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o n t

Processing and use


Coconut wood
Processing and use
The designations employed and the presentation
of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion vvhatsoever on the
part of the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-32
ISBN 92-5-102253-4

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,


stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying or other_ise, _Ithout the prior
permission of the copyright o_ner. Applications for such permission,
vvith a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should
be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100
Rome, Italy.
© FAO 1985
1

COCONUT WOOD
Processing and Use
Index

Chapter 1 THE TREE 5 Chapter S GRADING COCONUT TIMBER 31

Properties, Utilization and Availability Quality Control, particularly relating to export


The Copra Industry System of Identification
Effect of Stem Anatomy and Structure on Utilization Grading
Sawing Sample Specifications
Seasoning Grading Techniques
Natural Durability and Wood Preservation Grading by Basic Density
Transmission Poles Appearance
Pulp and Paper
Wood Fuel Chapter 6 SEASONING COCONUT TIMBER 3S
Availability of Resource
Resource Assessment by Estimation - South Pacific Air Drying
Resource Assessment by Survey - Tonga Kiln Drying
Resource Assessment by Inventory - Fiji Seasoning of Poles

Chapter 2 THE USES OF COCONUT WOOD 12 Chapter 7 PRESERVING COCONUT TIMBER 37

Construction Oil- and Water-based Preservative Techniques


Furniture Preparing Timber prior to Treatment
Utility Items and Curios Treatment Methods
Board Products
Roundwood Products Chapter 8 ENERGY FROM RESIDUES 41
Fuel and Energy
Coconut Stems as Fuel
Chapter 3 LOGGING 20 Charcoal Making
Charcoal Retorts
Selection and Felling Charcoal Briquetting
Cross-cutting Activated Carbon
Extraction Producer Gas - Gasifier
Transport Ethanol from Coconut Waste Products
Disposal of Debris Power Generation Systems
Establishment and Operation of Power Systems
Chapter 4 PRIMARY CONVERSION 24

Cutting Patterns
Sawmill Systems for Coconut Timber Footnotes 4S
Types of Mill used for Sawing Logs
Sawing with a Chainsaw and Guide Attachments
Sawblades for Coconut Stem Conversion Bibliography 47
Waste Disposal
1

COCONUT WOOD
Processing and Use
List of lUustrations

Frontispiece: Three Densities of Coconut Wood

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 4

I A The Tree of Life 4A The Tungsten Carbide Tipped Saw


IB Coconuts Figure 4.1 Cutting Pattern for Centre-held Log
1C The Young Tongan System
10 The Young Tongan Drinks from the Coconut Figure 4.2 Cutting Pattern for Conventional
IE Copra Cutting, a Traditional Source of Income Sawmills
IF Coconut Logs, Dense on the Outside, Soft Inside Figure 4.3 Cutting Pattern for Beams
1G Firewood from Coconut Logs Figure 4.4 Additional Pattern for Cutting Purloins
Figure 1.1 Diagrammatic Section through a Coconut Figure 4.5 Cutting Pattern Relative to Selection and
Stem Grading

CHAPTER 1

2A Coconut Wood House CHAPTER 5


2B Frame of Building
2C Cocowood in Water Contact 5A The Low-density Grade Collapses
20 Shingles 5B The Densest Grades are Strong Enough for Struc-
2E Feature Wall of Cocowood tural Uses
2F Wall Cladding Figure 5.1 Chainsaw Grading Marks on Logs
2G Block Flooring Figure 5.2 Colour Grading on Log Butt
2H Strip Flooring
21 Cocowood Folding Table
2J Cocowood Chair
2K Cocowood Desk
2L Walking Stick CHAPTER 6
2M Bow and Arrow
2N Hammer Handles 6A Correctly Stacked for Air Drying
20 Eggcup
2P Sliced Veneer
2Q Laminated Cocowood
2R Particle Board
2S Power and Utility Poles CHAPTER 7
2T A Slice of Cocowood from Bark to Bark
roughly sanded 7A Debarking Poles

CHAPTER 3·
CHAPTER 8
3A Tractors Used for Extraction can also Power
Small sawmills 8A Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln
3B Log extracted by Draught Animals Exterior
Figure 3.1 Cutting by Draught Animal 8B Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln
Figure 3.2 Bulldozing through Roots Interior
Figure 3.3 Skidding Log behind Tractor 8C Firewood
3

COCONUT WOOD
Processing and Use

INTRODUCTION

Coconut Wood - Processing and Use is an in- Forest Research Institute, New Zealand; Messrs. R.
troduction to methods currently in use for the utiliza- Ford, J. Turner, and J. Vaney, New Zealand Forest
tion of coconut stems for wood products and fuel. Service, Rotorua; Mr. N. Evans, Fe'ofa'aki Enter-
The stems of the coconut trees become available prises, Tonga; Mr. R. Evans and Mr. A. Afeaki,
for use when the tree ceases to yield coconuts as a Cocostem Development Co. Ltd., New Zealand and
result of old age, disease or hurricane damage. Tonga; and Mt K. Bergseng, Timber Training Cen-
tre, Rotorua.
Coconut Wood - Processing and Use has been pro-
duced for the information of those interested in the Other individuals were consulted and assessments
development of processing industries. were made of a number of coconut stem processing
The information contained in this book represents operations in selecting material to be included.
the most recent findings of institutions and in- Documents from which material has been drawn
dividuals researchin~ the fuller use of superfluous are cited in the bibliography.
coconut stems.
The economics and management of coconut wood The editors and the Food and Agriculture
industries, and the organized marketing of their pro- Organization wish to acknowledge the assistance
ducts, will need increasing attention as the industries given by the specialists, primarily those named
expand. above, who co-operated in the compilation of the
report and from whose publications valuable infor-
Sources of Information for mation was collected.
Coconut Wood - Processing and Use were:
The editors
Mr. V. K. Sulc, Mr. Rodrigo Juson and col-
leagues, Zamboanga Research Centre, Philippines; Anthony Haas
Mr. R. N. Palomar and Mr. A. Mosteiro, Forpride, Len Wilson
Philippines; Dr. A. McQuire and J. Klnninmonth,
5

Chapter 1

The Coconut Tree

The coconut palm, Cocos nucijera L., is one of the most important crops of the tropics.
It occurs in all tropical and most subtropical regions, most abundantly in Asia and the Pacific,

thriving best on low-lying sites close to the sea with ground water and ample rainfall.
Nuts are produced from when trees are aged five, with highest production achieved between 15 and
SO years. Productivity declines steadily thereafter until at 60 to 70 years the tree is considered to be
senile.
It is then, or when hurricanes or disease strike, that the mature coconut trees are suited for conver-

sion to coconut wood.


6

Properties, Availability and Utilization

The coconut palm. Cocos nucifera L., is one of the


most important crops of the tropics. It occurs in all
tropical and most subtropical regions. most abun-
dantly in Asia and the Pacific, thriving best on
low-lying sites close to the sea with ground water and
ample rainfall. Nuts are produced from when trees
are aged five. with highest production achieved bet-
ween 15 and 50 years. Productivity declines steadily
thereafter until at 60 to 70 years the tree is considered
to be senile.
Few plants are as versatile as the coconut. The
most important product is the flesh of the nut (the
solid endosperm) which. dried as copra. is the source
of coconut oil used in the manufacture of soaps and
detergents, edible oils and fats. oilcake. plasticisers
and other industrial products. Worldwide copra pro-
duction amounted to over 4.9 million metric tons in
1982. and in the same year trade in coconut oil was I A The Tree of Life
1.27 million metric tons with a value of about
$US657 million.
Local uses of coconut palm products are many: mes were drawn up accordingly. It thus happened
coir, from the husk of the nut. is a fibre used in the that, for the first time in the history of the' copra in-
manufacture of mats. ropes. brushes and baskets; the dustry. plantation owners were faced with t he pro-
hard endocarp provides charcoal; coconut milk (the blem of cutting, extracting and disposing of over-
liquid endosperm) is used in cooking and as a mature trees.
beverage; sap. obtained by tapping the inflorescence Not only did this involve a reversal of the tradi-
of the palm, is a source of sugar. alcohol and tional conservationist attitude to coconuts. but it also
vinegar; the leaves provide thatch and material for required the development of economic means of
basket weaving; the stem is used for house construc- disposal or utilization. Stems could not be left to rot
tion and increasingly for other purposes to be as the decaying wood provides a breeding ground for
described in the succeeding chapters.

18 Coconuts
The Copra Industry
The origins of the industry may be traced back to
1841 when a patent was issued for the manufacture
of soap from coconut oil. During the subsequent
decades copra was harvested. mainly from trees
growing wild. by traders supplying the large
soap-making firms. Later. in the early 1900s. de-
mand for coconut oil for butter substitutes
stimulated the establishment of plantations.
In view of the favourable investment climate at the
time, much of the planting was on large estates.
especially in the Philippines, but in addition many
small farmers planted the coconut as a cash crop
which remains to this day an important part of the
economies of some island countries.
After 1918 other crops. particularly rubber, ap-
peared to offer better opportunities for investment
and large-scale coconut planting diminished. then
virtually ceased with the economic depression of the
I 930s.
The vast stock of trees created during the planting
boom continued to produce in abundance, but wild
fluctuations in the price of copra, as well as the grow-
ing acceptability of alternative vegetable oils. led to a
decline in the industry with a consequent strain on
those economies dependent upon it.·
The main stock of productive trees was therefore
ageing until, at 60 to 70 years old, productivity began
to fall steeply. In countries where trade and sub-
sistence farming remained dependent on the coconut
the need for replanting became evident and program-
7

tht> rhinoceros beetle (Orystes rhinor;eros), a pest order of 20m thus giving maximum wood volume
which attacks the core of the stem, the crown and per stem of about I m J.
young nuts; while burning or tipping into the sea
would have proved expensive and wasteful.' For To obtain optimum growth and nut production the
countries with a sustained internal market for timber crowns and roots must have ample space. This limits
- especially those relying on imports - the conversion the stem density in a plantation to about 100 per hec-
and use of coconut stems offered an attractive tare. Thus the wood volume in a mature or over-
economic prospect and industries were developed ac- mature plantation is about 100 m'lha. Stems are
cordingly. often curved. This limits the length of sawlog that can
The development of viable coconut wood in- be prepared. Although in some favourable locations
dustries required in the first place two lines of in- (e.g. Zamboanga) longer logs are possible, in general
vestigation: the structure and composition of the raw a log of length of about four metres is the maximum
material, with techniques of conversion appropriate practicable. The largest sawlog will therefore not ex-
to these; and the location and availability of over- ceed about 300 kg in weight which is low compared
mature, diseased and dead stems. with sawlogs from mature trees of most forest
species.
Most hardwoods and softwoods exhibit density
gradients from the centre of the stem towards the

IC The Young Tongan

ID The Young Tongan Drinks from the Coconut


Effect of Stem Anatomy and Structure on lJtilization
The properties and peculiarities of the coconut
stem were summarised at the Zamboanga (Philip-
pines) Coconut Wood Seminar in 1979. The follow- outside and from the bottom of the trunk towards
ing notes are derived from the proceedings of that the top. This is because the later-formed wood in any
SeminarJ: cross-section is usually slower growing and is com-
Because coconut palms have no vascular cambium posed of cells with thicker walls. With coconut stems
(lateral growing tissue) they do not increase in the gradients are much more pronounced, but for
diameter with age. It is uncommon to find a stem different reasons. Palm stem wood consists of a
over about 30 em in diameter. Minor variations in number of scattered vascular bundles (each having
diameter from one stem to another, or between vessels for water conduction, phloem for elaborated
different locations, are a reflection of the growing food conduction, and fibres for mechanical support)
conditions for the individual stem during the early set in a matrix of more or less spherical parenchyma
stages of its life. Taper is very slight (about 5 mm) cells. The vascular bundles are much more abundant
"_ .... . - .......... a rot ...rn .... a.""' ...... "" nt tn.l1 ./f"I.'At'_~ ", . . .a n. ... th.a. tnUJartic thp nl1tc;tip nf thp ctpm A tvn;ral ctpm at nnp
8

Up to the six metre mark the high-density zone


(outer one-third radius) accounts for about 20 per
cent of the total stem volume but by the time
allowances are made for saw kerf and other wastage,
the net recoverable very high density wood falls to
below ten per cent of the total. The maximum size of
member that can be cut from this high density zone is
100 x SOmm. Although the quantity of this material
per stem is low, the quality is uniformly high. As the
palm has no branches there are no branch remains
(knots) in the. wood. Consequently no piece is
weakened by the presence of natural defects.

Sawing
The actual operation of sawing coconut is difficult
and standard steel saws will become blunted and
unusable after relatively few cuts. Two factors pro-
bably contribute to this: firstly, the thick-walled
fibres are extremely hard; and, secondly, the paren-
chyma tissues disintegrate into a fine abrasive
powder which is not easily removed from the cut and
which causes frictional heat increase. As the wood
dries and the cell wall material becomes harder, these
problems are intensified. The silical content of
coconut wood is low so this is not a contributing fac-
tor as in some difficult-to-saw-hardwoods. The use
of tungsten carbide tips (or Stellite-tipped or inlaid-
teeth) has overcome basic sawing problems but has
increased problems of saw maintenance. More costly
I E Copra Cutting, a Traditional Source of Income equipment and greater operator skill are required.

metre height would have about ten bundles/cm' in


the central portion and about SO bundles/cm' near Figure 1.1 Diagrammatic Section through a Coconut
the outside/'
In a young stem the cell wal1s are relatively thin Stem
and the basic density of wood in these two zones
could be about 90 and 300 kg/m' respectively. These WOOD DENSITY
DISTRIBUTION (DENSITY IN kgjml)
wood cells are not dead as in normal forest trees,
however, and the wal1s continue to increase in
thickness so that by the time the palm is mature the 20 m HEIGHT
density in these same two regions can be as high as
250 and 900 kg/m'. "
All tissues in the basal regions of old palms (in-
cluding the ground parenchyma cells) have thicker ~ ~ !!!
walls. Higher up the trunk the bundles are more
abundant and up to 175 bundles/cm' have been
...8 -
~ ~

found near the outside of an overmature stem at a


height of 19.5 metres. The cells in these zones never 12 m
develop thick walls, however, and the basic density in
this zone was only 2S0kg/m'.1J In the central region
of this stem (at 19.5 metres) the bundle frequency ~ ! ~
was 68/cm'. The basic density varies from stem to ~ ~ ~
stem but in general the distribution of density is of
the order shown in Figure 1.1. 6m
Strength and density are very closely related 17 so
the density distribution governs the sawing pattern
that must be chosen if high-strength timber is to be ..,~ §
produced. Because logs are small in diameter, and
the high-density zone is fairly narrow, it follows that •~
!.... ~ ~
.., 1
only a few relatively small-dimension pieces of top ~.'I..
BASE
strength can be produced from a stem.
In Zamboanga the diameter average at breast \ /
height is approximately 32.5 cm - the maximum OUTER THIRD OF RADIUS
recorded is 43.6 em.
I)

Seasoning
Conventional timbers have a distinct grain pattern timber in a prophylactic chemical solution im-
caused by periodic radial growth. Even in species mediately after sawing if a clean product is required.
which do not show distinct growth rings the wood No part of the trunk is resistant to fungal decay but
has different properties in the radial and the tangen- higher density material will take longer to rot ·com-
tial directions. One of the most important of these pletely, simply because the thick-walled cells retain
properties is shrinkage when the wood dries from some strength for a longer period. Low density wood
fibre saturation (about 30 per cent moisture content) will decay in the ground within weeks whereas very
to equilibrium moisture content. Shrinkage in the high density wood may last for two to three years.
tangential direction is approximately double that in Pressure treatment trials indicate that the wood
the radial direction so unless the wobd is truly flat or can be treated with preservatives such as copper-
quarter-sawn some distortion of shape is inevitable chrome-arsenate. But the distribution of preservative
on drying. is n01.as uniform as in pine sapwood where the rays
With coconut wood there is no such grain differen- are an important pathway of penetration, or in
tiation so material will dry uniformly and without permeable hardwoods where vessels are more con-
cross-sectional distortion. Lateral shrinkage in any tinuous and free of obstruction.
direction is less than three per cent when drying from
green to 12 per cent moisture content. /6
With low density coconut wood, shrinkage is ac-
centuated by collapse, which is not recoverable by
subsequent reconditioning with high temperature
steam. There is a sharp increase in this tendency to Transmission poles
collapse as the basic density of material decreases The stems have strength properties which make
below about 350 kg/m'. Collapse is severe. Uses for them ideal for use as transmission poles. But it is dif-
this type of material are very limited. The volume of ficult to dry them in a manner that will result in the
such unusable wood is approximately 15 per cent of preservative being concentrated in the high-strength
the stem total. outer zones, and without degrading.
Coconut wood is known to be more susceptible to
soft-rot decay than is pine timber. So coconut wood
will certainly require higher preservative loadings,
but just how much more will be required to guarantee
an economic service life is yet to be determined.
In the preparation of poles or posts it is first
necessary to remove the bark so that the underlying
wood will dry out. With most pole species this
debarking operation is relatively simple, and effec-
tive machines have been developed for the purpose.
With coconut stems, however, there is a gradual tran-
sition from wood to bark. The debarking region is in-
definite and very fibrous. Debarking by machine is
not yet possible. At present debarking must be done
by hand using simple tools such as draw-knives or
bush-knives. Treatment of poles by sap displacement
is an alternative to normal pressure treatment but the
deeply fissured nature of the bark makes it difficult
to obtain an effective pressure seal on the log. Fur-
1F Coconut Logs, Dense on the Outside. Soft Inside thermore the sap-conducting elements (vessels within
the vascular bundles) occupy only about four to five
per cent of the total tissue volume compared with 30
to 40 per cent for the vessels in most hardwoods and
90 per cent plus for the tracheids in softwoods.
Natural durablllty and wood preservation
The coconut palm does not form heartwood as
most forest trees do. This affects its utilization in
several ways. The wood is uniformly wet and ap-
proaches saturation throughout the whole trunk; Pulp and paper
variations in moisture content are dependent on Trials in the Philippines and in New Zealand have
variations in density and therefore the space available shown that coconut stem wood can be used for mak-
for water. The main consequence of having no heart- ing pulp and paper with qualities similar to those
wood is that the wood of the coconut stem has no made from most hardwoods, although the high pro-
natural resistance to attack by wood-boring insects portion of fines (from parenchyma tissue) greatly
and decay fungi. Freshly cut wood is very susceptible reduces overall yields. These small parenchyma cells
to infection by mould and stain fungi and also to at- also cause problems in the manufacture of particle
tack by ambrosia beetles. Hence it is essential to dip board.
10

Wood fuel
The calorific value of coconut wood (heat energy metre of wood from which some 40 per cent recovery
released on burning, per unit weight of dry wood) is of dense and medium grades of sawnwood may be
similar to other woods. But some predrying is expected. In Zamboanga an average stem volume of
necessary before coconut wood will burn easily. To 1.158' with stocking of not more than 115 stems per
achieve the necessary drying, the stem must be cross- hectare is recorded.
cut into short lengths and then split, using suitable Given these assumptions of maturity and yield, the
equipment and techniques to overcome the lack of potential volume of industrial wood follows from a
planes of weakness in the radial direction. tree count - typically 100 stems per hectare.

Resource assessment by estimation - Soutb Pacific


Prior to the Coconut Stem Utilisation Seminar
held in Tonga in 1976, all South Pacific countries at-
tending were requested to complete a questionnaire
on the extent and productivity of their coconut
resources. J In spite of some differences in the
methods of assessment and reliability of the data on
which they were based, the results indicated a trend
which may be significant for management policy in
the future. The responses to the questionnaire show-
ed the status of the coconut resource in the South
Pacific to be as follows:

1G Firewood from Coconut Logs


Total land area 547,989 km!
Area under coconuts 460,000 ha
Percentage of resource considered overmature 31
Summary Percentage of resource considered immature 23
The coconut palm stem has a number of features Percentage of resource considered productive 46
that make it unique as a wood source material.
Early attempts at utilization were somewhat
disheartening because results did not compare well Less than half the resource was considered produc-
with conventional wood from either hardwoods or tive in 1976, and it is possible that the rate at which
soft woods. Many of the problems, however, were this part becomes overmature will exceed the rate of
the result of trying to apply technology developed for replacement by immature stock. If that were the case,
one material to another that was quite different. as much as two-thirds of the area would be available
The development of equipment and technology for logging and replanting. A subsequent study J
specific to coconut wood has overcome many of assumed that the area of the resource available for
these problems. logging in the South Pacific over the next 50 years
There is no doubt that the future will see the would be of the order of 350,000 ha, and that at a
coconut stem being used as a conventional wood felling rate of 7,000 ha per annum an annual yield of
alternative in a number of applications, and in many roundwood of approximately 1 million m 3 would be
instances doing the job equally well or even better. available (based on a high estimate of 125 trees per ha
and 1.25 m' per tree).
On the same assumptions, it was calculated that in
the Philippines 4.06 million m J per annum would be
available from 1.6 million ha of plantations over the
next fifty years. 1
A vaUabllity of tbe Resource
A prerequisite for the establishment of a coconut
wood industry is an adequate supply of overmature
or otherwise disposable stems of known volume.
Estimates of the availability of raw material must be
made with precision if industrial investment is con- Resource assessment by survey - Ton.a
templated. In 1981, the Kingdom of Tonga completed surveys
A preliminary assessment may be made by a visual on coconut palm population, age ranges and produc-
inspection of a plantation. The age of a palm can be tivity. as a result of which quantitative information
calculated by counting the scars on the surface of the was obtained on the size and distribution of the
stem, while the volume of the stem is derived in the resource of overmature stems. On this basis the
usual manner from height and diameter. A mature Government announced in 1982 a policy for controll-
palm grown in the tropics will yield about one cubic ed utilization of the resource, together with the rules
11

to regulate the embryonic sawmilling industry to en- Aerial photography of the island was completed at
sure its viability along with that of the copra in- a scale of 1: 10,000, followed by a stratified random
dustry. H sample to obtain information on the number and
The effect was to permit the annual felling of 1.6 volume of stems. Detailed photo interpretation with
per cent of the total coconut palm population, with ground control then provided details of individual
the completion of a stem utilization and replanting plantations including areas, number of stems per hec-
cycle every sixty-two years. tare, average height and total volume. Stem volume
tables were prepared. Individual plantation statistics
Resource assessment by inventory. Fiji were recorded on a 1: 10,000 map and overall
The usual preliminary to investment in a wood- distribution of the resource was shown on a 1:50,000
based industry is an inventory of the source of raw coconut location map. Reliable and detailed infor-
material. In 1977, the Japan International Co- mation of this type is needed by Governments in the
operation Agency undertook an inventory of coconut preparation of plantation management plans, and by
stems on the island of Taveuni. J sawmillers for industrial feasibility studies.
12

Chapter 2

The Uses of Coconut Wood

The denser grades of coconut wood can be used as structural material while the lower grades are
suitable for joinery and interior use. It has proved economic to construct dwelling houses entirely of
coconut wood.
The denser material makes attractive furniture and is also widely used for utility items and curios.
The roundwood has excellent strength properties and is suitable for transmission poles and fence
posts provided the problems of preservation treatment can be overcome.
13

The Uses of Coconut Wood

As noted in the first chapter, the over maturity of use. In another Kiribati outer island a project to mill
coconut plantations and the need for their replace- stems with chainsaws to provide timber for 30 houses
ment by higher-yielding varieties has been the foun- was planned. Near to Los Banos in the Philippines a
dation of all recent work on developing the use of saw milling project was planned to supply timber for
coconut wood and of appropriate processing in- low-cost housing. In Zamboanga, commercial and
dustries. Government interests tested the use of coconut
timber as a component in a low cost housing pro-
gramme.
By the 196Os, coconut producers were expressing By 1983, coconut stem sawmills had operated also
alarm at the problems caused by over mature palms in Fiji, Western Samoa, French Polynesia, Vanuatu,
diminishing productivity and decay and infestation Tuvalu, Papua New Guinea. India; Indonesia, the
of dead and dying trees. To these has often been add- People's Republic of China, and Jamaica.
ed the destruction caused by hurricanes. Some sawmilling projects have experienced dif-
Among the institutions pioneering these studies, ficulties arising from management, technical and
special mention is justified of those in the Pacific economic problems which not unexpectedly had to be
region. These include the Philippines Forest Products faced in a relatively new and widely dispersed in-
Research and Development Institute; the Philippines dustry. Typical of these are inadequate or irregular
Coconut Authority's Zamboanga Research Centre, supplies of raw material, excessive transportation
supported by the United Nations Development Pro- costs, insufficient attention to sawing techniques ap-
gramme and the Food and Agriculture Organization propriate to recovery of the better grades of timber,
of the United Nations; the Fiji Forest Department, imperfect seasoning and preservation practices, lack
the New Zealand Forest Research Institute and the of quality control, incorrect assessments of markets
New Zealand Timber Industry Training Centre. and inability to compete with other materials.
The range of studies covered are anatomy and Problems of this nature can be overcome as the
wood properties, sawmilling, seasoning, preserva- public and private sectors gain experience in process-
tion, mechanical properties, engineering design, ing, marketing and management. Replanting pro-
charcoal manufacture, wood based panels, kraft grammes and incentives will ensure an adequate sup-
pulping properties, machining, house construction ply of stems; demand for the wood exists or can be
and utilization for a variety of manufactured pro- developed especially in communities lacking alter-
ducts. The U.K. Tropical Products Research In- native materials; and enough experience exists of
stitute investigated the use of coconut wood in parti- production and utilization technology.
cle board manufacture and other processes. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to ex-
Research and development findings were sum- amples of the end-uses and products already
marized at two important meetings in Tonga in 1976 demonstrated and in several cases marketed.
and in the Philippines in 1979. l ' J
In the meantime, small scale sawmilling industries
were set up in parts of the Pacific in an attempt to
market the products of the coconut wood becoming Construction
available. Experience has shown that almost the entire range
of coconut wood can be used in appropriate func-
tions in the construction of buildings, particularly
By 1983 mills were being operated in Tonga by the houses.
Government, by the Catholic Church and by a com- Structural load bearing components in the house
mercial operator. Growers used the' mills to have should be made from dense timber grades.
their own overmature stems milled. They used the Trusses and internal members are made of medium
sawn timber for their own projects. A commercial density material and it has been possible to develop a
operator also negotiated with growers to acquire wide range of advanced designs for th~ former. In
logs, processed them, and offered the sawn timber addition to conventional methods of manufacture,
for local sale. In the Solomon Islands a commercial nail plates and truss jigs facilitate the accurate
operator processed logs and offered the dense grade prefabrication of trusses. Designs have been
of sawn timber for export to a New Zealand com- prepared covering a range of uses from small thatch-
pany for further processing into wall panelling and ed roofs, through several house types, to school
flooring. In Sri Lanka a semi-government agency ac- room buildings. Floors and steps are made of hard
quired fallen stems after a hurricane and processed material either as machined boards or parquet. The
sawn timber for the local market. In Kiribati a internal linings of the walls of houses may be made of
mobile sawmill began operations on an outer island soft wood, which is quite suitable for non-load bear-
to mill timber which was freighted to the Republic's ing surfaces, although harder wood is used when a
capital and stockpiled pending a decision on its end high finish is required.
14

2A Coconut Wood House

2B Frame of Building

2C Cocowood in Water Contact


15

External cladding, also of the softer material, re- and other parts requiring strength and durability. U
quires preservative treatment to prevent damage by Flooring joists, flooring, ceiling joists, trusses and
weather, as do the hard wood window frames and framing timber can be made from dense coconut
any material which is in ground contact. J timber. The bottom and top studs, horizontal studs,
Because of size limitations, the use of coconut top members and bracing can be made from medium
wood in larger building necessitates the adoption of density coconut timber. JI
laminated members. This technique has proved to be Coconut timber framing and flooring should be
successful. Some very advanced beams have been dried to the local equilibrium moisture content level
made by combining laminated coconut wood sections before fixing.
with plywood webbing. J
The hard outer layer, or high and medium density Coconut wood can be used for roofing either as
grades of coconut timber have sufficient strength for sawn timber or shingles. When rainwater is to be col-
structural use in buildings. lected for drinking purposes, the roofing material
Solid rounds used as posts placed on top of con- may be treated with a water proof sealant rather than
crete foundations may be used in house construction one of the toxic water-borne preservatives.

2D Shingles 2E Fcaturc Wall of Cocowood

2F Wall Cladding 2G Block Flooring


16

21 Cocowood Folding Table

2H Strip Flooring
Furniture
The harder density coconut wood, which is ex- tlgure, in fact, that it can in some cases be considered
tremely attractive, can be used in the production of overpowering if used to excess and this point should
furniture, although its weight imposes some limita- be kept in mind when designing furniture.
tions on the size of pieces made entirely of this Selected medium density coconut timber is suitable
material. J Naturally this problem is easily overcome for non-decorative and utility furniture manufacture.
by utilizing coconut wood in framing and using It is easy to screw, drill, glue and profile. Medium
lighter woods or laminating plywood to complete the grade can also be used in conjunction with hard
items. Carving and fairly intricate turning is possible grade in decorative timber if the colour difference is
so a.ttractive designs can be developed. allowed for or utilized in the design.
Hard density (No.1 grade) coconut timber is nor- Preservative treatment for coconut wood furniture
mally preferred for decorative furniture and is ade- timber is usually not necessary.
quately strong in bending and stiffness and hard For commercial furniture production it is
enough to resist indentation. Its colour, texture and necessary to use tungsten carbide tipped cutters on
figure enhance its suitability for this purpose. planers, spindle moulders, etc., in order to achieve a
Grade No.1 coconut timber has such a striking reasonable production rate.

2J Cocowood Chair 2K Cocowood Desk

Utility Items and Curios


The structure of coconut wood makes the harder plex shapes such as axes and paint brushes where
material extremely suitable for a wide range of utility splitting along the grain is a problem. Furthermore,
items with demanding specifications. The interlock- the resilience of coconut wood helps to absorb im-
ing nature of the grain, which is a partial cause of the pact shocks in hammers and axes. By using lamina-
difficulties encountered in sawing, makes the wood tion, extremely durable saw handles can be made.
ideal for the manufacture of tool handles with com- The combination of durability and attractiveness
17

should also allow coconut wood to obtain a place in utilized increasingly for the manufacture of curio
the big market of wooden bowls and boards for carv- items. Although this market cannot dispose of large
ing and servings. The high modulus of elasticity sug- volumes, it could be an important cottage industry
gests that the material can be used in a range of rod giving gainful employment to many people. Items
forms, from broomsticks to surveying staffs. J manufactured include bookends, candlestick
holders, trays, bowls, mugs, chessboards, salt and
A wood with such attractive properties may well be pepper shakers.

, '
, ','

2L Walking Stick 2M Bow and Arrow

2N Hammer Handles 20 Eggcup


18

2P Sliced Veneer 2Q Laminated Cocowood

Board Products
Trials in the United Kingdom and in the Philip- Roundwood Products
pines J have been carried out on the production of The structure of the palm stem is ideally suited to
particle board from coconuts. its use as a utility pole since it has great strength and
flexibility and is able to withstand high wind loads. J
It is usually possible to select straight and defect-free
stems suitable for power transmission lines.

2S Power and Utility Poles

2R Particle Board

The main problem has been to dry poles sufficient-


The stem proved to be a difficult raw material for ly to permit pressure impregnation with a water-
the purpose, though it was technically feasible to borne preservative, Debarking is an essential
make boards conforming to accepted standards. An preliminary and no suitable fully-mechanized
economic appraisal indicated however that board method has yet been developed. The process can be
manufacture was unlikely to be viable in local condi- carried out manually with a spokeshave-type debark-
tions where competing materials exist or the market ing knife. J The use of coconut rounds as house poles
is too small. presents a similar problem.
19

Coconut fence posts should be prepared in semi or


quarter rounds with the less dense material removed
before drying and pressure treatment. This produces
a post of adequate strength which can be efficiently
preserved.

Fuel and Energy


The uses of coconut wood for charcoal and for the
production of gas and by~products are described in
Chapter 8.

2T A Slice of Cocowood from Bark to Bark roughly


sanded
10

Chapter 3
Logging

Coconut stems can be felled and extracted in the same manner as other plantation trees.
In practical terms the felling and removal of coconut stems from plantations to a sawmill has to
take into account the situation within the plantation - whether the area beneath the palms has been
inter-cropped or grazed with stock, is flat or steep or rocky, whether the trees are concentrated or
scattered.
The size and sophistication of the equipment is dependent, as in other forest operations, on the
scale of felling and the location and capacity of the sawmill being supplied.
21

Logging

Coconut plantations are usually in easy and ac- to the ground by winching or bulldozing. The latter is
cessible terrain. The branchless and nearly straight unsatisfactory as it creates a massive problem of
stems, and their almost uniform and modest dimen- disposing of the stump and root system to which a
sions allow the use of comparatively simple equip- massive ball of earth generally adheres. It commonly
ment for felling, extraction and transport. requires one man/day per stem to remove the earth
and to expose the stump for burning (Figures 3.1,
3.2).
Uprooting of the stump is not, however, a stan-
Selection and Felling dard practice, because of the cost. Stump disposal
In Chapter 5 the principles of grading coconut after normal felling remains a problem. One solu-
timber are described. Quality control begins with the tion, already tested in the Philippines, may be the
standing tree which may be assessed for age and pulverising of the stump with a mechanical flail. 1
potential log quality before felling. Felling may be by axe or two-man handsaw where
Felling, while apparently a simple operation, is the number of trees to be felled is few, as in selective
often complicated by the need to prepare the land for logging to eliminate dead, diseased or unproductive
planting. This implies that, where the topography trees within a healthy plantation.
and absence of boulders permit mechanical cultiva- Clear felling for replanting is an operation of scale
tion. it is desirable to remove the stumps or at least justifying the use of chainsaws. Experience in the
reduce them to ground level. 1'1 Philippines indicates that this is the most efficient
The extraction of the stump, together with the method provided that care is taken to fell the stems in
roots, is always a costly undertaking, requiring either a uniform direction to facilitate cross-cutting and ex-
heavy equipment or a costly input of labour, often traction. Careful training and supervision of
both. If it has to be done, the roots and stump must operators are essential, together with suitable ar-
be undercut so that the palm can be pulled or pushed rangements for maintenance.

~A Tractor, U,ed for Extraction can abo Power Small ~awmill~


11

3B Log extracted by Draught Animals

Extraction Transport
Sawmill logs are neither large nor unduly heavy Loading and hauling do not require heavy or
and present no problems in extraction. Depending on highly specialised equipment for the usual scale of
the scale of the operation and the nature of the ter- plantation operation. Loading may be done manual-
rain, extraction may be by draught animals, adapted ly when the logs are small; in other cases, by cross-
agricultural tractors or specialised skidders. hauling with a skidding tractor or with a hydraulic
The water buffalo, or Carabao, can play an impor- front-end loader.
tant role in moving logs in isolated areas. Log transport, as in any forestry operation, has to
One of the most efficient and least expensive be by the most economic means. In small scale plan-
systems of log extraction is the use of an agricultural tation clearances unspecialised flat bed trucks, or
tractor with a towing bar fitted to the hydraulic lift four-wheel bunk trailers towed by agricultural trac-
arms. J This enables the butt of the log to be lifted tors, have proved suitable. J
clear of the ground for skidding . The same type
of machine has proved suitable for the extraction of
stems up to seventy feet long.

[Figure 3.2 Bulldozing through roots].

[ Figure 3.1 Cutting through stem roots]


13

Cross-Cutting
Before the palm trunk is cut into logs, the location
of each cut must be marked, the length of the log
depending on the curvature of the stem and the in-
tended end-use. High quality stems for special uses
such as transmission poles, for example, must be
identified and cut accordingly. Sawmill logs are
usually cut into four to six metre lengths, each stem
yielding one or two logs depending on the height and
soundness of the tree.

Disposal of Debris
In order to minimize infestation by the rhinoceros
beetle and by the palm weevil, it is of great impor-
tance to dispose of the palm fronds and the discarded
top portion of the stem after logging. Utilization is in
some cases possible through transport of woody
material as fuel to nearby users, or by charcoaling on
the spot. Otherwise all debris should be piled for dry-
ing and then burnt.

Figure 3.3 Skidding Log Behind Horse


Chapter 4

Primary Conversion

The sawing of coconut logs calls for care in selecting cutting patterns which e'~sure the maximum
yield of the higher density outer material.
The hard and abrasive nature of the wood makes it necessary to use hardened saw teeth.
These considerations apart, primary conversion can be satisfactorily carried out with conventional
sawmills, although special types, designed for portability, have been developed.
25

Primary Conversion

Cutting Patterns
Approximately 70 per cent of the cross-section of a The specifications, advantages and disadvantages
coconut log is hard to medium wood, confined to the of these mills are as follows:
periphery, and of this slightly less than half may be
recovered as sawn wood. The soft core, often exten- 1. Medium-size portable sawmill
ding to 100 x 100 mm sawn, must be separated and A mill of this type was designed with the assistance
graded as inferior. It is preferable to leave bark on of the TITC, specifically for the milling of coconut
the higher quality outer wood rather than include any stems in Tonga. It is a robust machine capable of be-
of the core. Resawing for export quality can be ing towed over rough terrain without distortion to
undertaken as required. the frame. The main unit has jack screws at either
A typical cutting pattern for 200 to 300 mm end which can be wound down on to wooden pads to
diameter logs, designed for a centre-held log to en- prevent movement. (The weight of the carriage
sure separation of hard and soft material, is shown in travels from one end of the track to the other.) As it
Figure 4.1. This gives a choice of 100 x 500 mm or 75 is on a single axle with dual pneumatic wheels it is
x 50 mm pieces plus 50 x 50 mm and 50 x 25 mm off. desirable to jack and put solid packing under the cen-
cuts. The same pattern can be used in conventional tral main frame to prevent movement during opera-
mills as indicated in Figure 4.2. tion. It is desirable but not essential to have the
machine set up perfectly level. All parts of the unit
Cutting patterns for beams and purlins are shown are tied in rigidly together (track. carriage, headsaw,
in Figures 4.3 and 4.4, and for grade selection in power unit, roll case) and need to be in true align-
Figure 4.5. ment to each other.

This machine was originally designed with a


Sawmill Systems for Coconut Timber 9-gauge 1120 mm diameter saw which is adequate for
The most important factors in selecting milling most coconut logs. The companion breast bench unit
equipment are portability and ability to be relocated can be towed by a car on roads or a tractor in rough
if this is required; simplicity of design to avoid terrain. It is self contained, of rugged construction,
breakdowns which are difficult to repair in isolated with trolley tracks mounting directly on to the main
situations; ease of operation as skills of operators frame. It thus stays in true alignment with the
will often be limited; and inexpensiveness as the in- machine regardless of the circumstances. The power
dustry is often sited in poorer, underdeveloped areas. pack on the main unit is mounted on a frame that can
There are many designs of sawmill in use. In be rolled in from its operating position, making the
Tonga in 1983 there were in fact six mills operating, unit more compact for transporting.
all of different design, five being manufactured in The breakdown unit requires a motor of power
New Zealand and marketed as coconut wood equivalent to a 75 h.p. electric motor and the
sawmills, and one an old locally redesigned sta- breastbench a 30-35 h.p. motor.
tionary mill. The mill layout and operation should
relate to the end use at which the product is aimed.
The inflow of logs should be simple, with lifting
avoided and limited storage space as logs should be Field trial
milled within hours of delivery if possible. Im- A production study of this type of mill was under-
mediately after sawing, all timber should be dipped taken in the Philippines 11 4J at the Coconut Authori-
in a bath of anti-sapstain chemical and then fillet- ty Research Station. .
stacked in an orderly and systematic manner for dry- The logs used were from 116 coconut palms felled
ing, carefully retaining grading marks applied in the and left on the ground in the field for about eight
forest. months, and from 241 newly felled coconut palms.
The trunks, cross-cut to log lengths ranging from 10
to 16 feet from the butt to the upper portion, were
piled near a fairly level site where the mill could be set
Types of Mill Used for Sawing Coconut logs'o up.
Full service tests have not been reported on all the The portable sawmill consisted of a 1120 mm
mills used in milling coconut wood, but tests reported diameter breakdown saw and a 195 mm diameter saw
from the Zamboanga Research Centre in the Philip- in the breastbench. Both circular saws, equipped with
pines and the Timber Industry Training Centre in 17 and 13 stellite teeth respectively, were driven by a
New Zealand provide a guide to the selection of mills single engine. The mill was towed to the site with an
for different conditions. Other trials have been ordinary farm tractor and was set up in one day.
reported from field \lse in the Philippines, in Tonga The mill was set to an engine speed of 2100 r/min
and Kiribati. giving an equivalent breakdown saw speed of 770
16

Figure 4.1 Cutting Pattern for Centre-held log System

Ilia
i',,\
Figure 4.4 Additional Pattern
for Cutting Purloins

Weak Weak

Figure 4.3 Cutting Pattern for Beams

Centre Line

Bee C B

~~~~
Figure 4.5 Cutting Pattern Relative to Selection and
Grading
o A A 0

B
~ ___ 7
4iiiii11iiUJui!!!!ir!ni!!!I!!!!iU!jiiP
o
Figure 4.2 Cutting Pattern for Conventional Sawmills

(i) (ii) (III) (Iv)


17

rlmin which in turn generated a saw speed of 1250 In design it is almost identical to the previously
rlmin in the breastbench. A 30-degree hook angle mentioned mill. It is larger and has a three headblock
was maintained throughout the sawing process. A carriage. It is transportable rather than portable, be-
crew of seven men operated the mill in sawing the ing dismantled in sections and put on a carrier rather
specimen with one man assisting in the gathering of than having its own axle and draw bar.
data. The unit can also be equipped with a bandsaw in
About 16 per cent of the logs from coconut trunks place of the 1372 mm circular.
stored for eight months could not be sawn because of The breast bench equipment and saw are identical
decay, stain or holes in the core. The average sawing to those described earlier.
time was three hours a day. About five hours were
spent in conducting and fetching the crew to and 3. Light, General Purpose Portable Sawmills
from the mill, grading and stacking the sawn timber, Sawmills not designed for the cutting of coconut
sharpening the saw, removal of sawdust, and rolling but rather as simple low cost mill units suitable for
of the logs to the deck of the mill. farms or contractors with small blocks of timber are
The sawn timber was graded and stock-piled out- quite widely used but have their limitations.
doors according to density classification. Coconut One variety is lightly constructed of RHS and
stumps 45 mm long were used as posts in stacking the angle iron with a steel plate sliding on the top runners
sawn timber above the ground. Square 25 mm fillets as a table top carriage. It also has a lightly con-
placed across each layer of timber allowed the air to structed breastbench as part of the complete mill set
pass through the pile. Inspection was done once a up. Although the main unit is on its own axle for por-
week for the first month, and twice a month tability, setting up is not as quick and simple as the
thereafter. Recovery from the old trees was 34 per first mill described.
cent and from the freshly felled trees 41 per cent. Ap-
proximately 14 per cent of the sawn timber was of 4. Mini Mill
dense grade. There are several mini mill designs now built in
The implications of harvesting steps cut in the side America, New Zealand and Australia. The smallest
of coconut stems were evident in the Philippines. The of the range is probably the most suitable for cutting
steps reduced the recovery of sawn timber, par- coconut logs.
ticularly denser grades. Differing from other designs where the log is fed to
Results of the sawing tests showed that the por- a stationary saw, this particular design has an air-
table sawmill can operate efficiently under field con- cooled petrol motor mounted on a frame driving two
ditions. The average feeding/sawing rates varied ac- circular saws which are mounted at right angles to
cording to the type of log sawn as follows: butt logs, each other. The saw unit travels along a track on the
23.4 m/min; second logs, 30.6 m/min; third logs, main framework. The saws are raised and lowered in
36.3 m/min. Loss of power was observed in the relation to the log, and can also be moved laterally.
engine when sawing butt logs at an increased feeding With each pass both a horizontal and a vertical cut
rate. An average of 30 logs were sawn per sharpen- are made with the two cuts meeting accurately. These
ing. The stellite saw teeth with 30-degree hook angle mills were originally designed for cutting large logs
had to be replaced after seven to eight sharpenings. which were supported on skids on the ground, and
The results also revealed that ten fresh logs can be are far less efficient in cutting small diameter logs.
sawn at an equivalent output of 0.7 cubic metres The unit is capable of milling coconut stems, but is
sawn timber per hour. not well suited to the purpose because the logs are
small and must be rotated to recover the maximum
Recommendations resulting from the trial: high density timber.
(a) Coconut trunks should be sawn in 'green' con-
dition to obtain better quality timber. Building up of 5. Breastbench With Light Weight Carriage
heat in the saw blade during the sawing process is Breastbench mill with an added light-weight, car-
minimised as the trunks are very wet. riage which is merely a heavy timber plank with metal
(b) There should be a saw doctor in the crew, an an- bracing. It has a steel section on its underside running
vil for tensioning the saw blade, and a 1.5 h.p. in a groove in the trolleys and the feed rolls on the
generator for the jockey grinder used to sharpen the bench and has light dogs attached that may be ham-
teeth. mered into the log. The feed rolls are hydraulically
(c) For commercial operations the mill should powered with easy control of speed and reversing.
operate at least six hours daily with a crew of 12 men. This bench is ideally suited for small logs. The log is
Six men including the saw doctor will operate the mill first broken down on the carriage to manageable sec-
and the remaining six will roll the logs to the deck of tions, then the carriage is removed and the unit used
the mill, grade and stockpile the sawn timber, remove as a normal breastbench. Production is low but only
the sawdust and slabs, and supply water to the mill. three operators are needed.

6. Sawing with a Chainsaw and Guide Attachments


1. Larger Transportable Sawmill Where high production is not needed, chainsaws
A larger sawmill was designed to meet the demands are useful in log conversion and have the advantages
of milling coconut stems in the Philippines. of portability and low initial cost.
Chainsaws should be of at least ten horsepower clearance of the tips on the back stroke) it is mainly
and chipper chains are recommended because of the used on circular saws. Tungsten carbide is not an
ease of sharpening. Tension must be maintained and economic tipping method for bandsaws because of
the bar and chain kept well oiled. A sprocket-nosed the number of tips required, the type of equipment to
bar assists in maintaining high chain speed. 47 41 The service them, and the time and skill required to main-
saw is fixed and the log fed slowly through. tain them.
A high degree of skill is required to maintain
tungsten carbide tipped circular saws. Relatively ex-
pensive precision grinding equipment utilizing dia-
Saw blades for Coconut Stem Connrsion 41 mond grinding wheels is essential. A suitable
In the milling of coconut stems as with any other sawshop is required which rules out servicing the
species it is the saw blade that is the work tool used saws in the field. The best known practical option in
for reducing the log to sawn timber. If there are any the field is a single grinder for face grinding of the
peculiarities in a particular species (hardness, ir- carbide. The grinder would need to be a precision
regular grain, abrasiveness etc), the saw blade will be machine utilizing diamond wheels. The face grinding
changed or the cutting speed altered. Peculiarities of could be carried out only two to three times before
coconut wood are its abrasive nature and the extreme the saw was sent to the sawshop for a full service.
hardness of the bundles of fibres in mature stems. Tungsten carbide is available in various grades.
Consequently it is not practical or economic to use These range from softer less wear resistant but tough
standard plate saws, as a very limited number of cuts material, to harder more wear resistant but brittle
would be made before the saw became too dull to material. Most tungsten carbides have a cobalt base.
cut. Hard facing of the saw teeth is necessary if But some are also available with a nickel base. Nickel
cocostems are to be sawn economically. There are is recognised as being more corrosion resistant,
various materials that are suitable for the hardfacing tougher and easier to braze to the sawblade. The nor-
of saw teeth, each having its own method of applica- mal grade of carbide used on saw teeth is 1.5.0. K20
tion and maintenance requirements. or equivalent. But for cutting coconut the next
tougher grade 1.5.0. K30 may be desirable.
Preparing saws for tungsten tipping, and fixing the
tips securely into the accurately ground or milled
recesses in the saw tooth faces, requires skill and
scrupulous attention to detail. Similarly, final grin-
ding to produce an optimum cutting edge demands
knowledge and skill, and good quality equipment.
Silicon carbide grinding wheels may be used for
rough grinding but diamond wheels are essential for
finishing.
The essentials of carbide saw use and maintenance
can be summarised as follows:
(a) Cleanliness is extremely important
(b) Carbide is brittle and must be handled with care
(c) Too large a tooth bite should not be made as the
4A The Tungsten Carbide Tipped Saw shock of overbiting can cause carbide breakages.
Recommended maximum bite is approximately 1.3
mm per tooth
(d) The sharpness angle should be kept to at least 45°
to ensure a strong tooth point
The materials that have been used to date are (e) The correct diamond grinding wheel for the job
various grades of tungsten carbide, various grades of should be selected. Extreme care should be exercised
stellite, tunsweld, tungtech, carbitroning, high speed while grinding
steel and high freq~ency hardened steel. (0 Diamond wheels are expensive items and ought
only be used on precision grinding machines
(g) Carbide requires great accuracy in the grinding
Tungsten Carbide finish. Angles on its face, back and sides and should
Tungsten carbide tipping of saw teeth is the most be ground on precision grinding machines
successful way of overcoming excessive saw teeth (h) Trained personnel ought to carry out the work.
wear or dulling. The tungsteJ1 carbide tips are formed
during manufacture to shape and dimensions suitable
for fixing straight into recesses on the face of the saw Stellite (Tungsten Cobalt Alloy)
teeth. Grinding to final shape and dimensions for the As with tungsten carbide, stellite is available in
required use is carried out on the complete saw blade. various grades from softer, tougher grades to harder
Although tungsten carbide has been used suc- more brittle grades. The tungsten carbide manufac-
cessfully on bandsaws and there would be no pro- turing process requires that all components, in-
blem on frame saws (provided there was adequate cluding saw teeth, are formed close to their final
29

shape early in the process and then fixed to their easily and quickly replaced when too worn for fur-
working place by another medium such as silver ther grinding. The most satisfactory inserted tooth
solder. In contrast, stellite is available in rod form. It for cutting coconut to date has been a stellite inlaid
can be fused directly, with heat,on to the base metal. tooth. This is a standard carbon steel tooth with a
Consequently, stellite can be used equally as well coating of stellite over the top and side surfaces, ap-
on any type of saw, including bandsaws. It is used ex- proximately one to two mm thick. Wear resistance is
tensively where hardwoods with an abrasive nature good. Only face grinding is necessary. Filing is not
are to be cut. Grade 6 stellite, which is identifiable by possible. Grinding is best done on a hand gulleting
a red tip, is the most commonly used on saw teeth. machine with the saw removed from the rig. A good
finish must be maintained with angles accurate and
Cobalide 3 which is a similar material under a dif- face square. Portable jockey-type grinders which
ferent trade name is also quite satisfactory. A newer clamp on to the saw blade have been used in small
material put out by Eutectic, called Eutecbor 9000, coconut mills, but none seem to have been really
has become very popular for this use and has proven satisfactory for maintaining a good cutting edge.
very satisfactory. The main reason for its popularity
is its ease of use in applying it to the base metal, it
also has very good wear and shock resistance.
Stellite is also available' for saws as a preformed Tungtech
tip. This can be fixed to the saw using silver solder. Tungtech is a powder application that can be used
However, these tips are more expensive than carbide. to harden the surface of any base metal. The alloy
powder containing particles of tungsten is applied
Method of Tipping through a special oxy-acetylene torch to the surface
There are three main methods of applying stelIite of pre-heated base metal. The flame sweats the alloy
to saw teeth. powder into the surface of the material. This has only
(a) A drop of molten stellite can be applied to the been used in trials so far. It has proven successful on
swage cup heavier gauge circular saws. Some skill and care is re-
(b) A large deposit of stellite can be melted on to quired in this application as misuse of the heat will
the end of a saw tooth which has been ground back result in melting and rounding the cutting edges.
slightly. The stellite is then formed with dies so that it As the coating of powder is quite thin even a light
looks similar to a swaged and shaped point grind would remove it. Therefore it must be applied
(c) Molten stellite can be poured into a ceramic to the tooth after sharpening.
mould around the tooth point. This gives a finished A thin layer is then applied to the face of the tooth.
point similar to Step b, The tooth is again ground lightly on the back to
regain a sharp cutting edge without removing the
The usual procedure in grinding stellite tipped saws hard facing from the face of the tooth.
is to grind the faces and backs first, then to grind the
sides of the swage with an "equalising" machine.
The main reason for following this procedure is that
the size of the finished point can be more easily con- Carbltroning
trolled if the side grinding is performed last. When Carbitroning is the deposition of materials such as
grinding the fac·es and backs of the teeth, care must tungsten carbides and titanium carbide from an elec-
be taken to ensure that the feed finger does not push trode of these materials by spark action on to the sur-
on the stellite deposit. face of the saw teeth. The electrode which is held in
It is common to find sawmills using stellite tipped the electrical machine designed for this method of
saws running the saws to the extent that the points coating is vibrated against the tooth surface. The
become rounded and dull. In most cases it would be vibration makes and breaks contact causing sparks
better to change the saw before it got to this point. which transfer the molten carbide to the tooth. The
This would result in less time being taken to sharpen thickness of the deposit layer will only be up to about
a saw. More sharpenings would be gained from the 0.07 mm (.003 inch). For this reason the method is
stellite. Sharper tips also mean production of less not entirely efficient as in some species, acids in the
badly cut and thus wasted timber. It would also in- timber apparently will eat under the layer lifting it
crease the overall1ife of the saw. off. However cutting time is claimed to be increased
With bandsaws, this tendency to continue sawing up to five times and longer.
too long before re-sharpening (particularly with
softer wood) frequently leads to gullet cracks as the
saw becomes fatigued.
Details of methods of forming and grinding stellite High speed steel
tips have been omitted from this account. But it must High speed steel is used in the form of inserted saw
be recognised that considerable skill, and the use of teeth. As with the stellite inlaid teeth the high speed
precision equipment are necessary for satisfactory steel teeth were designed for use in cutting species
saw performance. For these reasons most smaller that ordinary carbon steel would not cut effectively.
mills used for cutting coconut wood have favoured These bits can be used in inserted tooth saws for cut-
the use of circular saws with inserted teeth which are ting coconut, but are not as wear resistant as the
rugged, easy to maintain by face grinding, and can be stellite inlaid teeth, nor as economical.
30

Waste Disposal palm weevil Rhynchophorus schoch (Oliv).


Waste products - or by-products - from the fell- Disposal of the woody waste left over from milling
ing and milling of coconut trees are either a costly is a problem. Burning is the cheapest and safest
embarrassment to dispose of or a potential additional means. Discarded round logs, generally from the up-
resource. The most important consideration with per softer trunk, are best cut to approximately half-
regard to removal of the trunks and other debris metre lengths, split and stacked to partially dry. They
from coconut plantations is the phytosanitary aspect can then be burned, or used for some form of fuel
- the potential threat of pests on the newly established (charcoal, gas, firewood). Palm fronds and the
plantations. Rotting logs and other decaying debris "palmit" or delicate fleshy bud in the crown of the
provide ideal breeding places for two major coconut tree become available as useful by-products if
pests, the coconut beetle Oryctes rhinoceros and organised collection and disposal is carried out.
31

Chapter 5

Grading Coconut timber

Grading coconut timber according to low, medium and heavy densities is important, since the dif-
ferent grades have different end uses. Timber of mixed densities is more likely to twist and degrade.
Grading should begin at the commencement of logging, and be followed through the sawnwood
conversion process.
The development of a uniform grading standard would help to promote local and export
marketing.
Timber can be graded visually or by more elaborate techniques. A simple colour coding system is
appropriate for use in recording grades.
32

Grading Coconut Timber

Quality Control, Particularly Relating to Export It is first necessary to inspect standing trees so that
In the course of coconut market research and pro- a judgement can be made as to a tree's age, by means
duct development it has been established that no im- of length of leaf, nut production and the
porter in any of the countries surveyed is prepared to characteristic thinning of the stem below the crown.
make a commitment to purchase large volumes of Suitable trees are then marked, felled and cut to
coconut wood unless both quality of material and length.
reliability of supply are guaranteed. It is also Before extraction, every log must be marked to
desirable that uniform grading should be established establish from what part of the tree it comes. It is
within the various producing countries. convenient when sawing to length to make a single
When any country considers the establishment of a chainsaw niche on the lower end of base logs, two
coconut milling and processing industry, there niches for second logs and three niches for upper logs
should be emphasis on an overall control which is (see Figure S.l). Then, after the logs are stockpiled
sufficient to co-ordinate quality standards. This con- butts are painted different colours on the lower end
trol should not restrict efficient management but (base logs RED, second logs GREEN and third logs
should aim to protect and foster the interests of the YELLOW). On the reverse ends they should be
country, the coconut industry and its customers. An painted with a WHITE band extending 70mm in
enforceable quality standard provides such a control. from the circumference (see Figure S.2).

Figure 5.1 Chainsaw Grading Marh on Lo~!.


System of Identification
The maintenance of quality control of coconut Chalnaw Cull in PIeIcI
wood is not merely a matter of inspection and
grading at the point of sale or export. Because of the
widely varying densities of material within each log,
and the difficulty of differentiating these by super-
ficial inspection after sawing has taken place, it is
essential that grading and identification of the wood
from different parts of a log and from different logs
along the length of a tree be carried out in the planta- Bue Lo. Second Loa Third Loa
tions at time of felling. Such a grading system, con-
sisting of colour-coding the butts of logs immediately
after the trees are felled and cut to length, whereby
the colour markings remain on each timber piece
after the logs are sawn, has been developed and
tested.

The general principles of this grading system are


as follows:

Grading
After such an identification system as described
above is in place, quality specifications are then
necessary in relation to each end use.
In the local house-building market little further
Painted Ends of Loas Before Sawmilling grading would be required, though general informa-
tion on the characteristics and appropriate use of
each grade should be available.
For other building construction, which may be
subject to local government regulations or building
codes, more detailed specifications are required.
Timber should be graded hard, intermediate or
soft, corresponding to high, medium and low den-
sities. The technical limits between the grades are:
Base End Upper End High Density above 500 kg/m J
Medium Density between SOO and 3S0 kg/m J.
Low Density less than 3S0 kg/mJ.
As a rule only high density coconut timber is ac-
FIgure S.2 Colour Grading on Log Butt ceptable for structural purposes.
33

Sample Specifications Utillty


Specifications for coconut timber drawn up by a -Wane al10wable up to half an edge and half
timber exporting company4d are as follows: one face
-Milling tolerance minus nil plus 2.5 mm -Step allowable on one edge all across; but
-Minimum basic density 400 kg/m 1_ for medium not more than one-quarter width of the face;
density and 600 kg/m 1_ for high density OR one face al1 across but not more than one-
-Maximum moisture content E.M.C. of supplying third of the edge
country
-Timber must be clean and free from defects such
as bark, rot, collapse, sapstain, brown spot, twist,
cup, spring, checking, warp, wane or other visible
imperfections •
-Timber should be milled within eight hours of fell-
ing trees
-Dip all timber in approved anti-sapstain solution
immediately after milling
-Protect timber from rain after dipping
-Transport timber to drying yard immediately
-Re-dip in anti-sapstain solution prior to stacking.
It is preferable that this is carried out under cover to
avoid any chance of chemicals being diluted by rain-
fall
-Fillet stack timber in proper drying racks pro-
tected from rain and direct sunlight within 24 hours
of milling. 5A The Low-density Grade Collapses
The anti-sapstain solution utilized was a rro-
prietary mixture of captapol and chlorothalomil,
maintaining a minimum concentration of 0.4 percent
captapol. -Hard spot al10wable in any quantity in
Packing specifications for rough sawn timber medium and hard density, and 20 per cent area
established for export control were that al1 timber for of any face in soft density
shipment should be steel banded, using 75 x 25 mm -String spot allowable up to five percent of
fillets under all-steel banding. Packets should be the surface area of any face
banded on 100 x 50 mm gluts to facilitate forking.
Packets should contain timber of like specification Grading by Basic Density
and be in packets of no greater than one cubic metre. The basic density of a piece of coconut timber is in-
After drying to E.M.C. packets must not be exposed formation of considerable value in grading and
to wet conditions. utilization of the timber. It is calculated as the oven
dry weight of a sample divided by its green volume.
The procedure is relatively simple and can be used
Grading Techniques within the trade to check the quality of a consign-
Techniques which have been examined include ment.
visual grading, basic density determination, and Density is closely correlated with hardness which
grading by weight. Checks on density can be made by may be measured by the Janka test. This measures
means of the Janka hardness test. the pressure required to compress a metal bal1 of
standard diameter for a measured distance into a
Visual grades may be as follows: timber sample. Tests carried out on the wood from
the peripheral zone of butt logs from coconut trees
C-l (clear one-face) from Tonga showed an average resistance of 10,950
-Clear of step or wane on one face newtons radially and 10,800 newtons tangential1y at
-Step or wane can appear on up to half of the 12 percent moisture content. Comparative figures for
thickness awa'y from the clear side of the board other timbers are : 17
-Solid spot can appear on the clear face, but
in area less than two percent of the face, and in- European Oak 5050N - 5550N
dividual areas of less than 0.5 cm' North American Oak 5600N - 6250N
-No string spot allowable Teak 5050N - 5550N
-Lengths to a minimum of one metre Tawa 6300N - 7 lOON
accepted Rimu 2850N - 3550N
Sapele 5600N - 6250N
C-2 (clear both faces) Radiata Pine 2250N - 2800N
-Clear of step or wane on both faces Kwila 8050N - 8900N
-All sides square
-Spot as described in C-l, for both faces The figures illustrate the significantly higher hard-
-Lengths as described in C-l ness rating of selected coconut wood.
34

Appearance
The appearance of coconut wood is distinctive.
The grain is strong and irregular so that the texture is
variable. There is also a noticeable colour variation,
sometimes related to density, the denser wood being
darker. It has also been noted that there are two
varieties of tree, one which produces very dark wood
and the other a lighter wood. There is thus oppor-
tunity for the production of a range of colour grades
in joinery or decorative features. It follows that col-
our classification of the wood during processing is
sometimes advantageous.
5B The Densest Grades are Strong Enough for Struc-
tural Uses
35

Chapter 6

Seasoning Coconut Timber

Coconut sawn timber dries readily as 25 mm boards but thicker sizes dry very slowly.
Degrade is not severe apart from collapse in material below 350 kg 1m J basic density 16.
Sawn timber should be sorted according to density before seasoning.
36

Seasoning Coconut Timber

Coconut sawn timber dries readily as 25 mm 25 mm Material


boards but thicker sizes dry very slowly. Degrade is
not severe apart from collapse in material below 350 Dry Bulb Wet Bulb
kg/m' basic density. /I Sawn timber should accor- Moisture Content I Temp °C Temp °C
dingly be sorted according to density before season- Green 60 (140°F) 54 (150°F)
ing. 100 60 (140°F) 51 (l25°F)
60 71 (160°F) 60 (140°F)
Air Drying Final conditioning 77 (170°F) 76 (168°F)4hr
The moisture content of coconut sawn timber
ranges from 90 per cent to 180 per cent. The risk of I A verage moisture content of the two sample boards

stain and mould in air drying is such that appropriate of the highest moisture content.
chemical dip or spray treatments should be applied Drying time is six to seven days in a commercial
before stacking. For the same reason, protection stack.
from rain is desirable and air drying should be car-
ried out in an open-sided roofed shed.

50 mm Material
Preliminary air drying to 25-30 per cent moisture
content is recomended since 50 mm pieces cannot be
satisfactorily kiln-dried from green.' Drying may
take five to six days on the following schedule.

Dry Bulb Wet Bulb


Moisture Content Temp °C Temp °C
30 6O(140°F) 54(130°F)
25 66(1 50°F) 57(135°F)
20 66(150°F) 70(1 58°F)
Final conditioning 71(l60°F) 70(1 58°F)8hr

The denser grades of coconut do not have a high


differential shrinkage so the tendency to distort is not
6A Correctly Stacked for Air Drying
severe. Twist is commoner than bow or spring. 1 Col-
lapse is the most obvious seasoning degrade, increas-
ing progressively below about 350 kg/m J basic densi-
ty at which level it may not be recoverable. In denser
Similar drying times have been reported from material, reconditioning after drying gives good
several Pacific Island countries. 1 25 mm boards recovery from collapse. J
dry from green to equilibrium moisture content (17
to 20 per cent) in 9 to 10 weeks, while 50 mm material Seasoning of poles
may require 6 months or more. Because coconut wood has a high moisture content
and is very prone to fungal infection it requires
Kiln Drying special care in drying in the round before preservative
The New Zealand Forest Service, Forest Research treatment./J Debarking is essential and the material
Institute, has recommended kiln schedules as a result should be stacked in sheds or under a rain-shedding
of studies on material from Tonga.' cover in locations with good air movement.
· 37

Chapter 7

Preserving Coconut Timber

Coconut wood in contact with ground or water requires preservation if it is to last more than a few
years.
Coconut wood for interior uses, such as furniture, flooring or walling, does not generally need to
be treated with preservatives, although in some environments the timber (particularly low density
wood) should be treated against termites and other wood borers.
38

Preserving Coconut Timber

Provided the timber is adequately seasoned, chromate) followed by one or two coats of latex
coconut wood can be treated by the vacuum/pressure emulsion stain will give a good and durable surface.
method using copper-chrome-arsenate preservatives.
It can be used in the sawn form for weatherboards Preservative requirements for ground-contact
and verandah decking, in either sawn or round form timber, e.g. posts and poles, are still unresolved, and
for house piling, in the round or quarter round form more well-controlled tests are needed before a confi-
as posts, and in round-form as poles. dent assessment can be made of the suitability of
Material which has been treated and exposed in treated coconut wood in this situation. The most
service trials indicates that if used clear of the crucial factor seems to be making absolutely sure that
ground, a life of 20 years could be anticipated, and the wood does not become infected by any fungi bet-
rounds or quarter rounds used in contact with the ween felling and final treatment. ] J
ground should have a service life at least in the order Coconut stem wood is not very susceptible to at-
of 15 years. IP tack by wood boring insects and will give good ser-
Coconut wood in contact with ground or water re- vice without treatment if it is protected from the
quires preservation if it is to last more than a few weather. If protection from insects must be ensured
years. Coconut wood for interior uses, such as fur- the wood can be readily treated with boron by diffu-
niture, flooring or walling, does not generally need to sion.
be treated with preservatives, although in some en-
vironments the timber (particularly low density Exposed to the weather or in ground contact
wood) should be treated against termites and other coconut wood is perishable and preservative treat-
wood borers. ment is essential. Debarking round poles and posts is
an extremely difficult task but is necessary if they are
In some environments all densities of sawn timbers to be treated by conventional pressure methods or
will need protection against termites and other wood hot and cold bath. The wood must be at least partial-
borers. ly air-dried before treatment and this must be done
Some uses exposed to the weather may not justify under cover. Provided the outer zones are well dried,
full strength treatment. The preservation required good retention and distribution can be achieved with
may be necessitated by standards and local building creosote by hot and cold bath, and copper-chrome-
codes, or by the length of life required. Housing arsenate by vacuum/pressure.
from coconut timber which has been brush treated
with preservative will give the house a longer life than Pressure sap displacement of unbar ked logs has
a thatched roof house of lesser quality. Local proved impracticable. 10
economics can determine the preservative and length
of building life desired.
It is preferable and more feasible to avoid ground on- and Water-based Preservative Techniques
contact by placing a house on foundations with a
There are two general types of wood preservatives.
waterproof barrier between the foundation and the
wood. These are the oil-type such as creosote and pen-
tachlorophenol, and the water-borne salt-type such
Health standards and public attitudes to the use of as copper-chrome-arsenate.
preservatives with toxic ingredients provide further A black or brownish oil made by distilling coal tar
cause for concern at the suitability of different types or coal-tar creosote, is effective for preserving wood,
of preservation. but its colour, and the fact that creosote-treated
Load bearing poles, from fence posts to electric wood cannot be painted satisfactorily, make this
transmission poles,' require higher standards of treat- preservative unsuitable for finished timber where ap-
ment. Coconut wood can be used inside buildings pearance is important. In addition, the odour of the
without treatment. Insects are not a major threat to creosoted-wood is unpleasant. Nevertheless, coal-tar
dry wood. creosote can be satisfactorily used in treatment of
When exposed to the weather but not in contact fence posts and posts of low-cost houses where the
with the ground some protection is required. materials are used externally and in ground contact.
Pressure treatment with copper-chrome-arsenate to Pentachlorophenol solution preservative generally
intermediate retentions (five to ten kg commercial contains five per cent solution of chlorinated phenols
salts/m') gives excellent results. Brush-coating dry in a solvent of liquid petroleum gas. The heavy oil re-
wood with creosote or copper naphthenate will give mains in the wood for a long time and does not usual-
good protection but retreatment will be necessary ly provide clean or paintable surfaces. Pen-
every three to four years. Surface pre-treatment with tachlorophenol solutions are usually applied to wood
inorganic salts (e.g. 12 per cent acid copper for exterior use.
39

Copper-chrome-arsenate preservative is highly moisture removal from the inner zone of the log
soluble in water. This is sold in the market under thereby prolonging drying and risking decay and in-
trade names such as Tanalith C, Boliden K33, sect infestations to the log. Under Zamboanga condi-
Celcure AP. Copper-chrome-arsenate is now prefer- tions, it takes three to four months air drying of
red and more widely accepted than coal-tar debarked round coconut timber to ensure good
creosote/pentachlorophenol because it leaves the preservative treatment.
wood clean, paintable and free from objectionable
odour after treatment. Furthermore, coal-tar and
pentachlorophenol have become more costly than the Treatment Methods
water-borne preservatives. However CCA is not ac- Preservative treatment of timber is undertaken by
ceptable for the treatment of roof shingles where the pressure or non-pressure processes. The pressure
roof is to be used as a catchment for drinking water. method of treatment is unlikely to be feasible in rural
areas, where the relatively simple non-pressure pro-
cesses can be readily adapted to local facilities.

Brush Treatment
Preparing Timber Prior to Treatment Brush treatment is the simplest method of applying
All coconut timber to be treated must be free from wood preservative. A minimum of five per cent pen-
defects to attain satisfactory treatment and good per- tachlorophonol or five per cent copper-chrome-
formance thereafter. Treatment of timber by diffu- arsenate can be used in treatment of dried coconut
sion using water-borne preservatives may be done on wood. One to three coatings may be applied depen-
freshly-cut sawn timber to permit movement of solu- ding on the dryness of the material. In most cases,
tion into the wood. For other methods drying before however, wood treated by this method is recom-
treatment is essential. Drying the material before mended for internal use only.
treatment permits adequate penetration and uniform
distribution and reduces risks of ch~cking and the
consequent exposure of untreated timber. Soaking
It is also of great importance that all machining Cold soaking of well-seasoned coconut timber
should be done prior to treatment. This incluQ,es in- generally achieves better preservative penetration and
cising of wood to improve the penetration of preser- retention than does brushing. The timber is soaked in
vative and machining operations such as planing, a three to five per cent copper-chrome-arsenate solu-
cutting, and boring. tion for one to eight hours depending on the intended
For round coconut timber, debarking should be use. Material treated by this method can be used for
done to accelerate drying. The bark greatly retards construction of buildings.

7 A Debarking Poles
40

Hot and cold bath


The hot and cold bath process involves the heating Forest Research Institute, New Zealand, and are cur-
of coal-tar creosote, or pentachlorophenol in heavy rently being tested at Zamboanga. The objective
j)etroleum oil, with the material totally immersed in these developments is to produce a safe,
during the duration of treatment. The wood is heated economical treatment for moderate decay hazards.
in the preservative in an open tank for several hours, The plant may be a standard vacuum/pressure unit
then immediately submerged in cold preservative for installed at a permanent location. Schedules used for
at least an equal number of hours. For wel1-seasoned this technique will give a high standard of
coconut timber a hot bath of two or three hours protection. '1
followed by a cold bath of like duration or more is Logs should be cut to pole or post length and peel-
apparently sufficient. Longer periods are preferable, ed or sawn into timber as soon as possible after the
especial1y during heating, to ensure that the wood is palms have been fel1ed. Once processed into the form
properly penetrated by the preservative. During the in which it will be dried the wood should be given a
hot bath (at about IOO°C), air in the wood expands prophylactic treatment with a good fungicide. Dipp-
and is forced out. In the cold bath, the residual air in ing is preferable to spraying, but if spraying is the on-
the wood contracts, thereby creating a partial ly alternative, a complete coverage should be en-
vacuum, and the preservative solution enters the sured. Indications are that the best chemical mixture
wood. is Captafol (0.4 per cent a.i.) plus Chlorothalonil (0.5
A double diffusion process, using a water-borne per cent a.i.).
preservative, involves the immersion of wood in a Drying stacks should be erected with care. The site
copper sulphate solution which is then heated to should be elevated, free draining, clear of vegetation
about 80°C for three to six hours and cooled over- and open to sun and wind. Bearers should be of con-
night. The material is then immersed in an equal mix- crete or adequately treated wood, and should be at
ture of cold sodium dichromate and arsenic pentox- least 500 mm high. The stack should be protected
ide solution for one or two days. The preservative with covers which should extend beyond the stack in
penetration and retention are satisfactory for the a\1 directions, to a distance equal to at least one
treatment of power electric poles and fence posts. quarter of the stack height. The timber should be
The copper sulphate solution is highly corrosive to open stacked using treated fillets or, in the case of
metal, so the treating tank should be constructed of posts, in the form of an open crib so that air can
stainless steel. move freely. Stacks should be marked to show the
Other treatments using ammonia solutions of date of erection, and the material should remain in
preservatives, and ammonia to precipitate the stack for a period of five to 24 weeks, dependent on
chemicals in the wood, have been developed at the whether it is sawn, quarter round or full round.

Drying and preservation schedule

Initial Pressure Final


Solution vacuum (1400kPA) vacuum Minimum
Drying cone. (-85 kPA (-85 kPA absorption
Use Material Size Period (comCCA) 25 in) (200 psi) 25 in) (Litres/m J

Exposed' Sawn 25mm


Timber thick 5 weeks 2070 20 min 45 min IOmin 250-350 1
Exposed' Sawn 50mm
Timber thick 10 weeks 2070, 20 min 60 min 10min 250-350 J
Ground Quarter
contact Posts Round 12 weeks 6070 30 min 120 min IOmin 200
Ground 26-24
contact Poles Round weeks 6070 30min 120 min IOmin 200
Notes:
1 Exposed to the weather but not in ground contact
1 Depending on density, e.g. minimum of 250 litres/mJ for hard high-density wood
3 For structural or high value components, solution concentrations of 3 to 4 per cent are recommended
41

Chapter 8

Energy from Coconut Wood Residues

Coconut wood, especially of high density, will make good charcoal. Any charcoal kiln or process is
suitable. But a system using old oil drums is cheap, simple and effective. Briquetting charcoal is
possible with any starchy binder such as sorghum.
Coconut wood can be used in direct fired boilers although it must be well dried before it will burn.
Coconut wood if adequately dried, can be used for gasifiers.
42

Energy from Coconut Wood Residues

Coconut Stems as Fuel


Coconut wood is similar to other woods in its
characteristics as a fuel, though the range of densities
within the stem leads to variation in the energy poten-
tial.
Less than 20 per cent by volume of an average
coconut stem is suitable for conversion to timber.
and the remainder, together with sawmill residues, is
readily usable for charcoal making and for the pro-
duction of energy.

Charcoal Making
Many rural areas in the Asia-Pacific region make 8A Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln Ex-
use of the traditional earth pit for conversion of terior
coconut stems and shells to charcoal. The method re-
quires only a small investment in tools and equip-
ment but, because of the lack of control of the car- Several other drum designs have been used or
bonization process, yields are low and the quality of described, differing mainly in the number and
charcoal inferior. placements of air vents and therefore of operating
More modern methods, at various levels of techniques. Measurement of the efficiency of these
sophistication, are now being applied. A portable kilns are however often imprecise since production
metal kiln was constructed for the Philippine operations do not have consistent descriptions of the
Coconut Authority in Zamboanga to a design similar nature, weight and moisture content of the initial
to the kiln developed by the United Kingdom charges. Suffice to say that the simplicity of the drum
Tropical Products Institute. ,J Yields from this kiln system (steel or brick) makes it appropriate where
averaged 20 per cent recovery. more elaborate systems cannot be justified.
The approximate chemical analysis of the charcoal
is: fixed carbon 70 per cent; volatile combustible
matter 16 per cent; moisture content 12 per cent; ash
2 per cent.
Tests were undertaken on another kiln based on
the TPI Mk IV design with a volume of eight m J. The
main difference in design was that instead ,of being of
all-metal construction, the bottom cylinder was made
of two layers of brick. The inside layer was firebrick
lined with clay, while the outside layer was the stan-
dard building brick. This kiln had eight openings,
four covered with chimneys which could be rotated
from opening to opening to provide varying air flows
to facilitate even .burning and carbonization. The
material used for charcoal was waste material from
logging, and some waste slabs from sawmilling.
In Tonga, a simple kiln is constructed from a 44 8B Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln in-
gallon drum. A slot 14 cm wide and 73 cm long is cut terior
along one side. The billets of cocowood are loaded
through this slot a little at a time. The kiln is started
by lighting a fire on the bottom, with the slot facing
horizontal to the ground. As the billets start burning Charcoal Retorts
the kiln is tilted so the slot is gradually moved to a Charcoal retorts differ from kilns in that the
vertical position, billets being added until the kiln is charge is sealed in a closed chamber and the heat is
full. When the billets are burning well, the cover is supplied externally, without an initial combustion
put on, and the kiln turned until the slot is once again stage. The efficiency of the retort lies in its recycling
facing the ground. The kiln is left sealed until cool. of effluent waste gases from the central chamber
43

holding the wood block charge to the fire box. After is fed in through nozzles. When that takes place basic
an initial firing to begin the reaction, the gases gas production starts.
become the fuel source to carry the reaction to com- The gas produced is led through a bed of charcoal
pletion. The charcoal conversion process is achieved which causes reduction to the main fuel gas, carbon
with a low energy input, and pollution is eliminated. monoxide (CO). The by-products of distillation such
The design of the retort and combustion process en- as tar are cracked to form hydrogen and the final
sure a consistent quality and higher yields. Industrial moisture of producer gases is:
charcoal is produced, with an average fixed carbon
content of 80 per cent, for a capital outlay little in ex- Combustible gas
cess of the traditional brick kiln method. Carbon Monoxide 20 per cent
Charcoal retorts are capable of converting 11 Hydrogen 19 per cent
metric tons of wood to four metric tons of charcoal Methane I per cent
in a 48-hour cycle including loading, firing, conver-
sion, cooling, unloading and bagging. With the waste Non Combustible gas
wood used in the initial firing of the retort, the wood Carbon dioxide 9 per cent
to charcoal conversion ratio is between 3 1/2 to 4: I for Nitrogen 51 per cent
air-dried wood at 20 to 25 per cent moisture content.

Heat energy to mechanical energy:


5 kg of wood/hour yields approximately 6 hp/hour
Charcoal Brlquetting (Engine)
Coconut stem charcoal has a lower fired-carbon 5 kg of wood/hour yields approximately 4 kW/hour
and higher ash content than wood (and coconut shell) (General)
charcoal. Briquetting, although not necessarily in-
creasing the fired-carbon content increases the densi- The hearth module is the actual gas-making com-
ty necessary for industrial applications, to approx- ponent of the system and is supplied as the standard
imate that of coke. J stock item. All other components of a particular
Briquetting is the process of compressing the char- gasifier system are custom made or assembled from
coal to form a compact, uniform mass of higher den- stock parts to suit the purchaser's special needs,
sity and strength than the original material. Studies whether they are for heat generation or for engine
on the briquetting of charcoal from coconut stems, fuelling. Where preducer gas is intended for use in
carried out in the Philippines using sorghum flour as process heating operations such as timber drying and
a binder J, showed that a suitable charcoal-to-binder gas cooling, filtration need not be employed. Where
ratio is of the order of 16: 1. producer gas is intended for use in engine fuelling
operations, cooling and greater purity of the fuel gas
is essential and therefore appropriate equipment is
added to the plant to obtain this result.
Activated Carbon
Activated carbon can be made from coconut wood
charcoal by the removal of hydrocarbon tars adher-
ing to the carbon, to create a vast network of Ethanol from Coconut Waste Products
molecular capillaries to increase and irIlprove the ab- The production of ethanol from grains and sugar-
sorptive power of charcoal. Activated coconut-shell rich crops has been practised for thousands of years.
charcoal can be best applied ingas and vapourabsorp- Toddy and arrack from the sap of the coconut palm
tion because of its high density. The activated low- are a well-known example.
density wood charcoal and coconut-trunk charcoal The alcohol has been used mainly for drinking, for
are best suited to liquid purification. medical purposes and sometimes for chemical pro-
Since coconut-shell charcoal is comparable to the duction. Cost of production has not been an issue.
so-called charcoal produced from dens~ trees in Modern techniques have however lowered costs of
structural strength and low-ash content, it can be a production and in some countries ethanol is already
reliable source of 'Carbon for the manufacture of produced for energy use from prime agricultural pro-
various chemicals such as carbon disulfide, calcium ducts.
carbide, silicon carbide, sodium cyanide, carbon Considerable advances have been made in the use
monoxide; paint pigments; pharmaceuticals; of cellulosic materials for ethanol prodUction. Recent
moulding resins; black powder, electrodes; catalyst testing of coconut utilizatIOn of the softer inner core
reactor; brake linings; and gas-cylinder absorbent. of the stem has shown promising results. JI

Producer Gas - Gasifier Power Generation Systems


Gasifiers work by drying wood with heat radiating Mechanical and electrical power generation fuel
from the hearth zone at the bottom of a producer. As led by wood, straw and similar materials has been
the wood works its way towards the hearth it turns practised commercially for over one hundred years.
into charcoal. The charcoal reacts with the air which The earliest systems used steam and hot air external
44

combustion engines. More recently internal combus- utilization. Greatest effectiveness can be achieved
tion engines have been used in conjunction with from a wood-fuelled system where there is a steady
various methods of converting the fuel to combusti- load without large peak demands and the plant is us-
ble gas. ed to supply the base load demand of an existing
Other systems incorporating closed cycle gas tur- system. This latter condition can be planned so that
bines and engines are being developed and could the load is shared between the wood and the diesel
corne into regular use in the future. plants in such a way that the wood system generates
The main factors limiting the use of wood or at or near full output most of the time. The use of
woody material as fuel for power generation have diesel is restricted to those times where the demand is
been economic rather than technical and thus any high thus making maximum use of its facility for
evaluation of the potential must be concerned quick start-up and shut-down whilst dramatically
primarily with the economics of the systems, in- reducing total diesel fuel consumption.
cluding saving of foreign exchange. The economics Electric power must be reliable. Many consumers
are determined by factors such as fuel costs, capital need continuous supply or a very low incidence of
cost, plant efficiencies, labour costs etc. failures if losses or hazards are to be avoided. For ex-
The low cost of oil fuels and their simplicity of use ample, fish freezers at a base port, hospitals and
were the major reasons why there was a move away large industries may be seriously jeopardised by
from solid fuels at the beginning of this century. power shut downs.
At present there are two basic systems which can A wood-fuelled plant which is not connected to
practically and economically be applied to generating another system will usually require some duplication
power from coconut wood and other wood wastes. of equipment and some diesel engine stand by capaci-
One system is burning with or without gasification ty, although the smallest systems such as for villages,
and generation of stearn to operate engines or tur- may not need these features.
bines. The other system is direct gasification from Because of the bulky nature of wood fuel, it is im-
wood or charcoal to produce a fuel suitable for use in portant, in locating a plant, to minimise roading and
internal combustion engines. transportation costs. Thus power plants will general-
The degree of complexity, the safety hazards and ly be near the fuel source rather than close to the con-
capital cost are similar for both burning and gasifica- sumers to be supplied.
tion plants. The most significant differences are in
the fuel consumption rates. Gasification direct from
wood uses about half as much wood as either a direct
burning system or charcoal-making followed by 8C Firewood
gasification system, to produce the same energy out-
put. The stearn engine has however advantages in
simplicity of operation and reliability.

Establishment and Operation of Power System


There are many possible reasons for considering
power generation based on wood. Before commenc-
ing such a project it is necessary to consider many
factors in order to be sure that the project will be pro-
fitable and desirable.
The higher capital cost of wood-fuelled systems as
compared with diesel systems result in higher fixed
costs. This makes it very important to achieve high
45

Footnotes

1 FAO Production and Trade Yearbook Vol. 36 fa Little, E.C.S., April 1975. Report to the Govern-

(1982) ment of the Philippines on Coconut Wood Utiliza-


1 Coconut Stem Utilisation Seminar Proceedings tion. UNDP/FAO Coconut Research and Develop-
held in Nuku 'alofa, Kingdom of Tonga, 25-29 Oc- ment project
tober 1976, under the New Zealand Aid Programme " McLean, Murdoch, Managing Director, Hickson
for the South Pacific Region. Ministry of Foreign Timber Impregnation Co. NZ Ltd., March 1983.
Affairs, Wellington, New Zealand 1977 Seasoning and Treatment of Coconut Posts and
J Coconut Wood - 1979: The Proceedings, Manila Poles. Cited by A. McQuire in A Note on the Treat-
and Zamboanga 22-27 October. A meeting spon- ment of Coconut Wood With CCA Preservative.
sored by Philippine Coconut Authority, New New Zealand
Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Asian and 10 McQuire, A.J., 1977. The Durability and Preser-

Pacific Coconut Community. Published by the vative Treatment of Coconut Palm Wood. Coconut
Philippines Coconut Authority. Stem Utilisation Proceedings, Tonga, 1976
• Coconut Industries, 1981. International Coir 11 McQuire, A.J., 1979. Exposure Tests of Treated

Development Newsletter, Number I. and Untreated Coconut Stem Wood in the South
j Cocostem Development Co. Ltd.,1978. Coconut Pacific. Coconut Wood - 1979: The Proceedings,
Wood Parquet Plant for Tonga: Feasibility Report. Zamboanga
Wellington 11 Meadows, D.J., 1977. The Coconut Industry -

6 Decena, A.S., Dela Cruz, R.Z. and Penid, B.J., Problems and Prospects, Coconut Stem Utilisation
1976. Forpride Digest. Vol.V Seminar, Tonga, 1976
7 Evans, Rex D., January 1979. Coconut Wood: The 1J Meylan, B.A., 1978. Density variation with Cocos

Pacific's Great Untapped Resource. Asia Pacific nucifera stems New Zealand Journal of Forestry
Research Unit, Wellington. Science, Volume 8 (3): 369-83
a Evans, Rex D., 1978. Parquet Flooring from 14 Mosteiro, Arnaldo P., January-March 1978. For-

Coconut Wood: Research Review 1 March 1978. pride Digest, Volume VII, Number 1
Cocostem Investigation Unit, Asia Pacific Research H Palomar, R.N., [1980a] Preservation Techniques

Unit and Evans(QS) Company, Wellington of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Palm Timber for
• Ford R.J.,1982. New Zealand Bilateral Aid Electric Power/Telecommunication Poles and Fence
-Cocostem Utilisation Project, Zamboanga City, Posts Mimeo. Zamboanga Research Centre.
Philippines, October 1980-December 1982. Report to 16 Palomar, R.N., [1980b] Charcoal Making.
the Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Well- Mimeo. Zamboanga Research Centre
ington. U Richolson, J.M., August 1980. Coconut Stem
10 Grimwood, Brian E., et aI, 1975. Coconut Palm Utilisation Programme Information Note (3): Ther-
Products: Their Processing in Developing Countries. mal Insulation of Coconut Wood. A Review of
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Utilization possibilities for Over-mature Coconut
Nations, Rome. Palm Stems in Fiji. Department of Forestry, Suva
1/ Groome, J.G. and Associates, January 1982. 1.
Richolson, J.M. and Swarup, R., 1977. A brief
Small Scale Power Generation: Coconut Wood and review of the anatomy and morphology of the
other Wood Wastes. Prepared for Food and coconut palm (Part I) with a report on its basic
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, physical properties (Part II). Coconut Stem Utilisa-
Taupo. tion Seminar Proceedings, Tonga, 1976
11 Hicksons Timber Impregnation Co (NZ) Ltd., JO San Luis, Josefina M. and Estudillo, Calvin P.,

April 1980. Recommended Specifications for the 1976. Charcoal Briquetting - An Outlet for Wood and
treatment of Cocanut Wood, Auckland Coconut Trunk Wastes. Forpride Digest, Volume V,
lJ Jensen P.,1979. Skidding Bar. Coconut Wood pp. 73-74
-1979: The Proceedings, Zamboanga 11 South Pacific Commission, April 1957. Practical

14 Kinninmonth, J .A. 1977. Drying sawn timber of Uses for Coconut Timber. Quarterly Bulletin,
coconut. Coconut Stem Utilisation Proceedings, Noumea
Tonga, 1976 12 Standards Association of Australia. Australian

Jj Kinninmonth, J .A. The Air Drying of Sawn Standards 1975: Use of Timbers in Structures
Timber. New Zealand Forest Service Reprint JJ Tamolang, Dr. Francisco N.,1976. The Utilization

Number 42. of Coconut Stems and other Parts in the Philippines.


I f Kinninmonth, J.A., 1979. Drying of Coconut NSDB Technology Journal, Volume I, Number 2,
Wood: Coconut Wood - 1979: The Proceedings, April-June
Zamboanga
17 Kloot, N.H. and Bolza. E., 1977. Properties of 14 [Tongan] Coconut Review Committee, February

Timbers Imported into Australia. CSIRO, Australia 1982. A Review of the Coconut Replanting Scheme
46

and Aspects of the Coconut Industry related to 18 F AO - Kandeel S.A. 1983

Coconut Production, Kingdom of Tonga. Ministry FAO - Sulc V.K. 1983


of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests Planning Unit 19 Bermelt C.

Technical Publication No. 1/82 .0 Bergseng K. Timber Industry Training Centre,

H Turner, John, 1982. Philippines Mini Mill Opera- Rotorua NZ


tion at San Ramon, August September 1982. Report .1 Evans N. Fe'ofa'aka Enterprises NZ
to [New Zealand] Ministry of Foreign Affairs Aid '1 Hicksons Timber Impregnation Co. (NZ) Ltd

Assignment .J Juson R.A. Zamboanga Research Centre, Philip-

J6 Walford, G.B., 1979. Structural Use of Coconut pines


Timber. Coconut Wood - 1979: The Proceedings. .. McQuire A.J. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua
Zamboanga NZ
J1 Walford, G.B. and Orman, H.R., 1977. The ., Philippine Coconut Authority, Zamboanga
mechanical properties of coconut timber and its Research Centre
design capabilities in construction. Part I - Basic ., Palm Pacific Hardwoods Ltd
strength properties. Coconut Stem Utilisation ., Schilling M
Seminar Proceedings, Tonga. 1976 ., Siers J
47
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Foto-Tlpo-lito SAGRAF - Napoli

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