Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Coconut Wood Processing and Use
Coconut Wood Processing and Use
M-32
ISBN 92-5-102253-4
COCONUT WOOD
Processing and Use
Index
Cutting Patterns
Sawmill Systems for Coconut Timber Footnotes 4S
Types of Mill used for Sawing Logs
Sawing with a Chainsaw and Guide Attachments
Sawblades for Coconut Stem Conversion Bibliography 47
Waste Disposal
1
COCONUT WOOD
Processing and Use
List of lUustrations
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 3·
CHAPTER 8
3A Tractors Used for Extraction can also Power
Small sawmills 8A Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln
3B Log extracted by Draught Animals Exterior
Figure 3.1 Cutting by Draught Animal 8B Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln
Figure 3.2 Bulldozing through Roots Interior
Figure 3.3 Skidding Log behind Tractor 8C Firewood
3
COCONUT WOOD
Processing and Use
INTRODUCTION
Coconut Wood - Processing and Use is an in- Forest Research Institute, New Zealand; Messrs. R.
troduction to methods currently in use for the utiliza- Ford, J. Turner, and J. Vaney, New Zealand Forest
tion of coconut stems for wood products and fuel. Service, Rotorua; Mr. N. Evans, Fe'ofa'aki Enter-
The stems of the coconut trees become available prises, Tonga; Mr. R. Evans and Mr. A. Afeaki,
for use when the tree ceases to yield coconuts as a Cocostem Development Co. Ltd., New Zealand and
result of old age, disease or hurricane damage. Tonga; and Mt K. Bergseng, Timber Training Cen-
tre, Rotorua.
Coconut Wood - Processing and Use has been pro-
duced for the information of those interested in the Other individuals were consulted and assessments
development of processing industries. were made of a number of coconut stem processing
The information contained in this book represents operations in selecting material to be included.
the most recent findings of institutions and in- Documents from which material has been drawn
dividuals researchin~ the fuller use of superfluous are cited in the bibliography.
coconut stems.
The economics and management of coconut wood The editors and the Food and Agriculture
industries, and the organized marketing of their pro- Organization wish to acknowledge the assistance
ducts, will need increasing attention as the industries given by the specialists, primarily those named
expand. above, who co-operated in the compilation of the
report and from whose publications valuable infor-
Sources of Information for mation was collected.
Coconut Wood - Processing and Use were:
The editors
Mr. V. K. Sulc, Mr. Rodrigo Juson and col-
leagues, Zamboanga Research Centre, Philippines; Anthony Haas
Mr. R. N. Palomar and Mr. A. Mosteiro, Forpride, Len Wilson
Philippines; Dr. A. McQuire and J. Klnninmonth,
5
Chapter 1
The coconut palm, Cocos nucijera L., is one of the most important crops of the tropics.
It occurs in all tropical and most subtropical regions, most abundantly in Asia and the Pacific,
thriving best on low-lying sites close to the sea with ground water and ample rainfall.
Nuts are produced from when trees are aged five, with highest production achieved between 15 and
SO years. Productivity declines steadily thereafter until at 60 to 70 years the tree is considered to be
senile.
It is then, or when hurricanes or disease strike, that the mature coconut trees are suited for conver-
18 Coconuts
The Copra Industry
The origins of the industry may be traced back to
1841 when a patent was issued for the manufacture
of soap from coconut oil. During the subsequent
decades copra was harvested. mainly from trees
growing wild. by traders supplying the large
soap-making firms. Later. in the early 1900s. de-
mand for coconut oil for butter substitutes
stimulated the establishment of plantations.
In view of the favourable investment climate at the
time, much of the planting was on large estates.
especially in the Philippines, but in addition many
small farmers planted the coconut as a cash crop
which remains to this day an important part of the
economies of some island countries.
After 1918 other crops. particularly rubber, ap-
peared to offer better opportunities for investment
and large-scale coconut planting diminished. then
virtually ceased with the economic depression of the
I 930s.
The vast stock of trees created during the planting
boom continued to produce in abundance, but wild
fluctuations in the price of copra, as well as the grow-
ing acceptability of alternative vegetable oils. led to a
decline in the industry with a consequent strain on
those economies dependent upon it.·
The main stock of productive trees was therefore
ageing until, at 60 to 70 years old, productivity began
to fall steeply. In countries where trade and sub-
sistence farming remained dependent on the coconut
the need for replanting became evident and program-
7
tht> rhinoceros beetle (Orystes rhinor;eros), a pest order of 20m thus giving maximum wood volume
which attacks the core of the stem, the crown and per stem of about I m J.
young nuts; while burning or tipping into the sea
would have proved expensive and wasteful.' For To obtain optimum growth and nut production the
countries with a sustained internal market for timber crowns and roots must have ample space. This limits
- especially those relying on imports - the conversion the stem density in a plantation to about 100 per hec-
and use of coconut stems offered an attractive tare. Thus the wood volume in a mature or over-
economic prospect and industries were developed ac- mature plantation is about 100 m'lha. Stems are
cordingly. often curved. This limits the length of sawlog that can
The development of viable coconut wood in- be prepared. Although in some favourable locations
dustries required in the first place two lines of in- (e.g. Zamboanga) longer logs are possible, in general
vestigation: the structure and composition of the raw a log of length of about four metres is the maximum
material, with techniques of conversion appropriate practicable. The largest sawlog will therefore not ex-
to these; and the location and availability of over- ceed about 300 kg in weight which is low compared
mature, diseased and dead stems. with sawlogs from mature trees of most forest
species.
Most hardwoods and softwoods exhibit density
gradients from the centre of the stem towards the
Sawing
The actual operation of sawing coconut is difficult
and standard steel saws will become blunted and
unusable after relatively few cuts. Two factors pro-
bably contribute to this: firstly, the thick-walled
fibres are extremely hard; and, secondly, the paren-
chyma tissues disintegrate into a fine abrasive
powder which is not easily removed from the cut and
which causes frictional heat increase. As the wood
dries and the cell wall material becomes harder, these
problems are intensified. The silical content of
coconut wood is low so this is not a contributing fac-
tor as in some difficult-to-saw-hardwoods. The use
of tungsten carbide tips (or Stellite-tipped or inlaid-
teeth) has overcome basic sawing problems but has
increased problems of saw maintenance. More costly
I E Copra Cutting, a Traditional Source of Income equipment and greater operator skill are required.
Seasoning
Conventional timbers have a distinct grain pattern timber in a prophylactic chemical solution im-
caused by periodic radial growth. Even in species mediately after sawing if a clean product is required.
which do not show distinct growth rings the wood No part of the trunk is resistant to fungal decay but
has different properties in the radial and the tangen- higher density material will take longer to rot ·com-
tial directions. One of the most important of these pletely, simply because the thick-walled cells retain
properties is shrinkage when the wood dries from some strength for a longer period. Low density wood
fibre saturation (about 30 per cent moisture content) will decay in the ground within weeks whereas very
to equilibrium moisture content. Shrinkage in the high density wood may last for two to three years.
tangential direction is approximately double that in Pressure treatment trials indicate that the wood
the radial direction so unless the wobd is truly flat or can be treated with preservatives such as copper-
quarter-sawn some distortion of shape is inevitable chrome-arsenate. But the distribution of preservative
on drying. is n01.as uniform as in pine sapwood where the rays
With coconut wood there is no such grain differen- are an important pathway of penetration, or in
tiation so material will dry uniformly and without permeable hardwoods where vessels are more con-
cross-sectional distortion. Lateral shrinkage in any tinuous and free of obstruction.
direction is less than three per cent when drying from
green to 12 per cent moisture content. /6
With low density coconut wood, shrinkage is ac-
centuated by collapse, which is not recoverable by
subsequent reconditioning with high temperature
steam. There is a sharp increase in this tendency to Transmission poles
collapse as the basic density of material decreases The stems have strength properties which make
below about 350 kg/m'. Collapse is severe. Uses for them ideal for use as transmission poles. But it is dif-
this type of material are very limited. The volume of ficult to dry them in a manner that will result in the
such unusable wood is approximately 15 per cent of preservative being concentrated in the high-strength
the stem total. outer zones, and without degrading.
Coconut wood is known to be more susceptible to
soft-rot decay than is pine timber. So coconut wood
will certainly require higher preservative loadings,
but just how much more will be required to guarantee
an economic service life is yet to be determined.
In the preparation of poles or posts it is first
necessary to remove the bark so that the underlying
wood will dry out. With most pole species this
debarking operation is relatively simple, and effec-
tive machines have been developed for the purpose.
With coconut stems, however, there is a gradual tran-
sition from wood to bark. The debarking region is in-
definite and very fibrous. Debarking by machine is
not yet possible. At present debarking must be done
by hand using simple tools such as draw-knives or
bush-knives. Treatment of poles by sap displacement
is an alternative to normal pressure treatment but the
deeply fissured nature of the bark makes it difficult
to obtain an effective pressure seal on the log. Fur-
1F Coconut Logs, Dense on the Outside. Soft Inside thermore the sap-conducting elements (vessels within
the vascular bundles) occupy only about four to five
per cent of the total tissue volume compared with 30
to 40 per cent for the vessels in most hardwoods and
90 per cent plus for the tracheids in softwoods.
Natural durablllty and wood preservation
The coconut palm does not form heartwood as
most forest trees do. This affects its utilization in
several ways. The wood is uniformly wet and ap-
proaches saturation throughout the whole trunk; Pulp and paper
variations in moisture content are dependent on Trials in the Philippines and in New Zealand have
variations in density and therefore the space available shown that coconut stem wood can be used for mak-
for water. The main consequence of having no heart- ing pulp and paper with qualities similar to those
wood is that the wood of the coconut stem has no made from most hardwoods, although the high pro-
natural resistance to attack by wood-boring insects portion of fines (from parenchyma tissue) greatly
and decay fungi. Freshly cut wood is very susceptible reduces overall yields. These small parenchyma cells
to infection by mould and stain fungi and also to at- also cause problems in the manufacture of particle
tack by ambrosia beetles. Hence it is essential to dip board.
10
Wood fuel
The calorific value of coconut wood (heat energy metre of wood from which some 40 per cent recovery
released on burning, per unit weight of dry wood) is of dense and medium grades of sawnwood may be
similar to other woods. But some predrying is expected. In Zamboanga an average stem volume of
necessary before coconut wood will burn easily. To 1.158' with stocking of not more than 115 stems per
achieve the necessary drying, the stem must be cross- hectare is recorded.
cut into short lengths and then split, using suitable Given these assumptions of maturity and yield, the
equipment and techniques to overcome the lack of potential volume of industrial wood follows from a
planes of weakness in the radial direction. tree count - typically 100 stems per hectare.
to regulate the embryonic sawmilling industry to en- Aerial photography of the island was completed at
sure its viability along with that of the copra in- a scale of 1: 10,000, followed by a stratified random
dustry. H sample to obtain information on the number and
The effect was to permit the annual felling of 1.6 volume of stems. Detailed photo interpretation with
per cent of the total coconut palm population, with ground control then provided details of individual
the completion of a stem utilization and replanting plantations including areas, number of stems per hec-
cycle every sixty-two years. tare, average height and total volume. Stem volume
tables were prepared. Individual plantation statistics
Resource assessment by inventory. Fiji were recorded on a 1: 10,000 map and overall
The usual preliminary to investment in a wood- distribution of the resource was shown on a 1:50,000
based industry is an inventory of the source of raw coconut location map. Reliable and detailed infor-
material. In 1977, the Japan International Co- mation of this type is needed by Governments in the
operation Agency undertook an inventory of coconut preparation of plantation management plans, and by
stems on the island of Taveuni. J sawmillers for industrial feasibility studies.
12
Chapter 2
The denser grades of coconut wood can be used as structural material while the lower grades are
suitable for joinery and interior use. It has proved economic to construct dwelling houses entirely of
coconut wood.
The denser material makes attractive furniture and is also widely used for utility items and curios.
The roundwood has excellent strength properties and is suitable for transmission poles and fence
posts provided the problems of preservation treatment can be overcome.
13
As noted in the first chapter, the over maturity of use. In another Kiribati outer island a project to mill
coconut plantations and the need for their replace- stems with chainsaws to provide timber for 30 houses
ment by higher-yielding varieties has been the foun- was planned. Near to Los Banos in the Philippines a
dation of all recent work on developing the use of saw milling project was planned to supply timber for
coconut wood and of appropriate processing in- low-cost housing. In Zamboanga, commercial and
dustries. Government interests tested the use of coconut
timber as a component in a low cost housing pro-
gramme.
By the 196Os, coconut producers were expressing By 1983, coconut stem sawmills had operated also
alarm at the problems caused by over mature palms in Fiji, Western Samoa, French Polynesia, Vanuatu,
diminishing productivity and decay and infestation Tuvalu, Papua New Guinea. India; Indonesia, the
of dead and dying trees. To these has often been add- People's Republic of China, and Jamaica.
ed the destruction caused by hurricanes. Some sawmilling projects have experienced dif-
Among the institutions pioneering these studies, ficulties arising from management, technical and
special mention is justified of those in the Pacific economic problems which not unexpectedly had to be
region. These include the Philippines Forest Products faced in a relatively new and widely dispersed in-
Research and Development Institute; the Philippines dustry. Typical of these are inadequate or irregular
Coconut Authority's Zamboanga Research Centre, supplies of raw material, excessive transportation
supported by the United Nations Development Pro- costs, insufficient attention to sawing techniques ap-
gramme and the Food and Agriculture Organization propriate to recovery of the better grades of timber,
of the United Nations; the Fiji Forest Department, imperfect seasoning and preservation practices, lack
the New Zealand Forest Research Institute and the of quality control, incorrect assessments of markets
New Zealand Timber Industry Training Centre. and inability to compete with other materials.
The range of studies covered are anatomy and Problems of this nature can be overcome as the
wood properties, sawmilling, seasoning, preserva- public and private sectors gain experience in process-
tion, mechanical properties, engineering design, ing, marketing and management. Replanting pro-
charcoal manufacture, wood based panels, kraft grammes and incentives will ensure an adequate sup-
pulping properties, machining, house construction ply of stems; demand for the wood exists or can be
and utilization for a variety of manufactured pro- developed especially in communities lacking alter-
ducts. The U.K. Tropical Products Research In- native materials; and enough experience exists of
stitute investigated the use of coconut wood in parti- production and utilization technology.
cle board manufacture and other processes. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to ex-
Research and development findings were sum- amples of the end-uses and products already
marized at two important meetings in Tonga in 1976 demonstrated and in several cases marketed.
and in the Philippines in 1979. l ' J
In the meantime, small scale sawmilling industries
were set up in parts of the Pacific in an attempt to
market the products of the coconut wood becoming Construction
available. Experience has shown that almost the entire range
of coconut wood can be used in appropriate func-
tions in the construction of buildings, particularly
By 1983 mills were being operated in Tonga by the houses.
Government, by the Catholic Church and by a com- Structural load bearing components in the house
mercial operator. Growers used the' mills to have should be made from dense timber grades.
their own overmature stems milled. They used the Trusses and internal members are made of medium
sawn timber for their own projects. A commercial density material and it has been possible to develop a
operator also negotiated with growers to acquire wide range of advanced designs for th~ former. In
logs, processed them, and offered the sawn timber addition to conventional methods of manufacture,
for local sale. In the Solomon Islands a commercial nail plates and truss jigs facilitate the accurate
operator processed logs and offered the dense grade prefabrication of trusses. Designs have been
of sawn timber for export to a New Zealand com- prepared covering a range of uses from small thatch-
pany for further processing into wall panelling and ed roofs, through several house types, to school
flooring. In Sri Lanka a semi-government agency ac- room buildings. Floors and steps are made of hard
quired fallen stems after a hurricane and processed material either as machined boards or parquet. The
sawn timber for the local market. In Kiribati a internal linings of the walls of houses may be made of
mobile sawmill began operations on an outer island soft wood, which is quite suitable for non-load bear-
to mill timber which was freighted to the Republic's ing surfaces, although harder wood is used when a
capital and stockpiled pending a decision on its end high finish is required.
14
2B Frame of Building
External cladding, also of the softer material, re- and other parts requiring strength and durability. U
quires preservative treatment to prevent damage by Flooring joists, flooring, ceiling joists, trusses and
weather, as do the hard wood window frames and framing timber can be made from dense coconut
any material which is in ground contact. J timber. The bottom and top studs, horizontal studs,
Because of size limitations, the use of coconut top members and bracing can be made from medium
wood in larger building necessitates the adoption of density coconut timber. JI
laminated members. This technique has proved to be Coconut timber framing and flooring should be
successful. Some very advanced beams have been dried to the local equilibrium moisture content level
made by combining laminated coconut wood sections before fixing.
with plywood webbing. J
The hard outer layer, or high and medium density Coconut wood can be used for roofing either as
grades of coconut timber have sufficient strength for sawn timber or shingles. When rainwater is to be col-
structural use in buildings. lected for drinking purposes, the roofing material
Solid rounds used as posts placed on top of con- may be treated with a water proof sealant rather than
crete foundations may be used in house construction one of the toxic water-borne preservatives.
2H Strip Flooring
Furniture
The harder density coconut wood, which is ex- tlgure, in fact, that it can in some cases be considered
tremely attractive, can be used in the production of overpowering if used to excess and this point should
furniture, although its weight imposes some limita- be kept in mind when designing furniture.
tions on the size of pieces made entirely of this Selected medium density coconut timber is suitable
material. J Naturally this problem is easily overcome for non-decorative and utility furniture manufacture.
by utilizing coconut wood in framing and using It is easy to screw, drill, glue and profile. Medium
lighter woods or laminating plywood to complete the grade can also be used in conjunction with hard
items. Carving and fairly intricate turning is possible grade in decorative timber if the colour difference is
so a.ttractive designs can be developed. allowed for or utilized in the design.
Hard density (No.1 grade) coconut timber is nor- Preservative treatment for coconut wood furniture
mally preferred for decorative furniture and is ade- timber is usually not necessary.
quately strong in bending and stiffness and hard For commercial furniture production it is
enough to resist indentation. Its colour, texture and necessary to use tungsten carbide tipped cutters on
figure enhance its suitability for this purpose. planers, spindle moulders, etc., in order to achieve a
Grade No.1 coconut timber has such a striking reasonable production rate.
should also allow coconut wood to obtain a place in utilized increasingly for the manufacture of curio
the big market of wooden bowls and boards for carv- items. Although this market cannot dispose of large
ing and servings. The high modulus of elasticity sug- volumes, it could be an important cottage industry
gests that the material can be used in a range of rod giving gainful employment to many people. Items
forms, from broomsticks to surveying staffs. J manufactured include bookends, candlestick
holders, trays, bowls, mugs, chessboards, salt and
A wood with such attractive properties may well be pepper shakers.
, '
, ','
Board Products
Trials in the United Kingdom and in the Philip- Roundwood Products
pines J have been carried out on the production of The structure of the palm stem is ideally suited to
particle board from coconuts. its use as a utility pole since it has great strength and
flexibility and is able to withstand high wind loads. J
It is usually possible to select straight and defect-free
stems suitable for power transmission lines.
2R Particle Board
Chapter 3
Logging
Coconut stems can be felled and extracted in the same manner as other plantation trees.
In practical terms the felling and removal of coconut stems from plantations to a sawmill has to
take into account the situation within the plantation - whether the area beneath the palms has been
inter-cropped or grazed with stock, is flat or steep or rocky, whether the trees are concentrated or
scattered.
The size and sophistication of the equipment is dependent, as in other forest operations, on the
scale of felling and the location and capacity of the sawmill being supplied.
21
Logging
Coconut plantations are usually in easy and ac- to the ground by winching or bulldozing. The latter is
cessible terrain. The branchless and nearly straight unsatisfactory as it creates a massive problem of
stems, and their almost uniform and modest dimen- disposing of the stump and root system to which a
sions allow the use of comparatively simple equip- massive ball of earth generally adheres. It commonly
ment for felling, extraction and transport. requires one man/day per stem to remove the earth
and to expose the stump for burning (Figures 3.1,
3.2).
Uprooting of the stump is not, however, a stan-
Selection and Felling dard practice, because of the cost. Stump disposal
In Chapter 5 the principles of grading coconut after normal felling remains a problem. One solu-
timber are described. Quality control begins with the tion, already tested in the Philippines, may be the
standing tree which may be assessed for age and pulverising of the stump with a mechanical flail. 1
potential log quality before felling. Felling may be by axe or two-man handsaw where
Felling, while apparently a simple operation, is the number of trees to be felled is few, as in selective
often complicated by the need to prepare the land for logging to eliminate dead, diseased or unproductive
planting. This implies that, where the topography trees within a healthy plantation.
and absence of boulders permit mechanical cultiva- Clear felling for replanting is an operation of scale
tion. it is desirable to remove the stumps or at least justifying the use of chainsaws. Experience in the
reduce them to ground level. 1'1 Philippines indicates that this is the most efficient
The extraction of the stump, together with the method provided that care is taken to fell the stems in
roots, is always a costly undertaking, requiring either a uniform direction to facilitate cross-cutting and ex-
heavy equipment or a costly input of labour, often traction. Careful training and supervision of
both. If it has to be done, the roots and stump must operators are essential, together with suitable ar-
be undercut so that the palm can be pulled or pushed rangements for maintenance.
Extraction Transport
Sawmill logs are neither large nor unduly heavy Loading and hauling do not require heavy or
and present no problems in extraction. Depending on highly specialised equipment for the usual scale of
the scale of the operation and the nature of the ter- plantation operation. Loading may be done manual-
rain, extraction may be by draught animals, adapted ly when the logs are small; in other cases, by cross-
agricultural tractors or specialised skidders. hauling with a skidding tractor or with a hydraulic
The water buffalo, or Carabao, can play an impor- front-end loader.
tant role in moving logs in isolated areas. Log transport, as in any forestry operation, has to
One of the most efficient and least expensive be by the most economic means. In small scale plan-
systems of log extraction is the use of an agricultural tation clearances unspecialised flat bed trucks, or
tractor with a towing bar fitted to the hydraulic lift four-wheel bunk trailers towed by agricultural trac-
arms. J This enables the butt of the log to be lifted tors, have proved suitable. J
clear of the ground for skidding . The same type
of machine has proved suitable for the extraction of
stems up to seventy feet long.
Cross-Cutting
Before the palm trunk is cut into logs, the location
of each cut must be marked, the length of the log
depending on the curvature of the stem and the in-
tended end-use. High quality stems for special uses
such as transmission poles, for example, must be
identified and cut accordingly. Sawmill logs are
usually cut into four to six metre lengths, each stem
yielding one or two logs depending on the height and
soundness of the tree.
Disposal of Debris
In order to minimize infestation by the rhinoceros
beetle and by the palm weevil, it is of great impor-
tance to dispose of the palm fronds and the discarded
top portion of the stem after logging. Utilization is in
some cases possible through transport of woody
material as fuel to nearby users, or by charcoaling on
the spot. Otherwise all debris should be piled for dry-
ing and then burnt.
Primary Conversion
The sawing of coconut logs calls for care in selecting cutting patterns which e'~sure the maximum
yield of the higher density outer material.
The hard and abrasive nature of the wood makes it necessary to use hardened saw teeth.
These considerations apart, primary conversion can be satisfactorily carried out with conventional
sawmills, although special types, designed for portability, have been developed.
25
Primary Conversion
Cutting Patterns
Approximately 70 per cent of the cross-section of a The specifications, advantages and disadvantages
coconut log is hard to medium wood, confined to the of these mills are as follows:
periphery, and of this slightly less than half may be
recovered as sawn wood. The soft core, often exten- 1. Medium-size portable sawmill
ding to 100 x 100 mm sawn, must be separated and A mill of this type was designed with the assistance
graded as inferior. It is preferable to leave bark on of the TITC, specifically for the milling of coconut
the higher quality outer wood rather than include any stems in Tonga. It is a robust machine capable of be-
of the core. Resawing for export quality can be ing towed over rough terrain without distortion to
undertaken as required. the frame. The main unit has jack screws at either
A typical cutting pattern for 200 to 300 mm end which can be wound down on to wooden pads to
diameter logs, designed for a centre-held log to en- prevent movement. (The weight of the carriage
sure separation of hard and soft material, is shown in travels from one end of the track to the other.) As it
Figure 4.1. This gives a choice of 100 x 500 mm or 75 is on a single axle with dual pneumatic wheels it is
x 50 mm pieces plus 50 x 50 mm and 50 x 25 mm off. desirable to jack and put solid packing under the cen-
cuts. The same pattern can be used in conventional tral main frame to prevent movement during opera-
mills as indicated in Figure 4.2. tion. It is desirable but not essential to have the
machine set up perfectly level. All parts of the unit
Cutting patterns for beams and purlins are shown are tied in rigidly together (track. carriage, headsaw,
in Figures 4.3 and 4.4, and for grade selection in power unit, roll case) and need to be in true align-
Figure 4.5. ment to each other.
Ilia
i',,\
Figure 4.4 Additional Pattern
for Cutting Purloins
Weak Weak
Centre Line
Bee C B
~~~~
Figure 4.5 Cutting Pattern Relative to Selection and
Grading
o A A 0
B
~ ___ 7
4iiiii11iiUJui!!!!ir!ni!!!I!!!!iU!jiiP
o
Figure 4.2 Cutting Pattern for Conventional Sawmills
rlmin which in turn generated a saw speed of 1250 In design it is almost identical to the previously
rlmin in the breastbench. A 30-degree hook angle mentioned mill. It is larger and has a three headblock
was maintained throughout the sawing process. A carriage. It is transportable rather than portable, be-
crew of seven men operated the mill in sawing the ing dismantled in sections and put on a carrier rather
specimen with one man assisting in the gathering of than having its own axle and draw bar.
data. The unit can also be equipped with a bandsaw in
About 16 per cent of the logs from coconut trunks place of the 1372 mm circular.
stored for eight months could not be sawn because of The breast bench equipment and saw are identical
decay, stain or holes in the core. The average sawing to those described earlier.
time was three hours a day. About five hours were
spent in conducting and fetching the crew to and 3. Light, General Purpose Portable Sawmills
from the mill, grading and stacking the sawn timber, Sawmills not designed for the cutting of coconut
sharpening the saw, removal of sawdust, and rolling but rather as simple low cost mill units suitable for
of the logs to the deck of the mill. farms or contractors with small blocks of timber are
The sawn timber was graded and stock-piled out- quite widely used but have their limitations.
doors according to density classification. Coconut One variety is lightly constructed of RHS and
stumps 45 mm long were used as posts in stacking the angle iron with a steel plate sliding on the top runners
sawn timber above the ground. Square 25 mm fillets as a table top carriage. It also has a lightly con-
placed across each layer of timber allowed the air to structed breastbench as part of the complete mill set
pass through the pile. Inspection was done once a up. Although the main unit is on its own axle for por-
week for the first month, and twice a month tability, setting up is not as quick and simple as the
thereafter. Recovery from the old trees was 34 per first mill described.
cent and from the freshly felled trees 41 per cent. Ap-
proximately 14 per cent of the sawn timber was of 4. Mini Mill
dense grade. There are several mini mill designs now built in
The implications of harvesting steps cut in the side America, New Zealand and Australia. The smallest
of coconut stems were evident in the Philippines. The of the range is probably the most suitable for cutting
steps reduced the recovery of sawn timber, par- coconut logs.
ticularly denser grades. Differing from other designs where the log is fed to
Results of the sawing tests showed that the por- a stationary saw, this particular design has an air-
table sawmill can operate efficiently under field con- cooled petrol motor mounted on a frame driving two
ditions. The average feeding/sawing rates varied ac- circular saws which are mounted at right angles to
cording to the type of log sawn as follows: butt logs, each other. The saw unit travels along a track on the
23.4 m/min; second logs, 30.6 m/min; third logs, main framework. The saws are raised and lowered in
36.3 m/min. Loss of power was observed in the relation to the log, and can also be moved laterally.
engine when sawing butt logs at an increased feeding With each pass both a horizontal and a vertical cut
rate. An average of 30 logs were sawn per sharpen- are made with the two cuts meeting accurately. These
ing. The stellite saw teeth with 30-degree hook angle mills were originally designed for cutting large logs
had to be replaced after seven to eight sharpenings. which were supported on skids on the ground, and
The results also revealed that ten fresh logs can be are far less efficient in cutting small diameter logs.
sawn at an equivalent output of 0.7 cubic metres The unit is capable of milling coconut stems, but is
sawn timber per hour. not well suited to the purpose because the logs are
small and must be rotated to recover the maximum
Recommendations resulting from the trial: high density timber.
(a) Coconut trunks should be sawn in 'green' con-
dition to obtain better quality timber. Building up of 5. Breastbench With Light Weight Carriage
heat in the saw blade during the sawing process is Breastbench mill with an added light-weight, car-
minimised as the trunks are very wet. riage which is merely a heavy timber plank with metal
(b) There should be a saw doctor in the crew, an an- bracing. It has a steel section on its underside running
vil for tensioning the saw blade, and a 1.5 h.p. in a groove in the trolleys and the feed rolls on the
generator for the jockey grinder used to sharpen the bench and has light dogs attached that may be ham-
teeth. mered into the log. The feed rolls are hydraulically
(c) For commercial operations the mill should powered with easy control of speed and reversing.
operate at least six hours daily with a crew of 12 men. This bench is ideally suited for small logs. The log is
Six men including the saw doctor will operate the mill first broken down on the carriage to manageable sec-
and the remaining six will roll the logs to the deck of tions, then the carriage is removed and the unit used
the mill, grade and stockpile the sawn timber, remove as a normal breastbench. Production is low but only
the sawdust and slabs, and supply water to the mill. three operators are needed.
shape early in the process and then fixed to their easily and quickly replaced when too worn for fur-
working place by another medium such as silver ther grinding. The most satisfactory inserted tooth
solder. In contrast, stellite is available in rod form. It for cutting coconut to date has been a stellite inlaid
can be fused directly, with heat,on to the base metal. tooth. This is a standard carbon steel tooth with a
Consequently, stellite can be used equally as well coating of stellite over the top and side surfaces, ap-
on any type of saw, including bandsaws. It is used ex- proximately one to two mm thick. Wear resistance is
tensively where hardwoods with an abrasive nature good. Only face grinding is necessary. Filing is not
are to be cut. Grade 6 stellite, which is identifiable by possible. Grinding is best done on a hand gulleting
a red tip, is the most commonly used on saw teeth. machine with the saw removed from the rig. A good
finish must be maintained with angles accurate and
Cobalide 3 which is a similar material under a dif- face square. Portable jockey-type grinders which
ferent trade name is also quite satisfactory. A newer clamp on to the saw blade have been used in small
material put out by Eutectic, called Eutecbor 9000, coconut mills, but none seem to have been really
has become very popular for this use and has proven satisfactory for maintaining a good cutting edge.
very satisfactory. The main reason for its popularity
is its ease of use in applying it to the base metal, it
also has very good wear and shock resistance.
Stellite is also available' for saws as a preformed Tungtech
tip. This can be fixed to the saw using silver solder. Tungtech is a powder application that can be used
However, these tips are more expensive than carbide. to harden the surface of any base metal. The alloy
powder containing particles of tungsten is applied
Method of Tipping through a special oxy-acetylene torch to the surface
There are three main methods of applying stelIite of pre-heated base metal. The flame sweats the alloy
to saw teeth. powder into the surface of the material. This has only
(a) A drop of molten stellite can be applied to the been used in trials so far. It has proven successful on
swage cup heavier gauge circular saws. Some skill and care is re-
(b) A large deposit of stellite can be melted on to quired in this application as misuse of the heat will
the end of a saw tooth which has been ground back result in melting and rounding the cutting edges.
slightly. The stellite is then formed with dies so that it As the coating of powder is quite thin even a light
looks similar to a swaged and shaped point grind would remove it. Therefore it must be applied
(c) Molten stellite can be poured into a ceramic to the tooth after sharpening.
mould around the tooth point. This gives a finished A thin layer is then applied to the face of the tooth.
point similar to Step b, The tooth is again ground lightly on the back to
regain a sharp cutting edge without removing the
The usual procedure in grinding stellite tipped saws hard facing from the face of the tooth.
is to grind the faces and backs first, then to grind the
sides of the swage with an "equalising" machine.
The main reason for following this procedure is that
the size of the finished point can be more easily con- Carbltroning
trolled if the side grinding is performed last. When Carbitroning is the deposition of materials such as
grinding the fac·es and backs of the teeth, care must tungsten carbides and titanium carbide from an elec-
be taken to ensure that the feed finger does not push trode of these materials by spark action on to the sur-
on the stellite deposit. face of the saw teeth. The electrode which is held in
It is common to find sawmills using stellite tipped the electrical machine designed for this method of
saws running the saws to the extent that the points coating is vibrated against the tooth surface. The
become rounded and dull. In most cases it would be vibration makes and breaks contact causing sparks
better to change the saw before it got to this point. which transfer the molten carbide to the tooth. The
This would result in less time being taken to sharpen thickness of the deposit layer will only be up to about
a saw. More sharpenings would be gained from the 0.07 mm (.003 inch). For this reason the method is
stellite. Sharper tips also mean production of less not entirely efficient as in some species, acids in the
badly cut and thus wasted timber. It would also in- timber apparently will eat under the layer lifting it
crease the overall1ife of the saw. off. However cutting time is claimed to be increased
With bandsaws, this tendency to continue sawing up to five times and longer.
too long before re-sharpening (particularly with
softer wood) frequently leads to gullet cracks as the
saw becomes fatigued.
Details of methods of forming and grinding stellite High speed steel
tips have been omitted from this account. But it must High speed steel is used in the form of inserted saw
be recognised that considerable skill, and the use of teeth. As with the stellite inlaid teeth the high speed
precision equipment are necessary for satisfactory steel teeth were designed for use in cutting species
saw performance. For these reasons most smaller that ordinary carbon steel would not cut effectively.
mills used for cutting coconut wood have favoured These bits can be used in inserted tooth saws for cut-
the use of circular saws with inserted teeth which are ting coconut, but are not as wear resistant as the
rugged, easy to maintain by face grinding, and can be stellite inlaid teeth, nor as economical.
30
Chapter 5
Grading coconut timber according to low, medium and heavy densities is important, since the dif-
ferent grades have different end uses. Timber of mixed densities is more likely to twist and degrade.
Grading should begin at the commencement of logging, and be followed through the sawnwood
conversion process.
The development of a uniform grading standard would help to promote local and export
marketing.
Timber can be graded visually or by more elaborate techniques. A simple colour coding system is
appropriate for use in recording grades.
32
Quality Control, Particularly Relating to Export It is first necessary to inspect standing trees so that
In the course of coconut market research and pro- a judgement can be made as to a tree's age, by means
duct development it has been established that no im- of length of leaf, nut production and the
porter in any of the countries surveyed is prepared to characteristic thinning of the stem below the crown.
make a commitment to purchase large volumes of Suitable trees are then marked, felled and cut to
coconut wood unless both quality of material and length.
reliability of supply are guaranteed. It is also Before extraction, every log must be marked to
desirable that uniform grading should be established establish from what part of the tree it comes. It is
within the various producing countries. convenient when sawing to length to make a single
When any country considers the establishment of a chainsaw niche on the lower end of base logs, two
coconut milling and processing industry, there niches for second logs and three niches for upper logs
should be emphasis on an overall control which is (see Figure S.l). Then, after the logs are stockpiled
sufficient to co-ordinate quality standards. This con- butts are painted different colours on the lower end
trol should not restrict efficient management but (base logs RED, second logs GREEN and third logs
should aim to protect and foster the interests of the YELLOW). On the reverse ends they should be
country, the coconut industry and its customers. An painted with a WHITE band extending 70mm in
enforceable quality standard provides such a control. from the circumference (see Figure S.2).
Grading
After such an identification system as described
above is in place, quality specifications are then
necessary in relation to each end use.
In the local house-building market little further
Painted Ends of Loas Before Sawmilling grading would be required, though general informa-
tion on the characteristics and appropriate use of
each grade should be available.
For other building construction, which may be
subject to local government regulations or building
codes, more detailed specifications are required.
Timber should be graded hard, intermediate or
soft, corresponding to high, medium and low den-
sities. The technical limits between the grades are:
Base End Upper End High Density above 500 kg/m J
Medium Density between SOO and 3S0 kg/m J.
Low Density less than 3S0 kg/mJ.
As a rule only high density coconut timber is ac-
FIgure S.2 Colour Grading on Log Butt ceptable for structural purposes.
33
Appearance
The appearance of coconut wood is distinctive.
The grain is strong and irregular so that the texture is
variable. There is also a noticeable colour variation,
sometimes related to density, the denser wood being
darker. It has also been noted that there are two
varieties of tree, one which produces very dark wood
and the other a lighter wood. There is thus oppor-
tunity for the production of a range of colour grades
in joinery or decorative features. It follows that col-
our classification of the wood during processing is
sometimes advantageous.
5B The Densest Grades are Strong Enough for Struc-
tural Uses
35
Chapter 6
Coconut sawn timber dries readily as 25 mm boards but thicker sizes dry very slowly.
Degrade is not severe apart from collapse in material below 350 kg 1m J basic density 16.
Sawn timber should be sorted according to density before seasoning.
36
stain and mould in air drying is such that appropriate of the highest moisture content.
chemical dip or spray treatments should be applied Drying time is six to seven days in a commercial
before stacking. For the same reason, protection stack.
from rain is desirable and air drying should be car-
ried out in an open-sided roofed shed.
50 mm Material
Preliminary air drying to 25-30 per cent moisture
content is recomended since 50 mm pieces cannot be
satisfactorily kiln-dried from green.' Drying may
take five to six days on the following schedule.
Chapter 7
Coconut wood in contact with ground or water requires preservation if it is to last more than a few
years.
Coconut wood for interior uses, such as furniture, flooring or walling, does not generally need to
be treated with preservatives, although in some environments the timber (particularly low density
wood) should be treated against termites and other wood borers.
38
Provided the timber is adequately seasoned, chromate) followed by one or two coats of latex
coconut wood can be treated by the vacuum/pressure emulsion stain will give a good and durable surface.
method using copper-chrome-arsenate preservatives.
It can be used in the sawn form for weatherboards Preservative requirements for ground-contact
and verandah decking, in either sawn or round form timber, e.g. posts and poles, are still unresolved, and
for house piling, in the round or quarter round form more well-controlled tests are needed before a confi-
as posts, and in round-form as poles. dent assessment can be made of the suitability of
Material which has been treated and exposed in treated coconut wood in this situation. The most
service trials indicates that if used clear of the crucial factor seems to be making absolutely sure that
ground, a life of 20 years could be anticipated, and the wood does not become infected by any fungi bet-
rounds or quarter rounds used in contact with the ween felling and final treatment. ] J
ground should have a service life at least in the order Coconut stem wood is not very susceptible to at-
of 15 years. IP tack by wood boring insects and will give good ser-
Coconut wood in contact with ground or water re- vice without treatment if it is protected from the
quires preservation if it is to last more than a few weather. If protection from insects must be ensured
years. Coconut wood for interior uses, such as fur- the wood can be readily treated with boron by diffu-
niture, flooring or walling, does not generally need to sion.
be treated with preservatives, although in some en-
vironments the timber (particularly low density Exposed to the weather or in ground contact
wood) should be treated against termites and other coconut wood is perishable and preservative treat-
wood borers. ment is essential. Debarking round poles and posts is
an extremely difficult task but is necessary if they are
In some environments all densities of sawn timbers to be treated by conventional pressure methods or
will need protection against termites and other wood hot and cold bath. The wood must be at least partial-
borers. ly air-dried before treatment and this must be done
Some uses exposed to the weather may not justify under cover. Provided the outer zones are well dried,
full strength treatment. The preservation required good retention and distribution can be achieved with
may be necessitated by standards and local building creosote by hot and cold bath, and copper-chrome-
codes, or by the length of life required. Housing arsenate by vacuum/pressure.
from coconut timber which has been brush treated
with preservative will give the house a longer life than Pressure sap displacement of unbar ked logs has
a thatched roof house of lesser quality. Local proved impracticable. 10
economics can determine the preservative and length
of building life desired.
It is preferable and more feasible to avoid ground on- and Water-based Preservative Techniques
contact by placing a house on foundations with a
There are two general types of wood preservatives.
waterproof barrier between the foundation and the
wood. These are the oil-type such as creosote and pen-
tachlorophenol, and the water-borne salt-type such
Health standards and public attitudes to the use of as copper-chrome-arsenate.
preservatives with toxic ingredients provide further A black or brownish oil made by distilling coal tar
cause for concern at the suitability of different types or coal-tar creosote, is effective for preserving wood,
of preservation. but its colour, and the fact that creosote-treated
Load bearing poles, from fence posts to electric wood cannot be painted satisfactorily, make this
transmission poles,' require higher standards of treat- preservative unsuitable for finished timber where ap-
ment. Coconut wood can be used inside buildings pearance is important. In addition, the odour of the
without treatment. Insects are not a major threat to creosoted-wood is unpleasant. Nevertheless, coal-tar
dry wood. creosote can be satisfactorily used in treatment of
When exposed to the weather but not in contact fence posts and posts of low-cost houses where the
with the ground some protection is required. materials are used externally and in ground contact.
Pressure treatment with copper-chrome-arsenate to Pentachlorophenol solution preservative generally
intermediate retentions (five to ten kg commercial contains five per cent solution of chlorinated phenols
salts/m') gives excellent results. Brush-coating dry in a solvent of liquid petroleum gas. The heavy oil re-
wood with creosote or copper naphthenate will give mains in the wood for a long time and does not usual-
good protection but retreatment will be necessary ly provide clean or paintable surfaces. Pen-
every three to four years. Surface pre-treatment with tachlorophenol solutions are usually applied to wood
inorganic salts (e.g. 12 per cent acid copper for exterior use.
39
Copper-chrome-arsenate preservative is highly moisture removal from the inner zone of the log
soluble in water. This is sold in the market under thereby prolonging drying and risking decay and in-
trade names such as Tanalith C, Boliden K33, sect infestations to the log. Under Zamboanga condi-
Celcure AP. Copper-chrome-arsenate is now prefer- tions, it takes three to four months air drying of
red and more widely accepted than coal-tar debarked round coconut timber to ensure good
creosote/pentachlorophenol because it leaves the preservative treatment.
wood clean, paintable and free from objectionable
odour after treatment. Furthermore, coal-tar and
pentachlorophenol have become more costly than the Treatment Methods
water-borne preservatives. However CCA is not ac- Preservative treatment of timber is undertaken by
ceptable for the treatment of roof shingles where the pressure or non-pressure processes. The pressure
roof is to be used as a catchment for drinking water. method of treatment is unlikely to be feasible in rural
areas, where the relatively simple non-pressure pro-
cesses can be readily adapted to local facilities.
Brush Treatment
Preparing Timber Prior to Treatment Brush treatment is the simplest method of applying
All coconut timber to be treated must be free from wood preservative. A minimum of five per cent pen-
defects to attain satisfactory treatment and good per- tachlorophonol or five per cent copper-chrome-
formance thereafter. Treatment of timber by diffu- arsenate can be used in treatment of dried coconut
sion using water-borne preservatives may be done on wood. One to three coatings may be applied depen-
freshly-cut sawn timber to permit movement of solu- ding on the dryness of the material. In most cases,
tion into the wood. For other methods drying before however, wood treated by this method is recom-
treatment is essential. Drying the material before mended for internal use only.
treatment permits adequate penetration and uniform
distribution and reduces risks of ch~cking and the
consequent exposure of untreated timber. Soaking
It is also of great importance that all machining Cold soaking of well-seasoned coconut timber
should be done prior to treatment. This incluQ,es in- generally achieves better preservative penetration and
cising of wood to improve the penetration of preser- retention than does brushing. The timber is soaked in
vative and machining operations such as planing, a three to five per cent copper-chrome-arsenate solu-
cutting, and boring. tion for one to eight hours depending on the intended
For round coconut timber, debarking should be use. Material treated by this method can be used for
done to accelerate drying. The bark greatly retards construction of buildings.
7 A Debarking Poles
40
Chapter 8
Coconut wood, especially of high density, will make good charcoal. Any charcoal kiln or process is
suitable. But a system using old oil drums is cheap, simple and effective. Briquetting charcoal is
possible with any starchy binder such as sorghum.
Coconut wood can be used in direct fired boilers although it must be well dried before it will burn.
Coconut wood if adequately dried, can be used for gasifiers.
42
Charcoal Making
Many rural areas in the Asia-Pacific region make 8A Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln Ex-
use of the traditional earth pit for conversion of terior
coconut stems and shells to charcoal. The method re-
quires only a small investment in tools and equip-
ment but, because of the lack of control of the car- Several other drum designs have been used or
bonization process, yields are low and the quality of described, differing mainly in the number and
charcoal inferior. placements of air vents and therefore of operating
More modern methods, at various levels of techniques. Measurement of the efficiency of these
sophistication, are now being applied. A portable kilns are however often imprecise since production
metal kiln was constructed for the Philippine operations do not have consistent descriptions of the
Coconut Authority in Zamboanga to a design similar nature, weight and moisture content of the initial
to the kiln developed by the United Kingdom charges. Suffice to say that the simplicity of the drum
Tropical Products Institute. ,J Yields from this kiln system (steel or brick) makes it appropriate where
averaged 20 per cent recovery. more elaborate systems cannot be justified.
The approximate chemical analysis of the charcoal
is: fixed carbon 70 per cent; volatile combustible
matter 16 per cent; moisture content 12 per cent; ash
2 per cent.
Tests were undertaken on another kiln based on
the TPI Mk IV design with a volume of eight m J. The
main difference in design was that instead ,of being of
all-metal construction, the bottom cylinder was made
of two layers of brick. The inside layer was firebrick
lined with clay, while the outside layer was the stan-
dard building brick. This kiln had eight openings,
four covered with chimneys which could be rotated
from opening to opening to provide varying air flows
to facilitate even .burning and carbonization. The
material used for charcoal was waste material from
logging, and some waste slabs from sawmilling.
In Tonga, a simple kiln is constructed from a 44 8B Zamboanga Research Centre Charcoal Kiln in-
gallon drum. A slot 14 cm wide and 73 cm long is cut terior
along one side. The billets of cocowood are loaded
through this slot a little at a time. The kiln is started
by lighting a fire on the bottom, with the slot facing
horizontal to the ground. As the billets start burning Charcoal Retorts
the kiln is tilted so the slot is gradually moved to a Charcoal retorts differ from kilns in that the
vertical position, billets being added until the kiln is charge is sealed in a closed chamber and the heat is
full. When the billets are burning well, the cover is supplied externally, without an initial combustion
put on, and the kiln turned until the slot is once again stage. The efficiency of the retort lies in its recycling
facing the ground. The kiln is left sealed until cool. of effluent waste gases from the central chamber
43
holding the wood block charge to the fire box. After is fed in through nozzles. When that takes place basic
an initial firing to begin the reaction, the gases gas production starts.
become the fuel source to carry the reaction to com- The gas produced is led through a bed of charcoal
pletion. The charcoal conversion process is achieved which causes reduction to the main fuel gas, carbon
with a low energy input, and pollution is eliminated. monoxide (CO). The by-products of distillation such
The design of the retort and combustion process en- as tar are cracked to form hydrogen and the final
sure a consistent quality and higher yields. Industrial moisture of producer gases is:
charcoal is produced, with an average fixed carbon
content of 80 per cent, for a capital outlay little in ex- Combustible gas
cess of the traditional brick kiln method. Carbon Monoxide 20 per cent
Charcoal retorts are capable of converting 11 Hydrogen 19 per cent
metric tons of wood to four metric tons of charcoal Methane I per cent
in a 48-hour cycle including loading, firing, conver-
sion, cooling, unloading and bagging. With the waste Non Combustible gas
wood used in the initial firing of the retort, the wood Carbon dioxide 9 per cent
to charcoal conversion ratio is between 3 1/2 to 4: I for Nitrogen 51 per cent
air-dried wood at 20 to 25 per cent moisture content.
combustion engines. More recently internal combus- utilization. Greatest effectiveness can be achieved
tion engines have been used in conjunction with from a wood-fuelled system where there is a steady
various methods of converting the fuel to combusti- load without large peak demands and the plant is us-
ble gas. ed to supply the base load demand of an existing
Other systems incorporating closed cycle gas tur- system. This latter condition can be planned so that
bines and engines are being developed and could the load is shared between the wood and the diesel
corne into regular use in the future. plants in such a way that the wood system generates
The main factors limiting the use of wood or at or near full output most of the time. The use of
woody material as fuel for power generation have diesel is restricted to those times where the demand is
been economic rather than technical and thus any high thus making maximum use of its facility for
evaluation of the potential must be concerned quick start-up and shut-down whilst dramatically
primarily with the economics of the systems, in- reducing total diesel fuel consumption.
cluding saving of foreign exchange. The economics Electric power must be reliable. Many consumers
are determined by factors such as fuel costs, capital need continuous supply or a very low incidence of
cost, plant efficiencies, labour costs etc. failures if losses or hazards are to be avoided. For ex-
The low cost of oil fuels and their simplicity of use ample, fish freezers at a base port, hospitals and
were the major reasons why there was a move away large industries may be seriously jeopardised by
from solid fuels at the beginning of this century. power shut downs.
At present there are two basic systems which can A wood-fuelled plant which is not connected to
practically and economically be applied to generating another system will usually require some duplication
power from coconut wood and other wood wastes. of equipment and some diesel engine stand by capaci-
One system is burning with or without gasification ty, although the smallest systems such as for villages,
and generation of stearn to operate engines or tur- may not need these features.
bines. The other system is direct gasification from Because of the bulky nature of wood fuel, it is im-
wood or charcoal to produce a fuel suitable for use in portant, in locating a plant, to minimise roading and
internal combustion engines. transportation costs. Thus power plants will general-
The degree of complexity, the safety hazards and ly be near the fuel source rather than close to the con-
capital cost are similar for both burning and gasifica- sumers to be supplied.
tion plants. The most significant differences are in
the fuel consumption rates. Gasification direct from
wood uses about half as much wood as either a direct
burning system or charcoal-making followed by 8C Firewood
gasification system, to produce the same energy out-
put. The stearn engine has however advantages in
simplicity of operation and reliability.
Footnotes
1 FAO Production and Trade Yearbook Vol. 36 fa Little, E.C.S., April 1975. Report to the Govern-
Pacific Coconut Community. Published by the vative Treatment of Coconut Palm Wood. Coconut
Philippines Coconut Authority. Stem Utilisation Proceedings, Tonga, 1976
• Coconut Industries, 1981. International Coir 11 McQuire, A.J., 1979. Exposure Tests of Treated
Development Newsletter, Number I. and Untreated Coconut Stem Wood in the South
j Cocostem Development Co. Ltd.,1978. Coconut Pacific. Coconut Wood - 1979: The Proceedings,
Wood Parquet Plant for Tonga: Feasibility Report. Zamboanga
Wellington 11 Meadows, D.J., 1977. The Coconut Industry -
6 Decena, A.S., Dela Cruz, R.Z. and Penid, B.J., Problems and Prospects, Coconut Stem Utilisation
1976. Forpride Digest. Vol.V Seminar, Tonga, 1976
7 Evans, Rex D., January 1979. Coconut Wood: The 1J Meylan, B.A., 1978. Density variation with Cocos
Pacific's Great Untapped Resource. Asia Pacific nucifera stems New Zealand Journal of Forestry
Research Unit, Wellington. Science, Volume 8 (3): 369-83
a Evans, Rex D., 1978. Parquet Flooring from 14 Mosteiro, Arnaldo P., January-March 1978. For-
Coconut Wood: Research Review 1 March 1978. pride Digest, Volume VII, Number 1
Cocostem Investigation Unit, Asia Pacific Research H Palomar, R.N., [1980a] Preservation Techniques
Unit and Evans(QS) Company, Wellington of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Palm Timber for
• Ford R.J.,1982. New Zealand Bilateral Aid Electric Power/Telecommunication Poles and Fence
-Cocostem Utilisation Project, Zamboanga City, Posts Mimeo. Zamboanga Research Centre.
Philippines, October 1980-December 1982. Report to 16 Palomar, R.N., [1980b] Charcoal Making.
the Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Well- Mimeo. Zamboanga Research Centre
ington. U Richolson, J.M., August 1980. Coconut Stem
10 Grimwood, Brian E., et aI, 1975. Coconut Palm Utilisation Programme Information Note (3): Ther-
Products: Their Processing in Developing Countries. mal Insulation of Coconut Wood. A Review of
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Utilization possibilities for Over-mature Coconut
Nations, Rome. Palm Stems in Fiji. Department of Forestry, Suva
1/ Groome, J.G. and Associates, January 1982. 1.
Richolson, J.M. and Swarup, R., 1977. A brief
Small Scale Power Generation: Coconut Wood and review of the anatomy and morphology of the
other Wood Wastes. Prepared for Food and coconut palm (Part I) with a report on its basic
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, physical properties (Part II). Coconut Stem Utilisa-
Taupo. tion Seminar Proceedings, Tonga, 1976
11 Hicksons Timber Impregnation Co (NZ) Ltd., JO San Luis, Josefina M. and Estudillo, Calvin P.,
April 1980. Recommended Specifications for the 1976. Charcoal Briquetting - An Outlet for Wood and
treatment of Cocanut Wood, Auckland Coconut Trunk Wastes. Forpride Digest, Volume V,
lJ Jensen P.,1979. Skidding Bar. Coconut Wood pp. 73-74
-1979: The Proceedings, Zamboanga 11 South Pacific Commission, April 1957. Practical
14 Kinninmonth, J .A. 1977. Drying sawn timber of Uses for Coconut Timber. Quarterly Bulletin,
coconut. Coconut Stem Utilisation Proceedings, Noumea
Tonga, 1976 12 Standards Association of Australia. Australian
Jj Kinninmonth, J .A. The Air Drying of Sawn Standards 1975: Use of Timbers in Structures
Timber. New Zealand Forest Service Reprint JJ Tamolang, Dr. Francisco N.,1976. The Utilization
Timbers Imported into Australia. CSIRO, Australia 1982. A Review of the Coconut Replanting Scheme
46
Aldamez, E.L., 1983. Cocowood utilization (at Bergseng, K., and Higgins, P. J., 1978. Coconut
Pola Mindoro). Cocowood Training at Zamboanga palm sawing trials conducted in the Philippines.
Research Centre, Philippine Coconut Authority Report to Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Philippines
Allison, R. W., 1976. Examination of parenchyma Bergseng, K., et ai, 1983. Sawmilling of coconut
tissue in coconut kraft pulps. Forest Products palm. Unpublished Document 2332A. Rotorua,
Laboratory Report FP/PP60. Rotorua, New New Zealand T4.mber Industry Training Centre
Zealand
Bisset, J., 1945. The kiln drying of coconut palm
Asian and Pacific Coconut Community. The (Cocos nucijera). Division of Forest Products
Cocommunity Newsletter. Published bi-monthly. Report, CSIRO, Australia
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