked for a
Properties of ø Ö matrices:
ù and ú
wave equation which should be invariant under a Lorentz transformation.
i) Since m}) = m†) = m‰) = É ) = 1. Therefore Eigen value of their matrices must
be ±1
ii) Since all these matrices anti commute, therefore only one of the four
The covariant form of Dirac equation is given as ÁJ*ÆU8}

matrices can be diagonal.
DΨ ¿€ Ž
Á£ + Ψ=0
Dd£ ℏ
Properties of Ák matrices:
Á- matrices are Hamiltonian and their square is equal to unity. These matrices
The four matrices m} , m† , m‰ and É is Dirac’s free particle equation is must be

are traceless.
Hamiltonian. Px Py Pz commutes, m and É do not commute, m and É commute

with E and P.
Ö Ψ = Rℏ
The Dirac equation is given as Á Ψ
Free Particle is solution:
ˆ
ˆÆ
Ö is given as
The Hamiltonian operator Á
Ö = a%mk } ½Ø} + mk † ½Ø† + mk ‰ ½Ø‰ ( + É¿€ Ž )
Á
The Dirac equation for free particle is gives as „H − am ½ − ½¿€ Ž ) …Ψ = 0

Dirac equation in electromagnetic field:
„ H − aY − a½ − ›£ − ¿€) a ; + ›ℏŽ Á − R›ℏŽm H…Ψ = 0

Dirac equation in electromagnetic field is given as
) )
ø and ú satisfy following relations:

i) m}) = m†) = m‰) = 1
ii) m} m† + m† m} = m† m‰ + m‰ m† = m‰ m‰ + m} m‰ = 0 ;
iii) É ) = 1
iv) m} É + Ém} = m† É + Ém† = m‰ É + Ém‰ = 0
The four quantities %md , mh , mi , É( are said to anti commute in pairs, and their
squares are unity.
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UNIT – IX (NUCLEAR PHYSICS)

BINDING ENERGY:
The mass of any permanently stable atom is found to be less than the
masses of its constituents. This decrease in mass is known as mass defect.
The energy equivalent of mass defect is a measure of Binding Energy.
The energy that must be supplied to the nucleus to separate it into its
constituents is called Binding Energy.
B.E can also be defined as the difference between the energy of the
constituent particles and the whole nucleus.
∆¿ = ÇçR + £ − Ç ç; − zMA
MASS DEFECT:
Where MH – Mass of hydrogen atom, MN – Mass of neutron
Binding Energy B = (ÇçR + £ − Ç ç; − zMA) C2

zMA – Atomic mass of atom
The total energy of the nucleus is taken to be negative.

1 amu = 931.478 Mev ; = 1.66 x 10-24g (or) = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
The magnitude of B.E of the nucleus determines it stability.
B.E is large 8.8 MeV is the nucleus is stable
BE > 0 the nucleus is stable
BE < 0 the nucleus is unstable. It will disintegrate by itself
B.E per nucleon BE/ A is various from element to element.
BINDING ENERGY CURVE:
The curve rise sharply at first and then more gradually until it reaches a
maximum of 8.8MeV at A = 56 Ex. Iron nucleus 26Fe56
Mass number 40 to 120. Binding Energy is 8.5 MeV – more stable
For higher mass number the value decreases to 7.6 MeV, the elements are
unstable.
Nuclei of intermediate are most stable
SEMI – EMPRICAL MASS FORMULA:
Weizacker proposed this formula liquid drop can be used to obtain an
expression for the B.E of the nucleus.
BE = 9A - bA)/r − − ±
) _ “ ; ) $ º
¦ °/» ¦ ¦ »/ü
9A – the first term is called volume energy – Exchange energy. The larger the
and neutrons from the nucleons. B.E ∝ total number of nucleons A

total number of nucleon it is more difficult to remove the individual proton’s
The nucleon at the surface of the nucleus is not completely surrounded by

other nucleons.
Energy of nucleon at the surface is less than the nucleon at the interior.
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The number of surface nucleons depends upon the surface tension in a
Nuclear of radius R has an area = 4πR2 ; = 4πr€ A)/r

liquid.
Surface effect reduces B.E by ES = - bA)/r . Es is called surface energy of the

nucleus. It is more significant for the lighter nuclei.
The electrostatic repulsion between each pair of protons decreases it binding
energy.
EC is the Coulomb energy of the nucleus is the work done to bring z protons
from infinity in to a volume equal to that of a nucleus.
‰ ‰
EC ∝ EC ∝ Ž
)
EC is negative because it arises from a force that opposes nuclear stability.
z Ø ) $
ß
Ea = - Original form leak of symmetry between the number of
proton(z) and number of neutrons (N) in the nucleus
The maximum stability of the nucleus occurs when N = Z. An a symmetry –
decreases in stability. Decreases its binding energy . Ea – Asymmetric Energy
Even – even nuclei are more stable than odd – odd nucleus.
f is positive for even – even nuclei , f is negative for odd – odd nuclei.
Application of Semi – Empirical Mass Formula:
Coulomb radius we can calculate R0 = 1.251 Fermi. Radius for mirror nuclei
can be calculated. Fission process - Alpha decay.
Stability of nuclei (or) Nuclear stability
Even – Even nuclei are more stable, Odd – Odd nuclei found only in the light
element. – 272 stable nuclei found in nature.
z < 20 the stability lines is a straight line z = N. For heavier nucleus z>20 the
stability curve bends in the direction N >Z.
All stable nuclei fall within the shaded region. Nuclei above and below the
;
shaded region are unstable. For maximum stability there is an optimum value
ò
of ratio.
m and É. N = (A – Z) required maximum stability

A>209 – Unstable nucleus, transfer themselves in to lighter one by emitting
The isobar for which the binding energy is greatest shows maximum stability.
Classification of Nuclei:
Isotopes: Nuclei with same atomic number (Z) but different mass number (A)
Example. 14Si28, 14Si29, 14Si30
Isobars: With the same mass number (A) but different atomic number (Z)
called isobars. Example. 8O16, 7N16
Isotones: Nuclei with an equal number of neutrons that is with the same
neutrons are called Isotones. Example. 6C14, 7N15 and 8O16.
N = A – Z , N = 8 in each case
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Isomeric nuclei (or) Isomers:

There are atoms, which have the same Z and same A but differ from one
another in their nuclear energy states and exhibit differences in their internal
structure. These nuclei are distinguished by their different life time.
Mirror Nuclei:
Nuclei having the same mass number (A) but with the proton and neutron
number interchanged. [The number of proton in one in equal to the number of
neutrons in the other] called Mirror Nuclei.
Example. 4Be7 (Z = 4 and N = 3), 3Li7 (Z = 3 and N = 4)
Nuclear Forces: (10-15m):
Nuclei must be stable means there must be certain forces acting between
their nucleons that bind them in to the nucleus.
The nuclear forces must be strongly attractive only three kinds of forces are
possible. (n – n) (n – P) (P – P) interaction.
Nuclear forces are not electrostatic forces and hence they are change
independent.
The nuclear force is a short range force. It is very strong between two nucleus
which are10-15m apart and is negligible of a distance greater than 10-15m.
Electric, Magnetic, Gravitational forces are long range forces.
Nuclei forces are not gravitational force. If the strength of gravitational force
is taken as 1, then the strength of nuclear force is as large as 1040.
Nuclei forces have strange behavior. It a nucleus contains too many protons
compared to the number of neutrons or too many neutrons compared to the
number of protons, the nuclear force becomes weak. The nuclei of such
element become unstable and show a tendency to disintegrate.
Yukawa suggested that the nuclear force between two nucleons many criles
Èm, È , È€
from the continues exchange of particulars called mesons between them.
Strangest known force in nature.
The range R of an m - particle and the disintegration constant ± of the

GEIGER NUTTAL LAW:
log ± = A + B log R
radioactive element that emits its are related as follows:
.v æ›HR›Q
A – Constant is different for different series. 7 9
éℎ æ›HR›Q
B – Constant same for all the series.
Deuteron : Proton , 1H1, Neutron
Properties:
The extra ordinary stability of the alpha particle shows that metta stable
nuclei in which the number of proton and neutrons are equal.
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The deuteron consists of two particle (P and n) of roughly equal masses of M,

so that the reduced mass of the system is ½ M
The binding energy of deuteron is very small. It is loosely bound. The angular
momentum quantum number of the ground state of the deuterons is one.
The spins are parallel and the orbital angular momentum of the deuterons
about their common centre of mass is O. This ground state is 3 S states.
The parity of deuteron is even. The charge distribution is prolate rather than
oblate. No exited state exits. Isobars state one to another area is excited
; α) =
‹³
state.
S ℏ$
Radius of the deuteron: R =
= M – Mass ; K ) =
T$ .$ &$ )J}
)Ù ý
)Ù $ ℏ$
. B.E = 4.31 x 10-15 m
α-particle is helium nucleuses consist, of two protons and 2 neutrons.

ALPHA PARTICLE:
α-particle are capable of ionizing a gas. The α-particle get slowed down by
It carries two units of positive charge 2e.
losing energy in ionizing the gas particles.
α-particle travels in the gas in their manner is called its range. This range is
Until its energy fall below the ionization potential of the gas. The distance, the
The range depends or i) The initial energy of α-particle ii) the ionization
usually expressed in air at 0.760mmp or 0.76 cm and 150C
potential of the gas iii) The changes of collision between the α-particle and
the gas particle.
is the number of ions produced by α-particle per unit length of the path.
Range is inversely proportional to the pressure of the gas. Specific ionization
R ∝ V3 ; R = a V3 ; R ∝ V3 ; V ∝ R /r
The Range R is proportional to the cube of the velocity.
Range – energy relation : R = bE r/) E ∝ R)/r

Range of a particle and disintegration constant logλ = A + B log R
Range increases, when λ disintegration is constant. This law helpful in

This is called Geiger Nuttal Law.
deforming roughly the decay constants of radioactive substance.
A heavy nuclei with A > 200 – Nuclei undergo - α-particle

ALPHA DECAY:
α-particle emitted from nuclei have discrete energy spectrum and consist of
The existence of several groups of α-particles is called fine structure of the

several group.
α-spectrum
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Before emission, the α-particle can be considered to be inside the nucleus.

Coulomb’s law is applicable when the α-particles is outside the nucleus.
P.E = 26 MeV.
the α-particle is within the potential well and it is bounded by the nucleus.
An attractive potential, called the potential well, represent, the position r <r0,
According to wave mechanics, α-particle can be different energy level E0, E1,
E2, E3 within potential well.
Only a particle at a level E3 or above E3 can come out the potential well or
potential barrier.
9 MeV. But uranium emits α-particles having energy 4 MeV. How a particle
In the case of radioactive element the height of the potential barrier is about
having 4 MeV can come out a potential well having a potential barrier of
9 MeV. So, it is possible for an alpha particle to leak through the potential
The probability of leaking of an α-particle through the barrier is called turnel

barrier.
effect.
Classical physics fails to explain α-decay. The quantum mechanics provides a

GAMOW’S THEORY OF ALPHA DECAY:
successful explanation. The basic idea of this they are, an alpha particle may
α-particle is in constant motion and bounces back and forth from the barrier
exist as an entity with in heavy nucleus.
walls. In each collision there is a definite probability that particle will leak
The decay probability per unit time ± = •ö

through the potential barrier.
• – frequency of collision , p – Probability of transmission in each collision

Here V > T , V – Height of the potential barrier, T – Kinetic energy of α-particle
According to Classical Physics: P =0 but in quantum mechanics a moving
particle is regarded as a wave [ie. By tunnel effect] but a definite value of p.
P can be calculated using WKB perturbation energy.
•

Decay constant can be calculated form:
bèu = bèu € ! # + 1.28 i€ /)
€
2.
. /)
1.71 zD H r
E is in Mev. R is in unit of 10-15m
ZD = (Z – 2) atomic number of the residual nucleus.
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HINDERANCE FACTORS:
Where m - particles have number internal angular momenta. In excited state

The theory applies only to ground state, decays between even – even nucleus,
the centrifugal barrier term b b + 1

ℏ
)JU $
Nuclei emitting more energetic m – particles are short lived.
must be added to Coulomb barrier.
Heat energetic m – particles are long lived. Higher state centrifical barrier for
Fermi’s Theory of þdecay:

nucleon inside the nucleus Hinderance factors.
Fermi made a successful theory of É decay based on Pauli’s neoteric

hypothesis.
The light particles, the electron and neutrino are created by the
transformation of a neutron in to a proton in a nucleus (or) vice versa.
[Neutrino – addition particle assumed by Pauli has no charge)
The energy remains conserved in the decay process, the available energy
being shored among the electron and the neutrino due to the larger mass
product nucleus does not receive kinetic energy.
The neutrino has rest mass zero or very small compressed to that of the
The Édecay process is analogues to the emission to electromagnetic

electron.
radiation by an atom with the electron – neutrino field acting in place of the
electromagnetic field.
Electron – neutrino field is weak: Contrast to the short range short
interactions which exist between the nucleons bound in the nucleus.
Time dependent perturbation theory is a very good approximation because of
Ž
the smallness of coupling constant.
No nuclear parity change occurs and higher order terms can be neglected.
As nucleons move with velocities of only ~

¯
€
in nucleus, calculations can be
made with non – relativistic nuclear wave function.
Fermi – suggested a new constant g, called as Fermi Coupling constant
g = 6.9 x 10-4 MeV.
Life time of þdecay:

The rest mass of neutrino can be measured with the help of the Fermi theory.
±= ;±=
LbKþ $ K$ |Ê8<|$ J$ þ ü <
Æ°/$ ) » ℏ
|çRc| - The overlap integral or the comparative half life of a beta
unstable nuclei is defined as ft½ is usual written as ft.
€.¼…r
|‹á |$
ft = t½ = 72.5 sec.
The Beta decay of 014 is of special interest as involves.
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I0 = I0 + mCo) = 1.81 MeV + mCo)

The coulomb correction enhances the probability of electron emission and
decreases’ the probability of position emission especially at low energy.
The position spectrum has few a slow particle and electron spectrum has
more slow particle.
The selection rules for forbidden transition are first forbidden. Iβ = 1 and
SELECTION RULES:
Fermi selection Rules : ∆I = ±1,0 ; Except 0 → 0

parity changes.
Gemow Teller Rules : ∆I = ±2, ±1 ; Except 0 → 0; →

) )
Second forbidden Iβ = 2 no change in parity
Fermi Selection Rules: ∆I = ±2, ±1 ; Except 0 → 1
Gamow Teller Rules : ∆I = ±3, ±2,0 ; Except d ⟺ 1
Third forbidden change in parity
Fourth forbidden no change in parity
∆I = ±n, ± n − 1 Parity changes for n - odd

nth forbidden : Fermi selection Rule
Gamow Teller Rules: ∆I = ±n, ± n + 1

LIQUID DROP MODEL:
Suggested by Bohr. In this model nuclear forces are ignored. But strong inter
nuclear attraction is stressed.
The nucleus consists of incompressible matter r = R0A /r

Essential Assumption:
The nuclear force is identical for every nucleus.

The nuclear force saturates nucleus is being like a small drop of liquid it is
called liquid drop model.
Similarities between Liquid drop and Nucleus:
S.
Nucleus Liquid Drop Model
No.
Liquid drop spherical due
In the stable state nucleus is
1 symmetrical
In the spherical shape
Surface tension
Force of surface tension act
There is potential parries at the
2 on the surface of the liquid
surface of the nucleus
drop
Density of nucleus is independent Density of liquid drop is
3
of volume independent of volume
Inter molecular forces in the
4 Short range force
liquid are short range force.
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Constant binding energy per

5 Latent heat of vaporization
nucleon
Evaporation of molecules
The disintegration of nuclei by the
6 from the liquid surface
mission of particles
Wilson Cloud Chamber
The formation of compound nucleus
7 and absorption of boundary Condensation of drop
particles.
Difference:
Molecular forces are attractive one another at a larger distance.
Nuclear forces are attractive within the small range. The kinetic energy of the
molecule in a liquid is the order of 0.1 eV.
de – Broglie wavelength is 5 x 10-11m
The kinetic energy of the nucleus is 10 MeV
de – Broglie wavelength is 6 x 10-15m
Merits:
m and É emission properties.

Liquid drop model not only gives atomic masses and BE but also it predicts
BE formula does not include the shell effect but this liquid drop model give
base line of shell effect.
Explain the future of nuclear fission.
Drawback:
Fail to explain magic number
Fail to explain spin and magnetic moments of nuclei.
This model is the fore runner of the elective model.
NUCLEAR FISSION (ATOM BOMB):
0n1 + 92U235 → 92U236→56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Á

When uranium was bombarded with neutron
Hahn and Stresemann – Frisch and Meitner in 1939 used the word fission.
Types of Fission:
Thermal Fission: Thermal neutron adds negligible energy to the fissionable
nucleus. Fission of U235 and PU237 by thermal neutron are the most important
Fast fission – Fast neutrino ≥ 1 MeV

reaction.
Charged particle fission ≥ 90 MeV

Photo fission: High energy photon induces fission in the heavy element.
5.1 MeV gamma rays can produce fission with U238
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Nuclear fission explained by Bohr and Wheder on liquid drop model:

An excited liquid drop may oscillate in number of ways on applying external
force, the sphere may change in to an ellipse model. If the external force is
large the ellipse may change in to a dumb – bell shape and may even break
in too few portions.
The analog may be extended to a nucleus which behaves like a liquid droop.
When a nucleus absorbs a neutron it forms a compound nucleus which is
highly energetic. The extra energy is from the binding energy. The extra energy
may let up rapid oscillations. The shape of the nucleus may change and if the
oscillation may be so violent this results in fission.
This fission fragments are of equal size 92U238 undergoes fission only by fast
neutron with kinetic energy exceed about 1 MeV.
SHELL MODEL:
According to this model P and ns are grouped in shells in the nucleus. The
shells are regarded as filled, when they contain specific No. of P or n or both.
The number of nucleons in each shell is limited by the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
This model is sometimes referred to as the independent particle model.
Evidence for Shell Model:
A nucleus is stable, if it has certain definite number of either proton or
neutrons. These numbers are known as magic number.
2, 8 , 20 , 28, 50, 82 and 126
The inert gases with closed electron shells exhibit a high degree of chemical
stability.
Magic number – Isotopes elements having an isotopic – abundance greater
so, belonging to the magic number category.
The nucleons having magic number exhibit more stability.
Tin has 10 stable ; Calcium has 6 state isotopes.
Z-50,20 are more than usually stable.
Atomic number 82, 126 – most stable; 82Pb208 is the most stable isotope.
Even – Even nuclei are more stable : In even – even nuclei only completed
sub levels are present.
Odd – Odd nuclei – incompleted sub levels are present.
In even – even nuclei all the protons and neutrons should Pair off. So, spin
and orbital angular momentum cancelour each other.
Even – Even – Nuclei have zero nuclear angular momentum, total angular
momentum zero.
Odd – Odd – Extra neutron, extra proton whole half integral spins should yield
integral total angular momentum.
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COLLECTIVE MODEL:
The shell model has been successful in explaining a nuclear feature. The
deviation of magnetic moments from the schemed curve make this model
less acceptable
The measured quadrapole moments are several times larger than can be
attributed to the odd nucleon even in nuclei with just one nucleon more or
less than a closed shell.
J. Rain water, the American Physician suggested that these discrepancies
might be over in odd. A nuclei by considering the polarization of the even –
even care by the motion of the odd nucleon.
The individual nucleons are imagined to move in orbits. The entire shell
configuration an undergo periodic oscillation in shape.
This collective motion of the nucleon influence the individual particles move.
Because of the stability of the core, the collective motion is small and the
individual particle characteristics are prominent , for the nuclei consisting of
Total Energy W = HUbÆ + HB8) + HX , [En – Nucleonic energy]

almost closed shells.
Mathematically Hamilton is compared of i) Rotational co – ordinates

ii) Vibrational co – ordinates iii) Nucleonic co – ordinates.
² ² + 1 − É² ) ² + 1
ℏ$ )
)µ
E= J – Moment of Inertia,
I – Total angular momentum operator.
The collective model is quite successful in the prating the patterns of excited
states of even – even nuclei.
The value of moment of Inertia:
Help us to understand the kind of rotational motion that occurs, Rotational,
Vibrational , Nucleonic.
If the idea is liquid shell model non – spherical as a lattice. Pole moment nor
spherical distrustful particles.
ª )Þ Þ
ªm )ªmr
Quadrapole moment Q =
The collective model has its most convincing success. Excited is very clear
even - even angular momentum.
Polarization – Dipole - Two pole
Spherical – Standard particle
Non – Spherical – distributed particle – size, shape
Nucleus considerable non spherical quarterable size
Non – Spherical – Shell models
If the idea of the acceleration shell proved light drop model
Non – Spherical – quator pole parity collective mode – size, slope, idea.
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NUCLEAR INSTRUMENTATION:
Low , energy circular acceleration Eg. Cyclotron , Betatron
Cyclotron:
Frequency is fixed – Spiral type of developing by Lawrence - High frequency
oscillation.
Accelerator:
The Dees placed inside the vaccum chamber. Connected to a high frequency
oscillator. AC connector powerful magnet. The whole aaparatus is placed
between powerful electromagnet.
Working:
+Ve ion with charge q and mass of the centre. It is accelerated towards the
dee having negative potential. Due to magnetic field positive ions moves
along a semi circular path the particle arrives at the gap, the polarity of the
dees gets reversed and the particle is once again accelerated and enters the
other dee with greater velocity describing.
Semi circle of greater radius changed. The particulars describes a circular
path of radius r when it velocity is V.
JB $
U
BqV = - Centripetal force.
= =v
” ñû
U J
Time taken to describe a semi circular path. ¾ = ; =
U J
” ñû
2t = = ; ” = ñû
) J U J
ñû
+ = = =
) ” ñû
@ U J
V = r+
= ; 2ÈF = ; F =
) ñû ñû ñû
@ J J ) J
is constant
Hence the frequency of rotation is constant. Rf oscillator is adjusted to satisfy
given by E = 2È ) HJ*}
)
cJ)
this condition in the given field B and for the charge q . Energy of the ion is
Advantage: Can Accelerator proton, deuteron and alpha particle.

Require low voltages producing high energy, Occupy lees space.
Disadvantages: Arranging an inter uniform magnetic field over a large area is
difficult.
ñû
) J
At high velocities will not be a constant due to relativistic mass variation
of the particle.
Electrons cannot be accelerated by Cyclotron. Since they have relativistic
mass variation even at low energy level of 20 Kev.
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Cyclotron in which the frequency of electric field is kept constant and

magnetic field is varied is called synchrotron.
High energy circular acceleration synchrocyclotron frequency modulated
cyclotron. A magnetic deflector known as regenerator is used.
One Dee, Placed inside the vacuum chamber, Instead of second Dee P metal
plate is there connected to the earth.
Alternation plate between Dee and metal plate.
Potential applied is made to rise and full periodicals instead of remaining
constant.
The frequency is charged at such a rate that as the ion lags a little due to the
increase in velocity the electric field frequency also automatically logs in
variation. Hence the particle enters a Dee of a correct moment. When it can
experience maximum acceleration.
An advantage of using one dee is that it leaks sufficient space in the vacuum
chamber for the ion source and the target.
The pole piece of the magnet are suitable shape, such that the field decrease
outwards from the centre. This ensures good focusing of the accelerated aim.
The frequency is modulated. The particular may from around 105 times
before reaching the maximum energy.
The voltage is 2500 volt in synchrocyclotron, but it is 100KV in cyclotron.
The synchrocyclotron – provides information about the production and
properties of measons.
Synchrotron:
There are two types of synchrotron. 1) Electron synchrotron
2) Proton synchrotron
Electron Synchrotron:
The electron synchrotron is based on the principle of the combined working of
Betatron and cyclotron.
Electrons are injected in to an orbit of fixed radius at an initial energy of about
50 to 80 KeV.
The man accelerating tube , the torous is made of glass or some plastic with a
circular dee (D) made of a metal.
An alternating potential is applied to the dee
A varying magnetic field is applied for to the torous.
The radius of the orbit is kept constant by increasing the magnetic filed as in
a betatron.
The increment of energy are given , as in cyclotron at the beginning and
ending of the D.
The electrons after acceleration are made to strike the required target.
Using tungsten as target very hard X – Rays of energy about 300 MeV or
300 x106 eV have been produced.
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Proton Synchrotron:
The proton synchrotron designed to provide protons of very high energy of the
order of billion electron volt.
Betatron:
A device to accelerate electron to very high energies, The action of this device
Under the condition Y = 2ÈHå called Betatron condition.

depends on the principle of a transformer.
GM COUNTER - DETECTORS:
Gm tube should be capable of responding to the radiation to be detected.
It should operate at low voltage , It should have long life
w – fine tungsten wire stretched along the axis of the tube and is insulated by
ebonite plates E
The wire is connected to the +ve terminal of high tension (1000 to 3000V)
battery through a high resistance R (100mega ohms)
The DC voltage is kept slightly less than that which will cause a discharge
between electrodes.
Working:
When an ionizing particle alpha enters the counter ionization take plate and
few ions are produced.
If the applied PD is strong enough these ions are multiplied by further
collision.
An avalanche of electron move towards the central wire and this is equivalent
to a small current impulse which allows through the resistance.
The critical potential lowered momentary causing a sudden discharge through
the resistance R. developed across R is PD thus amplified by vacuum tube
circuit and is made to operate a mechanical operator.
Voltage Characteristics:
Count rate of a Geiger Muller Counter.
There is a threshold below which the tube does not work. This can be several
/ hundreds of nuclei.
As the applied increased the counting begins and rises rapidly to a flut portion
of the curve called the plateau.
Plateau is the region of counter operation, where the counting rate is more or
less independent of small particle in p.d across the tube.
Beyond the plateau the applied electric field is so high that a continuous
discharge tube place in the tube and the count rate increases very rapidly
It does not require any ionizing event for this , so happen , so that the tube
must be used in this region.
The efficiency of the counter is defined as the ratio of the observed count /
dee to the number of ionizing particles opening the counter per second.
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Counting efficiency is defined as the ability of its counting if at least one pair
Counting Efficiency ∈= b − › ò P – Pressure in atmosphere

is produced in it.
b = Path length of the ionization particle in the counter

The efficiency of GM counter as a function of pressure for air and hydrogen
Advantage: Counter setup is portable, Serve belt for mineral prospecting,
Several other application in cosmic ray.
Disadvantages:
It cannot provide information about particle, It is insentive for a period of 200
to 400 s
= x” x100%
X$ X° €€
Slope of the Plateau:
X*B $ ”°
[per 100 volt]
The slope for halogen filled tubes is however greater than that for organic gas
filled tubes.
Precaution:
The tube should never operate at a voltage higher than its normal voltage.
In case a continuous discharge is produced, the voltage should be decreased.
The tube must be disconnected when measurements are over.
Introduction of light must be prevented in order to avoid photo electric
effects.
The background counting rate must be subtracted.
Main Features:
Constant output pulse size , independent of initial ionization
Sensitivity to the production of even single ion pair.
A long sensitive tube to allow entry of each particle, Infinite life.
Can defect alpha, Beta , gamma and cosmic rays.
SCINTILLATION COUNTER:
Earliese method of radiation detection was the spinthaniscope.
It consists of a small wire , the tip of which is dipped in radium brounide or
any other adioative salt.
When m, É particle falls on the zinc sulphide screen they produce light flashes
It is placed inside the in front of a zinc sulphide screen s.
which can be seen by a microscope in a dark room .

The excited in zinc sulphide by alpha particle was used by Rutherford for
counting the particles. The basis of SC counter is the energy of the particle is
converted to light.
impinging m, É or Áray , when the atom returns to their ground stages.

The atoms of the phosphor are excited or ionized by the energy less of an
Photons are emitted. In the blue and ultra violet region. The phosphor is
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optically coupled to the envelope of a photomultiplier tube. The photon strike

the photo cathode causing the electron of Photo electros,
As these photo – electrons leave the photo cathode they are directed by a
focusing electrode to the first multiplier electrode or dynock. This electrode
has the property of emitting three, four or five electron for every single
electron.
Which strikes in surface. There may be from 10 to 14 such multiple states in
a given tube from the emission of one single electron from cathode a burst of
one million electrons may impinge on the find stage in the tube.
The output pulse from the photomultiplier is fed to pulse amplifier followed by
scalar unit.
Pulse Height:
Pulse weight is proportional to the incident particle.
=
ï$ ï $
Ž ï $
Resolving Power
Dï ) is the mean squared change collected at the anode.

Q is the mean change. R – Resource point collected at the anode.
The smaller the half width of the photo peak the higher will be the energy
resolution R
The scintillation counter rays due to greater amount of energy dissipation by
the Gamma rays.
BUBBLE CHAMBER:
To detect very energetic particle the cloud chamber is not very suitable ,
hence to have high stopping power, chamber filled with sub blends designed.
If the liquid is heated under high pressure to a temperature well above its
normal boiling point a sudden reduce of pressure will leave the liquid in the
sugar heated strike.
If an ionizing particle transverse the liquid within few milliseconds after the
pressure released the ions left in the track of a particle acts as condensation
centres for the formation of bubbles. The vapour bubble grow at a ropid rate
and attain a visible size in a time of the order of 10 to 100 sec.
Liquid used should be low surface tension and high vapour pressure.
[diethyl ether, liquid hydrogen deuterium, helium, propane, xenon and other
liquids have been utilized successfully for different purpose]
Propone is commonly used:
The Double chamber is used to study particle interaction and to detect very
high voltage.
To study the interaction of particle with proton – liquid hydrogen is used.
For observation on neutron interaction, the liquid deuteron with neutron
faintly loosely bound to proton, it amplified.
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Bubble chamber is sensitive even to particles of – low ionizing power.

NUCLEAR REACTOR:
A device for rehashing number energy through fission of controlled rate is
The reproduction factor or multiplication factor, ÄS = ℎË½cÎ[ four factor form]

called nuclear vector or chain reacting pile
When ± – the number of fast fission neutron

ñ - fast fission factor
P – Resonance escape probability f – Thermal utilization factor
When K = 1 , the system is said to be critical
When K>1 the number of neutrons would increases (Super critical state)
When K<1, the number of neutrons would decrease (A, b critical state)
Critical size of a reactor:
The size of a reactor that operates under the condition of exact balance
between neutron production and neutron loss is known as critical and the
reactor is said to critical.
U235 – Natural concentration is 0.715%
Th232 and U238 can be converted in to fissile material
Moderators and Reflectors:
Materials used to reduce the neutron enough are modulators.
Eg. Graphite , Light, Heavy water , Berylium and its oxide.
Heavy water – has very small absorption cross section and highest
moderating ratio.
Materials with high mass number are used as reflectors.
Reactor Coolants:
The material exploded to remote the heat that is being generated in the
reactor core as a result of fissioning taking place are known as coolants.
Ef ordinary water heavy water liquid models such as sodium or sodium
potassium alloy or mercury organize tosh liquids and gases.
An ideal coolant should not absorb or modulate deuterons Should not react
chemically whit the other materials. D Should not breakup under irradiation
During in passages through the reactor.
Should have a low vapour pressure
Should be able to remove hear for a small expenditure of pumping power
Should not be costly
At ordinary temperatures heavy and light water. At high temperature - sodium
Control Materials:
In thermal; reactors control is achieved by neutron absorbing materials.
Material should become radioactive as a result of neutron capture. Eg.
Cadmium, Boron
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Reactor Shielding:
It is called Biological shield . Its primary function as health production about 6
to 8 feet thick concrete wall. Capable of absorbing both gamma rays and
neutrons.
Critical size of a system:
Critical size of a system containing disable material is defined as the
minimum size for which the number of neutrons produced in the fission
process just balance those lost by leakage and non fission capture.
Classification of Reactor:
The manner in which the dual and the moderator are mixed. Homogeneous
reactor – Both are sodium. Heterogeneous reactor – Final is concentrated
plates, rods or hollow cylinder.
According to enough of neutrons that cause fission: Thermal (0.025 eV),
Intermediate (1 to 10Kev), Fast (above 10KeV)
i) Research Reactors: Graphite – moderated , Research reactor
water – Boiler type reactor. Swimming pool reactor – Apsara (First reactor)
Light water --- Moderated tank type reactor
Heavy water – Moderated tank type reactor (Cirus, zernina, Purnima, R.5)
Production Reactors: The purpose of their reactor is to convert fertile into
fissile material U238 to PU239.
Boiling water reactor – Heavy water moderated reactor – Rana Pratap Sagar
– Kota - Rajasthan – Kamini (Kalpakkam – Tamilnadu) – Narora – Organic
moderated reactor.
Gas Goled reactor – Sodium graphite reactor – Liquid funnel reactor – Fast
reader (Breeder reactor)
Nuclear Chain Reaction:
A chain reaction is self –propagating process in which number of neutron
goes an multiple rapid almost in geometrical progression during fission fill
whole of fissile material is disintegrated.
The number of neutrons produced inn. Such separation is 3n
Multiplication factor (k) is the ratio of the sodium neutron produced to the
original neutrons.
The achievements chain reaction depends upon a movable balance of
neutrons among the six productions.
Neutron may be absorbed by U238 and mass cause fission when its energy is
greater than the threshold energy.
Neutron may be absorbed by U238 without producing fission.
Neutron may be by U235 nucleus consists fission.
Neutron may be U235 without consists fission.
Neutron may be absorbed by other materials in the assembly without consists
fission.
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Neutron man escape without being captured thus the process and create new
neutrons while other remaining process remove available neutrons from the
assembly.
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UNIT – X (ELECTRONICS (DIGITAL ELECTRONICS)

DECIMAL NUMBER:
Eg. 432.4510 = 4x102+3x101+2x100+4x10-1+5x10-2
It contains 10 unique symbols
BINARY NUMBER:
The binary number system uses only two digits 0 & 1.
Eg. 1010112 = 1x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+1x20
32 + 0 + 8 + 0+2 + 1 = 4310
+ +0+ = = = 0.812
ºm–m r
0.1101 = 1x2-1+0x2-2+0x2-3+1x2-4
) – ¼ ¼ ¼ €
CONVERTING BINARY TO DECIMAL:
Eg. 101112 = 1x24+0x23+1x22+1x21+1x20
16 + 0 + 4 +2 + 1 = 2310
HEXA DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM:
It expresses the binary number concisely and is commonly used in computers.
The hexadecimal numbers is formed from a binary number by grouping bits of
in a group of four bits each, starting at the binary point.
Convert FACE16 to binary
F A C E
1111 1010 1100 11102
Convert 1101 0010 to hexadecimal
D 2 = D216
Convert ED2 to decimal
= 14x162+13x161+2x160 ; = 3584 + 208 + 2 = 379410
THE OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM (3 - BITS):
The octal system is formed by grouping bits in group of 3 starting at the
binary point. The height digit in octal system is 7. There is no 8’s and 9’s
Eg. 11 111 011 110 1012 to octal
011 , 111 , 011 , 110 , 101
3 7 3 6 5 = 373658
Convert 74238 = 7 4 2 3
111 100 010 011
1111000100112
Convert 5610 to octal system

8 56
8 7-0
0-7 = (70)8
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Convert (ABCD)16 = in to Octal

A B C D16 = 4398110
8 43981
8 5497 - 5
8 687 - 1
8 85 - 7
8 10 - 5
1-2 = (125715)8
(A B C D)16 = (125715)8
Hexadecimal to Decimal 16 x ; Decimal to Hexadecimal 16
Binary Hexa Decimal Decimal Octal
0000 0 0 0
0001 1 1 1
0010 2 2 2
0011 3 3 3
0100 4 4 4
0101 5 5 5
0110 6 6 6
0111 7 7 7
1000 8 8 1 0 (One Zero)
1001 9 9 11
1010 A 1 0 (One Zero) 12
1011 B 11 13
1100 C 12 14
1101 D 13 15
1110 E 14 16
1111 H 15 17
10000 1 0 (One Zero) 16 2 0
BINARY CODES BCD (OR) THE 8421 CODE:

In this system, individual decimal digits are coded in binary notation and are
operated upon single. Binary digits (or) codes representing 0 to 9 decimal
digits are allowed.
Converting the decimal into BCD

32110 = 0011 0010 0001BCD ; 147210 = 0001 0100 0111 0010BCD
Convert BCD in to Decimal
10000110 = 8610 ; 1001 0111 0100 = 97410
Thus BCD (or) 8421 is identical to binary.
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Decimal 8421 (or) BCD Binary

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0010
3 0011 0011
4 0100 0100
5 0101 0101
6 0110 0110
7 0111 0111
8 1000 1000
9 1001 1001
10 0000 1010
11 0001 1011
12 0010 1100
15 0101 1111
GRAY CODE:
In binary system we find that all four bits are changed when going from 7 to 8
(0111 to 1000). In gray code, only one bit changes at a time. Following either
procedure to change a Binary number to its gray code equivalent.
i) Record the MSB
ii) ADD this bit to the next position, record the sum and neglect the carry.
iii) Record successive sums until completed.
Eg. Converting binary into Gray
10112 = 1110
Convert the Gray code into binary 1011
i) First record MSB
ii) Then add MSB to 4’ of the Gray code number
iii) Then adds 4’s of the binary number to the 2’ of the Gray code
iv) Finally add the 2’s of Binary code to 1’s of Gray code
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GRAY TO BINARY:
Decimal Binary Gray Decimal Binary Gray
0 0000 0000 9 1001 1101
1 0001 0001 10 1010 1111
2 0010 0011 11 1011 1110
3 0011 0010 12 1100 1010
4 0100 0110 13 1101 1011
5 0101 0111 14 1110 1001
6 0110 0101 15 1111 1000
7 0111 0100 16 10000 11000
8 1000 1100
THE EXCESS – 3 CODES:

The excess – 3 code is derived by adding 3 to each decimal digit and then
converting the result to four bit binary. Excess – 3 code is an un-weighted
code.
Most important features of excess – 3 code is its self – complementing
property.
Decimal Binary Excess - 3
0 0000 0011
1 0001 0100
2 0010 0101
3 0011 0110
4 0100 0111
5 0101 1000
6 0110 1001
7 0111 1010
8 1000 1011
9 1001 1100
Code Advantage Disadvantage

Weighted (Each bit position has a Rules of binary addition do not
8421
fixed value) apply
Self complementing
Excess – 3 Un – weighted
Rules of binary addition apply
Each progressive number differs
Un – weighted
by only one bit ; therefore useful
Gray Code Rules of binary addition do not
for input devices such as shift
apply.
encodes
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BOOLEAN ALGEBRIC LAWS:

AND Gate:
1) A = 0 , B = 0 ; Y = A . B =0.0=0
2) A = 0 , B = 1 ; Y = A . B =0.1=0
3) A = 1 , B = 0 ; Y = A . B =1.0=0
4) A = 1 , B = 1 ; Y = A . B =1.1=1
OR Gate:
1) A = 0 , B = 0 ;Y=A+B =0+0=0
2) A = 0 , B = 1 ;Y=A+B =0+1=1
3) A = 1 , B = 0 ;Y=A+B =1+0=1
4) A = 1 , B = 1 ;Y=A+B =1+1=1
¬ = 0ï = 1
1) A = 0 , Y = A
NOT Gate:
¬ = 1ï = 0
2) A = 1 , Y = A
¬ B + AB
; Y = A ¬ ï 0 + 00ï = 1.0 +0.1 = 0+0 = 0
==0
EX - OR Gate:
¬ B + AB
; Y = A ¬ ï 1 + 01ï = 1.1 +0.0 = 1+0 = 1
==0
1) A = 0 , B = 0
¬ B + AB
; Y = A ¬ ï 0 + 10ï = 0.0 +1.1 = 0+1 = 1
==1
2) A = 0 , B = 1
¬ B + AB
; Y = A ¬ ï 1 + 11ï = 0.1 +1.0 = 0+0 = 0
==1
3) A = 1 , B = 0
4) A = 1 , B = 1
; Y = ïïïïïï
A . B = ïïïïï
0 . 0 = 0ï =1
NAND Gate:
; Y = ïïïïïï
A . B = ïïïïï
0 . 1 = 0ï =1
1) A = 0 , B = 0
A . B = ïïïïï
; Y = ïïïïïï 1 . 0 = 0ï =1
2) A = 0 , B = 1
A . B = ïïïïï
; Y = ïïïïïï 1 . 1 = 1ï = 0
3) A = 1 , B = 0
4) A = 1 , B = 1
; Y = ïïïïïïï
A+B =0 ïïïïïïï
+ 0 = 0ï = 1
NOR Gate:
A + B = ïïïïïïï
; Y = ïïïïïïï 0+1 =1 ï =0
1) A = 0 , B = 0
1+0 =1 ï =0
2) A = 0 , B = 1
1 + 1 = 1ï = 0
3) A = 1 , B = 0
4) A = 1 , B = 1
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DE MORGAN’S THEOREMS:
De Morgan’s First Theorem :
complements. ïïïïïïï
A + B = A ¬ . B
¬
The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is equal to the product of its
De Morgan’s Second Theorem:
ïïïïï
B=A ¬+B ¬
The complement of the product of two logical inputs is equal to the sum of its
complements. A.
LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND THEIR CONVERSION INTO A LOGIC DIAGRAM:
(i) £̿ = A
(1) Complement law:
(i) A+0 = A , (ii) A + 1 = 1 , (iii) A + A = A , (iv) A + £̅ = 1

(2) OR Laws:
(i) A.0=0, (ii) A.1 = A, (iii) A. A = A, (iv) A. £̅ = 0

(3) AND Laws:
(4) Commutative Laws:

i) A + B = B + A, (ii) A . B = B . A
(5) Associative Laws:
(i) A + (B +C) = (A + B) + C , (ii) A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
(6) Distributive Laws:
(i) A (B + C) = A B + A C , (ii) A + (B C) = (A + B) (A + C)
Example:
Simplify the following Boolean expression. AC + ABC
Solution:
AC + ABC = AC (1+B)
AC + ABC = AC.1 [OR – Law (2)]
AC + ABC = AC [AND – Law (2)]
HALF ADDER – (TWO BITS):
It adds two binary digits at a time. A combinational circuit that performs the
addition two bites is called a half adder. It needs two inputs and two binary
outputs. It is necessary to specify two output variables because the resist
may consists of two binary digits.
function for the two output are 7 = µ +

The carry output is zero unless both inputs are 0. The simplified Boolean
µ
, C = XY
X (Input) Y C S (Output)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
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For sum we use X – OR operation and carry is obtained by AND the two
inputs. It is the simplest type of adder circuit since it does not have a carry
input.
Its usefulness is limited to the lowest order bit of a multiple stage adder
circuit. It cannot be used for higher order bits since it does not have carry
input.
FULL ADDER – (THREE BITS):
It adds three binary digits at a time and thus has a carry input. It consists of
3 inputs and 2outputs. When all the inputs are zero the output is zero. The
Output in Boolean : S = µ µ Ç + µ Ç µ + Ç + Ç ; C = XY + YZ + ZX
carry output has carry of 1 if two (or) three inputs are equal to 1.
µ µ
The full adder circuit consists of two Half adders and an OR gate. For sum we
use X – OR gate operation and carry is obtained from an OR gate.
The five logic gates are classified as combinational logic circuits. A
combinational logic circuit is a circuit without feedback. The output of such a
circuit depends only on its external inputs and so have no memory.
A sequencial logic circuit is a logic circuit with feedback. Its output depends
on the external input as well as on the present state of its output, which are
feedback to the inputs and so have memory.
R - S FLIP FLOP - (BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR):
The basic memory element used in sequential logic system is a Flip Flop.
A Flip Flop has two stable states 0, 1. A flip flop, output can stay in one of the
two stages after an input is applied and does not change even after the
removal of the input responsible for that output state. Thus one flip flop can
store only one bit 0 or 1. We call Flip Flop as 1 – bit memory or storage
device. Flip Flops are known as Bi-stable Multivibrator multi – binary, toggle
or catch.
A S-R is the simplest sequential circuit. The signals applied “S” and “R”
terminals are control inputs often called data inputs. When the Q input is
High (Logic1), we say that the flip flop is SET (1 is stored)
When the Q input is low (Logic 0), we say that the flip flop is RESET (OR)
CLEARED (0 is stored).
R - S T FLIP FLOP :
Features of Clock Pulse:
Pulse duration is much smaller than the period of clock rate (333 KC /s for
pulse). Time between pulses is called one bit time and may vary from less
than 1 second to over 15 seconds in computer involving many
operations.
The change of state on applying an input can take place only during the
application of a clock, pulse or change of state occurs only on the rising and
falling edge of the clock pulse.
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When it is designed that the circuit be used as a flip-flop, the width of the
clock pulse is kept small. Normally the circuits which are level sensitive are
called latches whereas circuits which are sensitive to edges are called Flip
Flops.
R - S T FLIP FLOP (OR) CLOCKED FLIP FLOP :
In such a system or circuit, action of flip flop is controlled by pulse generated
by a controlling oscillate.
RIPPLE COUNTER (OR) ASYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS:
A counter can be described as a tallying device that tallies or counter some
no. of events. An electronic counter needs that the data be converted into
electric pulses each of which represent one bit of information or one
happening.
In a ripple counter, the flip flop output transition serves as a source for
triggering other flip-flop. In asynchronous counter, the input of all flip flop are
triggered not by the incoming pulses but rather by the transition that occurs
in the other flip flop.
A binary counter with reverse count is called a binary down counter. In a
down counter, the binary count is decremented by 1 will every input count
pulse. The count of a 4 bit down counter states from binary 15 and
continuous to binary counts 14, 13, 12, …..0 and then back to 15.
4 – bit ripple counter is called as a scale of 16 counter. It 4 – bit ripple
counter, after 15 CP all the flip-flop a output are high.
BCD DECADE COUNTER:
Binary Coded Decimal Counter (BCD). The counter will reset itself to zero
after a count of 10 (0 to 9). Forced feedback is used to return the counter to
a reset state after nine natural binary counts.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:
Op – amp is basically a difference amplifier whose basic function is to
amplify the difference between two input signals. The advantage of using
differential amplifier in op-amp is its rejection capability of unwanted signals.
A signal appearing at the negative terminal is inverted at the output and is
called inverting terminal.
The signal at the +ve terminal appear at the output without any change in
sign and is called non – inverting terminal.
The output voltage is directly proportional to the input voltage. Which is
Characteristics of a ideal op – amp is i) input impedance Zi = m

difference of V1 and V2 (ie) V0 = V2 – V1
ii) Zero output impedance Zo = 0 ; iii) Infinite Voltage gain A = −m

iv) Infinite Bandwidth BW = m v) Perfect balance V0 = 0 when V2 = V1
vi) Zero drift (ie) Characteristics do not drift with temperature.
Vii) infinite CMRR
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Characteristics of OP – AMP :
Ideal Op – Amp. Real, Op – Amp.
It has infinite open loop voltage gain 10 – 1010
4
BJT – 108 Ω
It has infinite input impedance
FET – 1012 Ω
Open loop - 1k Ω
It has zero output impedance
Closed loop <1 Ω
Open loop – 100 Hz
It has infinite Bandwidth
Closed loop – 100 MHz
It has infinite CMRR 104 – 108
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER:
There are three modes of operation of differential amplifier.
i) Single ended mode: The operation in which either V1 or V2 is zero, is called
single ended mode of operation. If V1 = 0, the diff. amp. Operates in non –
inverting mode and if V2 = 0 then it operates in inverting mode.
ii) Differential mode: In this mode, the two input signals are equal but of
opposite polarity at every instant of time.
iii) Common mode: In this mode, the input signals are identical both in
amplitude and phase at every instant of time. Ins main advantage is noise
rejection.
COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR):
It is used to express how successful a differential amplifier is in providing
=
gain for the differential input and rejecting the common mode signal.
ßz á ÛyÛ ¹á Þ á
ßÝ ™ÜÙÙÜ ÙÜzÛ á
It is defined as
The CMRR may be expressed in decibels as
CMR = 20 log CMRR = 20 log Ad – 20 log Ac
For better performance of the differential amplifier Ad should be large and Ac
should be zero. (ie) CMRR should approach infinity or larger the value of
CMRR, better is the differential amplifier.
SOME OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER PARAMETERS:
Op – amp are widely used in DC or AC amplifiers. When Op – Amp is used in
an AC amplifier. – Coupling capacitor eliminator.
Input bias current:
NÃ°u Ã$
In an ideal Op – Amp off is zero when the two input are identical
(ie) V0 = 0 if V1 = V2. Input bias current IBias =
)
Input offset current:
terminals with the output at zero volts. (V0 – 0) ²8€ = ²„ − ²„)

The input offset current is the difference of the currents into the two input
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∆N9
Input offset current typically lies in the range 20 – 60 mA. This current drifts
∆@
will change in temperature. Input offset current drift =
Input offset Voltage (Ve0):
It is input voltage which must be applied across the input terminals to obtain
zero output voltage. In practical Op – Amp, even of equal voltage are applied
to the input terminals, output voltage is not zero (due to inherent imbalance
in the circuit)
To set output voltage to zero, we require an input offset voltage Vi0, which
typically dies in the range 1 to 4 mV
∆N9
Input offset voltage drifts with change in temperature. The input offset
∆@
voltage drift =
Input common mode Range:
It is the maximum different signal that can be applied safely to Op – Amp
input.
Output offset voltage:
It is the difference between the voltages present at the two output terminals
when the two input are grounded.
Power supply voltage Rejection Ratio:
∆N9
It is defined as input offset voltage change per volt of supply voltage change
”©©
(ie) PSRR =
Output voltage swing (range) is a function of the supply voltage and may
range 50% to 80% of the supply voltage.
Slew Rate (SR) :
It is the maximum rate of change of output voltage for a step input. This slow
from 50mv / Q to 50 V / Q and S.R is independent of the amount of

rate is determined by the capacitances in the amplifier. Slew rate may range
feedback.
Applications:
Inverting Amplifier acting as a scale changing amplifier phase shifting and
multiplied by a factor (ie) V0 = − nVs)

summing amplifiers. In scale changing amplifier the scale has been
= − ‰$ = › 8 =Ä Y−N
” ‰
In phase shifting amp. Only phase of the input has been shifted through
(Y − N to appear as output. x A
”¨ °
Ž$
In summing amp., the output voltage is equal to the negative weighted sum
U
of input voltage. (ie) V0 =
It is the same as that of inverting amp. Except that it has several input.
The output voltage is proportional to the sum of input voltage.
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This circuit is used widely to form linear combination of various signals in

analog computers.
VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTOR:
For a magnetic deflection in TV picture tube it is required to convert voltage
signal into proportional current. The load impedance is floating the load
current converted is independent of load impedance and is proportional to
the input signal.
It can be used for deflection coils.
CURERENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTOR:
voltage is given by V0= −ISR2. To reduce the high frequency noise a capacitor
In this circuit output voltage is proportional to the input current. Output
is connected parallel to the feedback register. Such as input current can be

provided by a photocell (or) photomultiplier tubes as they give an output
current which is independent of load.
Integrator:
capacitor. The Output voltage is V0(t) = − | w¾ + ’ 0

It is an inverting Op – Amp in which feedback register has been replaced by a
” Æ
Œ Ž
(ie) The output voltage is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. The
output rises linearly with time –a ramp. This is called Miller Sweep.
Differentiator:
differentiator. The output voltage is V0(t) = −.a ’ ¾

In inverting Op – Amp we replace resistance by a capacitor it given
“
“Æ •
VS(t) : |’• | sin +¾ , V0t = −.Ž|’• |+ ŽèQ+¾

(ie) The output voltage is proportional to time derivative of the input voltage
It is rarely used in analogue computers.

ANALOG COMPUTATION:
Logarithmic Amplifier:
In this amplifier output voltage is proportional to the logarithmic of input
voltage. Such an amplifier uses the non – linear volt – ampere relationship
r
of a P – N junction. This relationship is given by ²< = ²€ O› { − 1P
The output voltage ’€ = −^g 7bèuþ − bèuþ ²€ 9

”¨
Ž
The output Op – Amp is proportional to the antilog of in output voltage.
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS:
In free running multivibrator, there are two states which remain momentarily
two zener diodes. T = 2RC log› 71 + 9

stable. In this, the output voltage is limited by the breakdown voltages of the
)Ž»
Ž$
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AMV is very useful for fixed frequency applications in audio frequency range
10 C / s – 10 KC / s.
At frequencies >10 KC / ., the delay time of the amp. For going from one
state of saturation to another state of saturation becomes significant.
Square wave:
Slew rate of Op – Amp also sets a limit on the rise and falls times of square
levels ’ª× (or) ’ª× and depends only on time constant RC and feedback
wave output wave form. The time period (T) is independent of saturation
m
factor É.
VOLTAGE COMPARATOR:
The function of voltage comparator is on the other varying at one input with a
fixed reference voltage on the other. A differential amplifier can be used as a
to the other as (input voltage) A8 varies above and below› . The output
voltage comparator. The output will quickly jump from one saturation value
It Rú = 0, the output will jump from zero to the DC level so every time the
waveform is square one, though input is a sine wave.
input signal A8 pass through zero. The Op – Amp than acts as a zero –
crossing detector.
SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCUITS APERTURE TIME:
Such circuit sample an analog signal at a particular instant of time and then
hold the value of the sample for the desired duration. The sampling instants
and hold duration are determined by a logic control signal. The hold interval
depends on the application in while the circuit in being used.
A capacitor is used to hold the sample voltage. There is a delay between the
time that the control logic tells the switch to open and the time that it
actually does open. The delay is called aperture time.
OSCILLATORS:
There are two types of oscillators. 1) Sinusoidal oscillator 2) Relaxation
oscillator
Sinusoidal oscillators are those oscillators which operate on the linear
portion of the characteristics. The relation oscillator operates on non – linear
They are again classified as 1) feedback 2) – F› resistive type

region of its characteristics.
The tank circuit consists of an inductance coil in parallel with a capacitor.

The frequency of oscillation in the circuit depends upon – thin tank circuit.
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HARTLEY OSCILLATOR:
The coil L1 inductively coupled to L2 and the combination forms an auto
transformer. Feedback act output and input is accomplished thro’
transformer action. The transformer introduces a phase change of 1800. The
transistor operates in CE mode. The transistor also introduces a phase
change of 1800.
This makes the feedback +ve which is the essential requirement for
oscillations. The net phase shift is 3600 or 00 around. The general equation
for the oscillator L = hie(Z1+Z2+Z3) + Z1Z2(1+hfc)
oscillation of the oscillator is c =

The output admittance hoe of the transistor is very small. The frequency of
) p„ F° mF$ m)Ê ¯…
The condition for maintenance of the oscillator is hfe = ! #

F°mÊ
F$mÊ
The output voltage appears in the tank circuit. Using the vermin theorem
output current source can be converted into the voltage source.
CALPITT’S OSCILLATOR:
The circuit oscillator is the same as the of Hartley oscillator except that the
emitter tap is connected between the two capacitances. The frequency
determining circuit is made of inductance L and two capacitors C1 & C2.
The amount of feedback depends upon the relative capacitance value of C1
and C2. Higher is the value of C1 smaller is the feedback. The energy supplied
to the tank circuit is in phase with the generated oscillations. The capacitors
C1 and C2 act as alternating voltage divider. It is in CE mode it produces a
phase shift of 1800 also feedback produces 1800 phase. In this way
continuous un-damped oscillations are produced. The frequency of
oscillation c = B + C (or) ) ! F¯ #
¯ m¯$
°
) FÐ$ FÐ° ° ¯$
¯$
¯°
The conditions of maintenance of oscillation is hfe =
The frequency of the Calpitt’s oscillator is nearly equal to the resonance
frequency like other LC oscillator. This can be used to generate radio
frequencies. In Calpitt oscillator parallel LC resonant circuit is used to
produce +ve feedback. The function of the collector capacitor is to black the
DC provide an AC path from collector to the tank circuits.
RC COUPLED OSCILLATORS:
Phase shift Oscillator:
The phase shift transistor oscillator is to vacuum tube phase shift oscillator.
In this oscillator to obtain a +ve feedback essential for oscillations the
frequency determining circuit mist introduce a phase change of 1800.
Since the oscillator operates in CE modes CE products 1800 phase shift bet
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input and output. An additional 1800 shifts of phase is produced by the three
sections of the RC network. Each RC network consists of a coupling capacitor
and a shunt register.
of oscillation of the oscillator is c =

Here RC networks serves as the frequency determining circuit. The frequency
) ¯√¼Ž$ m–ŽŽF
+
)…Ž –ŽF
ŽÆ Ž
The condition for sustained oscillations (hfe) = 23 +
In practice the frequency of oscillation is c =

) ¯ √¼
AÉ = 1 but É = − ;£=−
In practice the condition for sustained oscillation is hfe = 56
)… )…
It is used to produce medium & low frequencies down to 1Hz. It is not used
because its stability is very power. Phase – shift oscillators are commonly
used for Audio frequency waves.
WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATORS:
Wein Bridge is connected best the input and output terminal of the
op – Amp. The frequency of oscillator lies between few Hz to 1 MHz. The
amplifier works as an oscillator only when the total phase shifted around the
loop is zero or 3600.
inverting amp. Is £ŒL = 1 +

Žr
This is achieved only when the oscillator is balances gain of the non –
Ž9
.
The condition for oscillation (CL) is Acl = 3 ; Cf = 2R1
This is also audio frequency oscillator. The advantages of this oscillator is
that the frequency may be varied over frequency range 1 – 10. In RC
oscillator the frequency cannot be varied. (ie) The RC oscillator is fixed
frequency oscillator.
The oscillations may be obtained by arranging both network and amplifier to
introduce zero phases and actually this is the principle of Wien – Bridge
At exact balance of the bridge Vi is zero, hence the feedback É =

”9
oscillator.
”
is also
zero.
In which, balanced bridge is used as the feedback network. The maintain
frequency of the oscillatorc = . At balance Ž° = Ž»

Ž Ž
amplifier thus requires a gain just exceeding 3 to sustain oscillations. The
) Ž¯ $ ü
:
–!Ž #
¿
:
!Ž #
The impedance of the parallel Rc network is and of series Rc network
¿
!. − [#
=
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MULTIVIBRATORS (RELAXATION OSCILLATOR):

It is a relaxation oscillator consisting of two stage resistance coupled
amplifier with the output each stage generating, storing and counting clocks.
They are basically two stage amplifier of time delay. The MV are
distinguished by the coupling network.
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS (AMV) - FREE RUNNING MULTIVIBRATOR:
AMV is a Multivibrator in which neither state is stable. There are quasi –
stable (temporary) states. So it does not have any permanent stable state. It
is non – driven type or Free running MV. To drive AMV no external stimulus
or trigger pulse is needed. This generates continuous square waveform
without any external signal.
In AMV the feedback ratio is unity and +ve. Ie. +1. The frequency oscillation
depends upon the discharge of the capacitor C1 and C2. The off time for
transistor or the ON time of the other transistor is t = 0.694 RC. The total
The frequency of free running multivibrator is given by c = Hz

€.ë)r
period of wave = 1.386 RC or 1.39 RC.
.r…Ž¯ Ž¯
or
The frequency stability of the circuit is not good and as it not depend only the
Æ°
function of the product of RC but also depends on load resistances, supply
Æ° @Æ$
voltage and parameters. Duty cycle = = 50%
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS (MMV) – TRIGGERE OSCILLATOR:
It is also known as one shot MV or un-vibrator. It is driven type. This has only
one stable state. Sometimes it is also called Triggered oscillators. In this, one
transistor is always conducting and the other is non – conducting. The
duration for which the one shot remains in the quasi stable state is
determined by the components not by the triggering.
MME cannot generate square wave of its own like an A9V. Only external pulse
T = 2RC loge(2). The frequency of the oscillator c =

will cause it to generate the square wave. The periodic time of the MMV is
)Ž¯LbK_ )
.
ò@L•þ “@U*Æ8bX Ž
@bÆ*L “@U*Æ8bX b< bXþ ŒbJúLþÆþ Œ†ŒLþ
Maximum duty cycle = = Žm–.rŽ¯
It is used as a pulse shaper and time delay unit.
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS (BMV) :
It is also known as Flip Flop, binary and scalar of two circuit. Bistable circuit
may stay in a particular stable independently and hence can be used to store
binary bit of information. This is used as a digital memory device. It has two
stable state. It is driven type. It is also called triggered multivibrator.
The BMV is used for the performance of many digital operations such as
counting and storing the binary information. This can also be used in pulse
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generation. It is used in timing circuit as a frequency divider (Divide by two

counter)
Schmitt trigger is a BMV. The hysteris voltage = Upper threshold voltage –
Lower threshold
AMV (using Op – Amp.)
mÔ
Ô
Time period T = 2.303 x RC log . This will produce square wave
frequencies between 10Hz to 10KHz
BISTABLE CLIPPING CIRCUIT:
A circuit which clips (remains) a portion of the input is called the clipping
circuit (or) Depending upon the limiting action (amplitude) the circuit is known
Positive clipper: Output F€ = −›, the positive portion of the input is

as a limiter or clipper.
Negative clipper: Output F€ = ›, the negative portion of the input is

completely removed.
completely removed.
Positive biased clipper: If a portion of the input positive is removed.
Negative biased clipper: If a portion of the input negative is removed.
Combined biased clipper : If a positive as well as negative portion of the input
are clipped at the output.
Base clipper: If the majority of the input wav is removed off in the output.
It is the process of shifting the input signal above input or below the zero
level.
MICROPROCESSOR:
A digital computer using μP as CPU is called – Computer. A sequence of a

Organization of – Computer:
instruction to perform a particular task is called a program. A set of

programme written for a particular computer is known as software for the
computer.
The input and output devices are known as peripherals some time the
memory is also included in the peripheral. An input device converts
instructions, input data and signals in to proper binary form suitable for a
digital computer. Computers are also used to measure and control physical
quantities like temperature, pressure, speed and position.
For these purpose transducers are used to convert physical quantities into
proportional electrical signals.
A / D converter are used to convert analog electric signal into digital signals.
The – Computer use either a Hexa decimal key board or an ASCII. They are
self contained units and mainly designed for only one person forward at a
time.
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BASIC CONCEPTS OF PROGRAMMING:

Computers use binary digits for its operation. The instruction was loaded and
stored in the form of 0’s and 1’s. The programme written in the form of 0’s
μP use assembly language it is developed by manufactured. Languages

and 1’s is called Machine Language.
essentially English and Mathematical are developed for computer. They are
known as high level language Eg. BASIC, FORTRAN, COBAL, BASCAL.
Language mini and Pc’s are programmed in high level languages.
Assembler converts the assembly language in to machine language. Compiler
which translators a high level programme into machine languages. Assembler
and compiler are programmers and not electronic devices.
Various input, output devices and memories are connected to the μP by a

BUSES:
group of line called Bus. A Bus is a group of conducting wires of lines over
which electrical signals are transmitted.
It carrier the address of the memory location or input that a μP has to access.
ADDRESS BUS:
All the memory locations are connected to the μP will receive the address but
only that memory location which has been response. The address bus is uni
directional 16 lines.
The width of the bus is the no. of lines available to transmit the signal. The
width of the address bus determines the amount of memory that can be
directly accesses a total of 216 = 65356 bytes of memory (64 k memory)
DATA BUS:
devices. The data bus is bidirectional. The data bus for 8 bit μP is 8 bit wide
It is used to transfer data between the processor and memory or input
(ie) 1 byte (8 bits) of information can be transmitted in parallel over the data
bus.
CONTROL BUS:
For the proper operation of the μP it must have a set of control for both input
It is used to synchronize the operation of μP to the operation of the external

control and output control lines. This set of lines is referred as control bus.
circuit.
MEMORY MAPPED INPUT SCHEME:
all possible addresses that μP can generate. It this, some addresses are
In this scheme, there is only one address space. An address space is a set of
assigned to memory and some addresses to input devices. Input device is

also treated as a memory location and one address is assigned to it.
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In this scheme data transfer instructions of the μP can be used for memory as
well as input devices. If H – L pair contains the address of a memory location
to accumulator. This system is suitable for a small system.
INPUT MAPPED INPUT SCHEME:
In this scheme the address assigned to the memory locations and also be
ªÚ
‹¬
assigned to input devices. Intel 8085 issues the signal signal to
differentiate whether the address on the address bus or on input device. The
ªÚ
‹¬
value of is high, the address on the address bus is for an input devices.
This signal is low, it is for a memory location. IN instruction is used to real the
data of an input device. OUT instruction is used to send the data to an output
device. This scheme is used for large systems.
ADDRESSING MODES:
Different technical are adopted to specify the addressing of the data. These
technical are called addressing modes. Intel 8085 has the following modes.
Direct Addressing:
In this mode of addressing the address of the operand (data) is given in the
instruction itself Eg. STA 2400H
Register Addressing:
In this mode, the operands are in the general purpose register. The opcode
specifies the address of the registers in addition to the operation of the
perform. MOV A, B move the content of B to A.
Register indirect Addressing:
In this mode, the address of the operand is specified by a register pair
MOV A, M
Immediate addressing:
In this mode, the operand is specified within the instructions if self. MVI A, 05
Move 05 in register A. The 8085 P instruction set has 74 opcodes the result
in 246 instruction set. HLT, NOP are called the machine control instruction.
TRANSFER STACK:
A stack is a sequence of memory location defined by the programmer. It is
used to store the contents of the register during the execution of programme.
The last memory location of the occupied portion of the stack is called stack
top. Once the stack location is defined, storing of data byte begins at the
memory address that is one less than the address in the stack pointer
register.
The size of the stack is limited only by the available memory. Data bytes in the
register pairs of the P can be stored on the stack in reverse order by using
the instruction PUSH. Data bytes can be transferred from the stack to
respective register by using the instruction POP.
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The stack pointer register tracks the storage and retrieval of the information.
Because two data bytes are being stored at a time, the 16 bit memory
address in the stack pointer register is decremented by two.
When data bytes are retrieved, the address is incremental by two. The stack
is shared by programmer and P. The programmer can store and retrieve the
contents of a register pair by using PUSH and POP instructions.
INSTRUCTION CYCLE:
An instruction is a command given to the computer to perform a specified
operation on a given data to perform a particular task. Sequence of
instruction given to a computer is called programme. Programme and data
are stored in the memory. The CPU fetches one instruction from the memory
at a time and executes it.
The CPU carries out to fetch an instruction and necessary data from the
memory and to execute it constitute an instruction cycle. An instruction cycle
consists of fetch cycle and execute cycle. IC = FC + EC
In FC, a CPU fetches the opcode (Machine code of an instruction) from the
memory. The time required to fetch an opcode is fixed slot time.
The time required to execute an instruction variable which depends on the
type of instructions execution.
The total time required to execute an instruction is given by IC = FC + EC
FETCH OPERATION:
The first byte of an instruction is its opcode. An instruction may be more than
one byte long. The other bytes are data (or) operand address. In the beginning
of a fetch cycle the content of the PC which is the address of the memory
location where the operate is available is sent to the memory. The entire
operation of fetching an opcode takes three clock cycles.
EXECUTE OPERATION:
In executes operation the opcode fetched from the memory goes to the data
register and then the instruction register. The instruction is decoded in the
decoding circuit. After the instruction is decoded the execute begins. If the
operande is in the general purpose register execution immediately perform.
INSTRUCTION SET:
An instruction is a command to the P to perform a given task on a specified
data. Each instruction has two parts. 1) Opcode 2) Operande
Opcode: The task to be perform called operation code.
Operande : The data to be operated ON called the operand. 8085 instruction
set is classified into 3 groups according to the word group.
One byte instruction: It includes the opcode and operand in the same byte Eg.
ADDB.
Two byte instruction: In this the first byte specifies the opcode and the second
byte on operand Eg. MVI A. 32H
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Thrce byte instruction:

In this, the first byte specifies opcode and following 2 bytes specify 16 bit
address. 2nd byte is the low order address, 3rd byte is a high order address.
Eg. JMP 2885H
This instruction would require 3 memory locations to store in memory.
Memory Classification:
Memory can be classified in to two groups i) Prime (System or main) memory
and ii) storage memory.
memory the μP uses in executing and storing programme. This memory

Read writable (RAM) and ROM are examples of prime memory. This is the
should be able to fast enough to keep up with the execution speed of the μP.
Prime memory should be random access memory (ie) the μP should be able
to access information from any register with the same speed. The size of the
memory chip is specified in terms of bits.
1 K memory chip means it can store 1 K (1024) bits.
RAM (VOLATILE IN NATURE):
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Read and write memory also called R/W memory. Information can be read
from this memory and also can be written during normal operation. It is
Random Access Property. It is Ram any memory location can be accessed. It
is Volatile in nature. It retains stored information’s as long as the power
supply is ON. When the power supply is switched off is content is also last.
There are two types of RAM. 1) Static RAM 2) Dynamic RAM
STATIC RAM:
This memory is made up of Flip Flop (Cache memory). It stores the bit as a
voltage. Each memory cell requires 6 transistors. The memory chip has low
density but high speed. This memory is more expensive and consumes power
than the dynamic memory. In high speed processor, SRAM is known as Cache
Memory. High speed cache memory is also included external to the processor
to improve the performance a system
In SRAM, the stored information are retained as long as the P.S is ON
DYNAMIC RAM:
This is made up of MOS Transistor gates. It stores the bit as a change. The
advantage of this memory are that it has high density and low power
consumption and cheaper than static memory.
The disadvantage is that the charge leaks. The stored information needs to
be read and written again every milli seconds. This is called refreshing the
memory.
For small system, the static memory is appropriate. In comparison to
processor speed, the DRAM is too slow.
Its content are lost in a very short time even though the power supply is ON
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8 bits = 1 byte, 1024 bytes = 1 kilo bytes, 1024 kilo bytes = 1 Giga bytes.
ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY):
It is a non – votatile memory. It retains stored information of even if the PS is
turns off. This memory is used for programmes and data that need not be
attered (Permanent Memory)
It has Random Access Memory. The permanent memory consists of two
memory. 1) Masted ROM, 2) PROM .
The permanent memory consists of two memory
i) EPROM ii) EEPROM
It is widely used for function tables such as silicon. The content of the ROM is
decided by the manufactures.
PROM:
Programmable Read Only Memory. This memory has nichrome or poly-silicon
wires. These wires are functionally viewed as diodes or fues. The content of
the PROM is decided by the user. The user can store the information as
permanent.
EPROM:
Erasable Programmable Read only Memory. This memory stores a bit by
charging the floating gate of in FET. The contents are erased by exposing the
EPROM to high intensity. UV light for 10 to 20 minutes.
An UV souse with wavelength 2357Å is used for this purpose. The user
cannot erase the content of a single memory location.
Disadvantages:
i) It must be taken out of the circuit to erase it ii) The entire chip must be
erased iii) The erasing process takes 15 to 20 minutes.

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POST GRADUATE ASSISTANTS

RAJENDRAN M, M.Sc., B.Ed., C.C.A.,

2 2 PROBABILITY AND THEORY OF ERRORS 14 - 24

7 7 SOLID STATE PHYSICS 75 - 91

8 8 QUANTUM MECHANICS 92 - 111

9 9 NUCLEAR PHYSICS 112 - 129

10 10 ELECTRONICS (DIGITAL ELECTRONICS) 130 - 150

“NeHikahd Kaw;rpapy; fpilj;j

UNIT – I (VECTOR FIELDS)

Directional derivative of f in the direction if a is D f = .∇f

∇ (fg) = g ∇ f + f ∇ g ; ∇ f = nf ∇ f for any n ∈ N

∇ !"# = "$ %g ∇ f − f ∇ g( ∇) fg = g∇) f + 2 ∇ f + ∇g + f∇) g

Divergence of a vector filed (F div F = ∇. F

If a vector filed is irrotational. Curl F = 0 ; ∇xF = 0

Let F be a smooth vector field then div (Curl F) = 0 ; ∇. ∇ x F = 0

Directional derivative = grad f . S

f = xyz− 4 ; Grad f = hie + dif + dhg

d−1 −2 h−2 =0 ; d−1 =2 h−2 ; =h−2

Since F is solenoidal . div F = 0 ; ∇. F = 0

If F is a vector point function, finite and differentiable in a region R bounded

∬‘ F. nk ds = ∭8 ∇. FdV ; ∬‘ F. ds = ∭8 div FdV

wQ = ∭” ; If F = vde + •hf + Žig , a, b. c

are constant then ∬‘ F. n

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers Eg. š œ

diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal matrix. Eg. •0 2 0ž

called a scalar matrix. Eg. •0 2 0ž

matrix. Eg. •2ž

Multiplication of two Matrices:

£ = |¦| adj A ; Where |£| ≠ 0 (Condition for existence of inverse)

iii) A adjA = adj A A = |A| I iv) AA ª = A ª A = I

i) If A = A© , A is symmetric, ii) If A = −A© , A is skew symmetric

i) For any square matrix A 7A = A + A© + A − A© 9

iii) If A and B are skew symmetric A + B is also skew symmetric

iv) If A and B are symmetric AB is also symmetric if AB = BA (Commutative)

ii) If A* = −A , A is skew Hermition

Find the rank of A = •3 −1 2 1ž ;

A is a square matrix, then |£ − ±²| is called the characteristic polynomial of A

|£ − ±²| = 0 is called the characteristic equation.

The characteristic roots of unitary matrices are of unit modules.

λ − 1 λ − 5 = 0 ; λ = 1, 5 (5 +1 = 6 Equal sum of diagonal elements)

Eigen Values are 1, 5 (Characteristic roots)

Let P(λ = |A − λI| be the characteristic polynomial of a square matrix A

1 − t ) y µµ − 2ty µ + P P + 1 y = 0. Where P is a real number is called a

Solution Pn(t) of the Legendre equation 1 − t ) y µµ − 2ty µ + n n + 1 y =0

If Pn is a Legendre polynomial | ½X) d wd =

i) Г (x) = |€ ¾ } › Æ w¾ ii) Г (1) =1 ; Г ! # = √È

UNIT – II (PROBABILITY AND THEORY OF ERRORS)

ËHH, HT, TH, TTÎ

n(s) = 52 cards - Black (26), → Spade (13), Club (13)

X ¦ Ø/ÙÚÛy Ü Ý ‘Û‘ 1Ü/y ÚÞÛ ¹Ü ß

S = ËHH, HT, TH, TTÎ n(s) = 4

i) A = 2 heads (exactly 2 heads) ; A = ËHHÎ n(A) = 1 ; P(A) =

A : Prime Number : A = Ë2, 3,5,7,11,13,17,19Î

P(D) = P(Spade) + P(Queen) – P(Spade ∩ Queen)

n(s) = 5 red balls + d blue balls ; = 5 + d

P(A) = 0.36 ; P(A or B) = P(A∪B) = 0.90 ; P(A and B) = P(A∩B) = 0.25

¬ = P(A) – P(A∩B) ; = 0.36 – 0.25; 0.11

iii) P(A¬∩B ¬ = P ïïïïïïï

¬) = 1 – P(A) ; 1 – 0.28 ; = 0.72

P(A∩ B ¬ = P(A) = 0.23 ; P(A ¬ ∩ B = P(B) = 0.44

= P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩ B ; 0.16 + 0.24 – 0.11 ; = 0.29

= 0.16 – 0.11 + 0.14 – 0.11 ; = 0.18