1.

1 Introduction to Cells

Cell Theory

Outline the three components of the cell theory

All living things are composed of cells (or cell products)
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
The cell is the smallest unit of life
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Cells only arise from pre-existing cells
3. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Describe the features of the following cell types that challenge the concepts of the cell theory

Striated Muscle Fibres:

• Muscle fibres form from fused muscle cells and hence are long and have multiple nuclei
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• Challenges idea that cells always function as autonomous units
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Giant Algae:
• Certain species of unicellular algae may grow to very large sizes (e.g. > 7 cm in length)
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• Challenges idea that cells are microscopic and larger organisms are composed of many cells
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Aseptate Fungal Hyphae:

• Filamentous hyphae that are not partitioned (aseptate) will have a continuous cytoplasm
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• Challenges the idea that living structures are always composed of discrete cells
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List the functions of life
Metabolism – Living things undertake essential chemical reactions
M ………………………………………………………………………………………………
Reproduction – Living things produce offspring (sexual / asexual)
R ………………………………………………………………………………………………
Sensitivity – Living things are responsive to stimuli
S ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Homeostasis – Living things maintain a stable internal environment

H ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Excretion – Living things require the removal of waste products

E ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Nutrition – Living things exchange materials with the environment
N ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Growth – Living things can move and change shape or size
G ……………………………………………………………………………………………… Hint: Mr Sheng

Compare the metabolic functions of Paramecium and Chlorella

Paramecium Chlorella

• Mode of nutrition is heterotrophic • Mode of nutrition is autotrophic
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• Paramecium engulf food (via phagocytosis) and • Chlorella contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis
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absorbs essential gases via diffusion • All essential materials are both absorbed and
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• Solids are removed via an anal pore, while liquids eliminated via passive diffusion
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are pumped out via vacuoles
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Cell Size

Explain the importance of surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size
• The rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass / volume
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• The rate of material exchange between a cell and its environment is a function of surface area
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• As a cell grows, its volume increases faster than its surface area – meaning metabolic rate eventually
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exceeds rate of exchange
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• Hence cell sizes are limited in order to maintain a viable SA:Vol ratio (energy requirements cannot
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exceed rate of intake)
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List three adaptations of cells that may function to maximise the surface area to volume ratio
Cells may adopt an elongated or flattened shape to increase SA:Vol ratio (e.g. bacillus)
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Cells may possess cellular extensions (e.g. root hairs) or folds to plasma membrane (e.g. microvilli)
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Cells may reduce effective cell volume by including large central vacuoles (e.g. plant cells)
3. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...


Suggest, with a reason, the location of the following cell within the human body
Intestine (digestive tract)
Location: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Has microvilli to increase surface area (allows for more material absorption)
Reason: …...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Magnification

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using light microscopes and electron microscopes

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

Can view living specimens
…………………………………………………………… Higher magnification
……………………………………………………………
Advantages
Can view in natural colours
…………………………………………………………… Higher resolution
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Lower magnification Can only view dead specimens
Disadvantages …………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………
Lower resolution Views in monochrome (or use false colour)
…………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………

Identify the difference between a transmission electron micrograph and a scanning electron micrograph
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) generates cross-sections through a specimen (internal image)
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Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) generates a surface rendering of a specimen (external image)
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Calculate the actual size of the following image (width = 11 cm)

Working:
×86
Actual = Image ÷ Magnification
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Image Size = ~11 cm
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Magnification = 86
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Actual = 11 ÷ 86 = 0.128 cm
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Actual = 1.28 mm
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Calculate the linear magnification and actual size of the following image

Working:

Scale width = 2.2 cm (image)

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Parasite width = 7.2 cm (image)
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Magnification = Image ÷ Actual
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Magnification = 22000 ÷ 50 = 440
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Actual = Image ÷ Magnification
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Actual Size = 7.2 ÷ 440 = 0.0163 cm
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50μm Actual Size = 163 micrometres

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Cell Specialisation

Outline, with an example, the organisation of cells in a multicellular organism

• Cells of the same type may group together to form tissues (neurons form nerve tissue)
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• Different tissues interact to form functional organs (heart composed of nerve and cardiac muscle tissue)
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• Organs combine to form organ systems (e.g. heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system)
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Define emergent properties in relation to multicellular organisms
An emergent property is a function present in a multicellular organism that is not present in any of its
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individual component cells / Emergent properties arise from the interaction of individual cells to produce
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new functions in multicellular aggregates / An example is increased antibiotic resistance seen in biofilms
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Explain how cells differentiate through selective gene expression
All cells of an organism contain an identical genome (the entire set of genetic instructions for that organism)
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Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell's genome
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The activation of certain genes by chemical signals will cause a cell to develop differently from other cells
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Differentiation through selective gene expression causes different cell types to become more specialised
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and distinct as they mature
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Describe how genes may be packaged within eukaryotic cells
• DNA in eukaryotes is packaged with proteins (histones) within the nucleus to form chromatin
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• Active genes are loosely packaged in an expanded and accessible form called euchromatin
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• Inactive genes are usually tightly packaged in a more condensed form called heterochromatin
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• Packaging of chromatin varies between cells according to which genes are active and inactive
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Stem Cells

State the two key qualities of stem cells

Self-renewal: Stem cells are capable of continuous cell division
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Potency: Stem cells are capable of differentiation (are effectively unspecialised precursors)
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Differentiate between pluripotent, multipotent and unipotent stem cells (with examples)
Can form any cell type AND form extra-embryonic structures (can form new organisms)
Totipotent: ………………..……………………………………………………………,,………………………………………………..........
E.g. blastocyst
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Can form any cell type (but can’t form extra-embryonic structures like the placenta)
Pluripotent: ………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
E.g. embryonic stem cells
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Can differentiate into closely related cell types
Multipotent: …….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
E.g. hematopoeitic stem cells (in bone marrow) form a variety of blood cells
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Can divide but not differentiate
Unipotent: ……….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
E.g. muscle cells can self-replicate
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Outline the therapeutic use of stem cells

• Stem cells can be used to replace damaged / diseased cells with healthy ones
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• Stem cells can be harvested from embryos, umbilical cord blood or certain
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Harvest

adult tissues (e.g. bone marrow)

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• Biochemical solutions are used to trigger the differentiation of stem cells
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• Cells are surgically implanted into patient's own tissue and the host immune
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system is suppressed to prevent rejection of cells
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Implant
• New cells must be monitored to ensure they do not become cancerous
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Describe the use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease
• Stargardt’s disease is caused by a gene mutation that impairs photoreceptor cells in the retina
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• This leads to genetically inherited macular degeneration (resulting in blindness)
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• May be treated by replacing damaged retinal cells with healthy ones (derived from stem cells)
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List three other therapeutic examples of stem cells
Replace dead nerve cells in individuals with Parkinson’s disease (death of dopamine-secreting neurons)
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Replace bone marrow in individuals with leukemia (cancer of the blood)
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Replace pancreatic beta cells in individuals with type I diabetes (can’t regulate blood sugar levels)
3. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Compare the implications of stem cell therapy using cells derived from different sources

Growth Tumour Harvesting Disadvantages

Potential Risk

Can be generated Requires the destruction

Embryo High High
artificially by SCNT of an embryo

Easily obtained and Cells must be stored
High Lower
Cord Blood
stored / preserved from birth at high cost

Difficult to obtain / May be limited in scope
Low Low
Adult Tissue
invasive to extract of application

Outline how stem cells may be artificially derived

Involves the creation of embryos via therapeutic cloning (fusing a diploid nucleus with an enucleated
SCNT: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
egg cell and then stimulating with an electric current to promote division)
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Excess embryos are created by this process, raising ethical concerns about destruction of embryos
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Induce a change in the gene expression profile of a cell in order to transform it
Nuclear Reprogramming: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
into a different cell type (involves the use of oncogenic retroviruses, increasing risk of cancer)
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