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Structure and Fabric

Part 1
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Mitchell’s Building Series

Structure and Fabric

Part 1
Seventh edition

Jack Stroud Foster

FRIBA

Roger Greeno
BA [Hons], FCIOB, FIPHE, FRSA
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First published 1973 by Pearson Education Limited

Second edition published 1979
Third edition published 1983
Fourth edition published 1991
Fifth edition published 1994
Sixth edition published 2000
Seventh edition published 2007

Published 2013 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2007, Taylor & Francis.

The rights of Jack Stroud Foster and Roger Greeno to be identified as authors of this work have
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-13-197094-6 (pbk)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

Typeset in 9/11pt Times by 35

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Contents

Acknowledgements vi 6 Framed structures 118

Preface to seventh edition vii 6.1 Functional requirements 118
Foreword viii 6.2 Structural materials 119
6.3 Layout of frames 120
1 The nature of buildings and building 1 6.4 Building frames 120
1.1 The function of a building 1
1.2 The nature of building 1 7 Roof structures 138
1.3 Structural concepts 5 7.1 Functional requirements 138
1.4 Forms of construction 7 7.2 Types of roof structure 140
7.3 Flat roofs 141
2 The production of buildings 9 7.4 Pitched roofs 148
2.1 Methods of building 9
2.2 The industrialisation of building 12 8 Floor structures 171
2.3 Materials and the construction of 8.1 Functional requirements 171
building elements 15 8.2 Types of floor structure 172
2.4 Production of components 17 8.3 Ground floor construction 173
2.5 Assembly of components 20 8.4 Upper floor construction 181
2.6 Economic aspects of building
construction 27 9 Fireplaces, flues and chimneys 190
9.1 Function of fireplace and flue 190
3 Structural behaviour 32 9.2 Functional requirements 190
3.1 Structure and forces 32 9.3 Principles of fireplace design 191
3.2 The forces on a building and 9.4 Construction of fireplaces for
their effects 35 solid fuel appliances 193
3.3 The behaviour of building elements 9.5 Principles of flue design 197
under load 37 9.6 Construction of chimneys for solid
and oil fuels 199
4 Foundations 50 9.7 Construction of chimneys for
4.1 Functional requirements 50 gas-fired appliances 204
4.2 Soils and soil characteristics 50
4.3 Site exploration 52 10 Stairs 206
4.4 Foundation types 54 10.1 Functional requirements 206
10.2 Definition of terms 206
5 Walls and piers 65 10.3 Design of stairs 207
5.1 Functional requirements 65 10.4 Construction of stairs 210
5.2 Masonry walls 69
5.3 Brickwork 73 11 Temporary works 221
5.4 Blockwork 94 11.1 Support for excavations 221
5.5 Stonework 97 11.2 Centering 222
5.6 Frame walls 100 11.3 Formwork 223
5.7 External claddings 109
5.8 Partitions 111 Index 225
STRA_A01.qxd 3/19/08 10:13 AM Page vi
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the following for permission to reproduce
tables or to use drawings as a basis for illustrations in this
volume: Acier 6, June 1963, Centre Belgo-Luxembourgeois
d’Information de l’Acier; Building Elements, R Llewelyn
Davies and A Petty, Architectural Press; Correct Installation
of Domestic Solid Fuel Appliances, W C Moss, Solid Fuel
Advisory Service; The British Precast Concrete Federa-
tion; The Cement and Concrete Association; The Timber
Research and Development Association; Messrs Bawtry
Timber Company Limited; Finlock Gutters Limited;
Rainham Timber Engineering Company Limited; Messrs
R K Harington and A F M Mendoza. I am grateful also
to the Thurrock Flue Company for permission to use an
illustration from their catalogue to replace the out-of-date
example in figure 9.4.
With the permission of the Controller of HM Stationery
Office, I have drawn freely on Principles of Modern Build-
ing, Volumes 1 and 2, and on Building Research Establish-
ment Digests, Current Papers and Reports; and have quoted
from The Building Regulations. I have also drawn on British
Standard Specification and Codes of Practice with the
permission of the the British Standards Institution, from
whom official copies may be obtained. I also owe much
in chapters 1 and 2 to my reading of P A Stone’s excellent
book, Building Economy; in chapter 3 to my reading of
The Elements of Structure by W Morgan, and in chapter 7
to my reading of the excellent design manual on trussed
rafters published by Messrs MiTek Industries Ltd.
I am grateful to the librarian of the Chartered Institute
of Building for providing me with statistics for updating
material relating to the building industry.
I am also grateful to those who have prepared the
illustrations, especially to Jean Marshall, John Green and
George Dilks, the latter in particular being responsible for
the greater part of the work.
I must also express my appreciation to the editorial
team of the publishers and to Christopher Parkin, for
their help and co-operation in seeing the work through to
press.
JSF
STRA_A01.qxd 3/19/08 10:13 AM Page vii
Preface to 7th edition
Account has been taken in this edition of changes in British
Standards, the Approved Documents to the Building Regula-
tions, and of developments in constructional techniques;
in particular, advantage has been taken of the opportunity
to bring up to date much of the material. In this last task,
generous help has been received from many members of
the construction industry.
The comprehensive format of previous editions has been
preserved, and much of the traditional practices shown in the
earlier publications is retained for reference to our existing
buildings stock. In addition to the references mentioned
above, a considerable contribution is made by the com-
panion volumes in the Mitchell’s Building Series. Where
appropriate, the complimentary references are mentioned
in the text or noted at each chapter ending.
This volume is the introductory part of two volumes and
the content intended as preliminary reading to Structure
and Fabric Part 2.
STRA_A01.qxd 3/19/08 10:13 AM Page viii
Foreword
The two parts of Structure and Fabric, while being each
complete in itself, are intended to form one work in which
the second part extends and develops the material in the
first
The subject of the work has been treated basically under
the elements of construction. Most of these are interrelated
in a building and, as far as possible, this has been borne
in mind in the text. Ample cross-references are given to
facilitate a grasp of this interrelationship of parts. Contract
planning and site organisation, and the use of mechanical
plant, are both subjects relevant to constructional techniques
and methods used on the site and to the initial design pro-
cess for a building. These have been touched on in Part 1
and are developed in Part 2. The subject of fire protection
by its nature is extremely broad, but it is so closely linked
with the design and construction of buildings that it has
been covered on broad lines in Part 2 in order to give an
understanding of those factors that influence the nature and
form of fire protection, as well as to give detailed require-
ments in terms of construction.
In view of the continual production of new and improved
materials in various forms and the continuous development
of new constructional techniques, using both new and
traditional materials, the designer can no longer be depend-
ent on a tradition based on the use of a limited range of
structural materials, but must exercise his judgement and
choice in a wide, and ever-widening, realm of alternatives.
This necessitates a knowledge not only of the materials
themselves but of the nature and structural behaviour of
all the parts of a building of which those materials form a
part. Efficiency of structure and economy of material and
labour are basic elements of good design. They are of vital
importance today and should have a dominating influenc
on the design and construction of all buildings.
In the light of this, something is required to give an
understanding of the behaviour of structures under load
and of the functional requirements of the different parts;
to give some indication of their comparative economics
and efficient design, their limitations and the logical and
economic application of each. In writing the two parts it
has been the aim to deal with these aspects. The books are
not exemplars of constructional details. Those details which
are described and illustrated are meant to indicate the basic
methods that can be adopted and how different materials
can be used to fulfil various structural requirements. The
illustrations are generally not fully dimensioned; such
dimensions as are given are meant to give a sense of
‘scale’ to the parts rather than to lay down definite sizes in
particular circumstances. The function of the books is not
primarily to give information on how things are done in
detail, as this must be ever changing. Rather, the emphasis
is on why things are done, having regard particularly to
efficiency and economy in design. An understanding of
the function and behaviour of the parts and of the logical
and economic application of material should enable a
designer to prepare satisfactory constructional details in
the solution of his structural problems.
The books are intended primarily as textbooks for
architectural, building and surveying students, but it is
hoped that students of civil and structural engineering will
find them useful as a means of setting, within the context
of the building as a whole, their own studies in the realm
of building structures.
In books of this nature there is little scope for original
work. The task consists of gathering together existing
information and selecting that which appears to be import-
ant and relevant to the purpose of the book. The authors
acknowledge the debt they owe to others on whose work
they have freely drawn, much of which is scattered in the
journals of many countries. An endeavour has been made
to indicate the sources, either in the text or notes. Where
this has not been done is due to the fact that, over a period
of many years of lecturing on the subject, much material
has been gathered, both textual and illustrative, the sources
of which have not been traced. For any such omissions the
authors’ apologies are offered.
STRA_C01.qxd 9/29/06 11:03 Page 1
1 The nature of buildings
and building
This chapter explains the function of a building and the
nature of the building process, and introduces the basic
forms of building structure.
Buildings exist to meet a primary physical human need –
that of shelter. Shelter for man, his goods, his animals, and
all the mechanical and electrical equipment he requires for
his present-day existence. To this need, the whole develop-
ment of building technology and building techniques is
related. In addition to meeting this physical need, build-
ings and well-related groups of buildings may also satisfy
man’s desire for mental and spiritual satisfaction from
his environment. To achieve this, buildings must be well
designed as well as efficiently constructed.
1.1 The function of a building
A shelter is basically a protection from the elements and
the function of a building is to enclose space so that a
satisfactory internal environment may be created relative
to the purpose of the particular building. That is to say,
the space within the building must provide conditions
appropriate to the activities to take place within it, and be
satisfactory for the comfort and safety of any occupants.
Thus, the space will be designed in terms of size and shape,
and in terms of environmental factors, such as weather and
noise exclusion, and the provision of adequate heat, light
and air. The fabric of the building must be designed to
ensure that any standards in respect to these are attained.
1.1.1 Functional requirements
The building fabric can be seen, therefore, as the means by
which the natural or external environment may be modifie
to produce a satisfactory internal environment and for this
reason it has been called the environmental envelope. In
fulfilling this function the building and its parts must satisfy
certain requirements related to the environmental factors
on which the design of the spaces within it is based.1
These functional requirements are the provision of adequate
weather resistance, thermal insulation, sound insulation,
light and air. In addition, adequate strength and stability
must be provided together with adequate fire protection
for the occupants, contents and fabric of the building (see
figure 1.1). The importance of any of these will vary with
the particular part of the building and with its primary
function, but some indication of their relation to the various
parts is given in table 1.1. More detailed discussion of this
will be found in the following chapters.
1.2 The nature of building
Building is concerned with providing in physical form the
‘envelopes’ to the spaces within buildings and it has been
a primary activity of man throughout history. It is now, to
a large extent, an erection process in which the products of
other industries are assembled – a complex process, more
so than for most other products, both organisationally and
technically, involving on most jobs many trades and many
different operations, the majority of which are carried out
on site and subject, therefore, to the hazards of weather.
1.2.1 Building as an organisational process
Organisationally the building process is concerned with
the rational and economic use of the resources for building
activity – men, materials, machines, money – in order to
produce buildings in the quickest and most economic
manner. Practically the building process involves two broad
and related activities – design and production. The design
2 Chapter 1 The nature of buildings and building

Rain, snow
Wind K

Roof to provide Solar

adequate weather and radiation
fire resistance, and
thermal insulation

Heat
Walls and floors
to provide adequate
sound insulation
Noise
Fire spread
Walls to provide from an
adequate weather
resistance, and thermal
and noise insulation
Heat external
Walls and floors source
to provide adequate
Noise from
fire resistance
external source Floor to
provide adequate
thermal insulation Fire

Damp Damp
Walls and floor to provide adequate dam p resistance

Figure 1.1 Functional requirements of the building fabric

process is concerned with the size, shape and disposition
of the spaces within the building and defined by its fabric
and with the nature and form of the building fabric and its
services. The production process is concerned with the
nature and sequence of the operations that are involved in
the erection of the building fabric and through which the
resources for building are deployed.
The design of the building largely determines the
nature and sequence of the building operations. These in
turn will determine the methods that can be adopted in
carrying out the operations, and the operational methods
will determine the manner in which the building resources
can be deployed. Thus there is a significant relationship
between the design of the building and the use of the

Table 1.1 Functional requirements of elements of construction

Element Strength and stability Weather resistance Fire resistance Thermal insulation Sound insulation

External walls
Loadbearing ♦ ♦ O O X
Non-loadbearing X ♦ O O X

Internal walls
Loadbearing ♦ X O X ♦
Non-loadbearing X X O X ♦
Frame ♦ X O X X

Floor
Ground ♦ X X O X
Upper ♦ X O X O
Stairs ♦ X ♦ X X

Roof ♦ ♦ O O X

♦ Usually a critical factor O Usually an important factor X Not usually an im portant factor
STRA_C01.qxd 9/29/06 11:03 Page 3
building resources. The possibility of the rational and eco-
nomic use of these resources is, therefore, latent in the
building design and the implications of every design deci-
sion in respect of this must be exposed at the design stage
to ensure that such a rational use of resources can be made
at the production stage. Such an exposure is often difficul
because of the separation existing, in general, between
designer and constructor. The former, being divorced from
actual production activity, is not sufficiently aware of the
operational significance of many of his decisions; the lat-
ter, being divorced from the design process, is not always
able to relate his production knowledge and skill to design
decisions at a sufficiently early stage. This weakness in
the industry has been recognised and attempts to overcome
it have been made in building education and in various
ways in practice, which include negotiated contracts that
bring in the contractor at an early stage, and design and
build contracts offered by the contractor or, sometimes, by
the architect, and, in the field of building components, the
more recent practice referred to in section 2.1.5 of early
collaboration between the designer and the component
manufacturer.
1.2.2 Building as a technology
In the past, a limited number of available materials resulted
in a limited number of structural forms and methods of
construction which, after a long period, became fully
developed and standardised in practice. These could be,
and were, then used on an empirical basis established on
their proved performance in use. This is no longer pos-
sible nor, indeed, has it been for a long time.
Significance of materials The introduction of new
materials, which is now a continuing and expanding pro-
cess, with properties and characteristics differing from those
of the traditional materials, requires the rapid development
of new building techniques and new forms of structure
appropriate to the nature of these materials. At the same
time it is necessary to develop a better understanding of the
older materials so that they may be used more efficientl
and effectively. Demands on the building industry require
an increase in the productivity of the building process which,
among other things, may necessitate the development of
new techniques. Traditional building materials are bulky and
heavy and, therefore, relatively difficult to handle on site
and expensive to transport. This has encouraged the search
for new, lighter materials which will fulfil the same or
even greater range of functional requirements than the old.
Such problems and many others such as these cannot be
solved with the aid of empirical knowledge but require a
scientific approach as a basis of investigation and develop-
ment. For this reason building, of necessity, has been to a
The nature of building 3
large extent transformed from a craft-based industry into
a modern technology with its repository of knowledge
based on scientific principles applied to the problems of
building, and using scientific methods of investigation and
research.
Building construction That part of building technology
dealing primarily with the design of the fabric of build-
ings and the manner in which it is put together is known
as building construction and draws, in particular, on the
sciences of materials and structure, on the environmental
sciences and on building economics. In the past this sub-
ject was concerned exclusively with the traditional forms
of known and proved performance that could continue to be
used in precisely the same way, with the same materials,
to provide the same performance. For reasons already given,
this is no longer a reasonable approach. New materials with
new properties, new performance standards required to be
met by the fabric, and the need for greater productivity and
economy in building all make it essential that the subject
be dealt with as a technology and be considered as a part
of the whole field of building technology.
The environmental requirements of the internal spaces
set the performance standards of the building fabric and
the attainment of these standards sets the practical problems
in fabric design. The task of solving these problems is
largely that of selecting materials, components and struc-
tures that will meet these performance standards in the
most economical way. The designer must know the limits
within which his choices must be made in terms of the
properties of his materials, of structural principles and of
the economics of the end result, and these he will derive
from building technology.
The architect, however, in trying to meet performance
standards also seeks architectural significance for his build-
ings. This he must do through the fabric, for it is this that
defines and gives character and form to the spaces within
it. The building form develops from the functional require-
ments of the building as a shelter, the materials of which it
is built, the type of construction used for the fabric and the
methods used in its production. The architect, therefore,
makes choices in these spheres not only in the light of the
required performance standards but also in the light of the
architectural end he seeks.
Choice of materials The choice of materials for the
building fabric and the manner in which they are used
depends to a large extent upon their properties relative
to the environmental requirements of the building and
upon their strength properties. The strength the fabric
of the building must possess in order to function as an
‘environmental envelope’ is derived from materials of
appropriate strength used in accordance with known
STRA_C01.qxd 9/29/06 11:03 Page 4
4 Chapter 1 The nature of buildings and building
structural principles. Thus, an appreciation of building
construction and the ability to devise new forms of con-
struction is developed from a knowledge of materials,
an understanding of structural principles and the overall
behaviour of structures under load.
Green materials In addition to consideration of the
requirements of the internal environment of a particular
building, as referred to above, consideration is now being
given in the choice of materials to their impact on the
wider local and global environments, in terms of their
possible detrimental effect on resources, energy and health
throughout the life of the materials. This takes into account
such matters as how long a material will last and whether
or not it can be recycled or reused, and how much energy
is expended in the whole process of producing from the
basic material one that is ready for use; the effect on a
locality by, for example, mining operations to win the basic
material; the effect on a wider scale of pollution caused by
the processing and production of a material; and the effect
of these on the health of those involved in its produc-
tion and use. Some materials have a smaller detrimental
impact than others in some or all of these areas and are
called ‘green’ materials, the use of which leads to ‘green’
construction. (Reference should also be made to MBS:
External Components, section 1.1, on this topic.)
Building is no longer limited to a number of standard-
ised techniques based on the use of a few well-known
materials, but involves an understanding of the properties
and characteristics of an increasing number of materials,
of structural principles and of building economics so that
existing techniques may be used more efficiently and new
forms of construction may be developed for the solution
of environmental and structural problems. For purposes of
current practice, and as illustrations of the ways in which
performance standards are met by the component parts of
buildings produced by current techniques, it is necessary
to study current methods of construction such as those
discussed in this series.2
Buildability Section 1.2.1, ‘Building as an organisational
process’, considers the traditional separation of building
designer and building constructor. This can lead to some
disharmony and communications difficulties between the
two parties, particularly as the established approach to pro-
curement is by competitive tendering. It almost guarantees
that the architect and the constructor have no previous
working relationship. At worst, there is no common ground
for a mutual understanding.
Communications may be improved where the client
engages a design and build partnership. With this con-
tractual relationship the designer, specifier and building
manager are within one organisation, but the designer still
needs some perception of the practicalities of construction.
This concept has become known as the ‘buildability’ factor;
the process of ensuring that building design, specificatio
of materials, elements of construction and associated details
are not conflicting and incompatible with the method of
construction. A very simple example is ensuring that over-
all window and door sizes are dimensionally co-ordinated
to standard sizes of masonry units. This reduces time
consuming and visually unacceptable cutting of bricks.
Buildability does require knowledge of construction and
project planning by the architect, and an appreciation of
the need for the design/production relationship.
Repetitive and uniform construction is economic and
simple, providing less opportunity for errors and delays.
However, buildability does not necessarily limit architec-
tural expression in building design. Many modern buildings
are perceived as sculptures. The Swiss Re and the GLA
buildings in London are geometric creations produced
with the benefit of CAD analysis of the practicalities of
assembly. Buildability is not design restrictive where the
architecture and construction professions work together
to harmonise their objectives.
Sustainability The idea of sustainable construction has
evolved from an appreciation and understanding of the
misuse of resources, when related to creation of buildings
that have a limited design life. Too many buildings have
been demolished when their initial function ceases. They
become redundant due to a lack of adaptability for other
purposes.
Sustainability, versatility and adaptability of buildings
as a design criteria are apparent in most modern designs.
However, it has taken some time to develop. In 1968, the
designer Robert Propst3 published a paper on the potential
for designing-in a facility for different uses and functions
within the long life cycle of a building. Thereafter, the idea
gained momentum and, during the 1970s, the architect Alex
Gordon became associated with promotion of the design
notions, ‘long-life’, ‘loose-fit’ and ‘low energy’.
‘Long-life’ relates to the design of the structural frame
and its ability to support and provide adequate accom-
modation for inevitable advances in services engineering
(cabling, ducting, etc.), change in visual/aesthetic values
and architectural trends (cladding, facades, etc.).
‘Loose-fit’ is not just exterior facings and claddings but
also provision for changes in interior layout (demountable
partitions, floor sockets, false/raised floors, false/suspended
ceilings, etc.).
‘Low-energy’ is the need to upgrade energy-consuming
appliances with regard for carbon and noxious gas emis-
sions (boilers, air conditioning, refrigeration units, etc.).
This becomes a requirement where a building changes
use or function and regulatory controls are applied by the
STRA_C01.qxd 9/29/06 11:03 Page 5
local authority planning and building control departments.
‘Low-energy’ also applies to enhancing the external enve-
lope, not so much for aesthetic reasons but to improve the
thermal insulation.
The objective is to ensure that buildings are both
resourceful and a sound long-term investment. The social
and economic cost of a site having an ongoing cycle of
build/demolish/build/demolish, etc. over the short term is
not considered environmentally acceptable.
1.3 Structural concepts
The building fabric, having been broadly conceived in
terms of an environmental envelope, must be of such a
nature that it can safely withstand all the forces to which
the building will be subjected in use. In other words, it
must be developed as a structure, a fabrication that for
practical purposes does not move in any appreciable
manner under its loads. Buildings vary widely in form and
appearance but throughout history they have all developed
from three basic concepts of structure. These are known as
skeletal, solid and surface structures.
1.3.1 Skeletal structure
As the term implies, this consists essentially of a skeleton
or framework that supports all the loads and resists all the
forces acting on the building and through which all loads
are transferred to the soil on which the building rests.
Simple examples are the North American Indian and the
mid-European wigwams, in which a framework of poles or
branches supports a skin or treebark enclosing membrane
(figure 1.2). This elementary form has developed through-
out history into frameworks that consist essentially of pairs
of uprights supporting some form of spanning member,
as shown in figure 1.2. These are spaced apart and tied
together by longitudinal members to form the volume of
the building. In these frames the vertical supports are in
compression (see page 33). Skeletal structures in which
the floors are suspended from the top of the building by
vertical supports in tension are generally called suspended
or suspension structures. Other forms of the skeletal
structure are the frameworks or lattices of interconnected
members, known as grid structures, an example of which
is shown in figure 1.2.
Space enclosure By its nature the skeleton frame
cannot enclose4 the space within it as an environmental
envelope and other, enclosing, elements must be associated
with it. The significance of this clear distinction between
the supporting element and the enclosing element is that
the latter can be made relatively light and thin and is not
fixed in its position relative to the skeleton frame – it may
Structural concepts 5
be placed outside or inside the frame or may fit into the
panels of the frame as can be seen in examples of con-
temporary steel or concrete frame structures. The practical
implications of this distinction are discussed in chapter 6.
Skeletal structures are suitable for high- and low-rise, and
for long- and short-span buildings.
1.3.2 Solid structure
In this form of structure the wall acts as both the enclos-
ing and supporting element. It falls, therefore, within the
category of loadbearing wall structures, an inclusive term
implying a structure in which all loads are transferred to
the soil through the walls. The characteristic of this par-
ticular form is a wall of substantial thickness due to the
nature of the walling materials and the manner in which
they are used, such as in masonry and mass concrete work.
The Eskimo igloo is an interesting example of this type
of construction (figure 1.2), although for technical and
economic reasons circular plan forms have been less used
than rectangular forms for buildings constructed in this
way. Solid construction in the form of brick and stone wall
buildings has been used over the centuries and, in certain
circumstances, in its various modern forms it is still a valid
and economic type of construction for both high- and low-
rise buildings if these are of limited span permitting types
of floor structure, which impose an even distribution of
loading on the wall (figure 1.2).
Roof structures are not vaulted over in solid con-
struction, even over limited spans such as that of the
Eskimo igloo, due to the problems of construction and the
existence of cheaper, lighter and more quickly erected
alternatives.
1.3.3 Surface structure
Surface structures fall into two broad groups: (i) those in
which the elements are made of thin plates of solid material,
which are given necessary stiffness by being curved or
bent, and (ii) those in which the elements consist of very
thin flexible sheet membranes suspended or stretched in
tension over supporting members. A Zulu woven branch
and mud hut (figure 1.2) and modern reinforced concrete
shell and folded slab structures are typical of the first.
In this form both the wall and the roof may act as the
enclosing and supporting structure, although the manner
in which particular materials are used results in quite thin
wall and roof elements. Those in the second group are
used for roofs and are known as tension structures. One
form is typified by the traditional Bedouin tent (figure 1.2)
of which delightful modern applications were first made
by Frei Otto5 for roofing temporary exhibition buildings.
Utilising suitably developed membranes, this form can
6 Chapter 1 The nature of buildings and building

Shed frame Rigid frame

Wigwam Building frame

Suspension structure Grid structure Transfer of loads

Igloo Cellular structure

Cross wall structure Transfer of loads

Zulu hut
Shell vault
Shell dome Folded or bent slab

Bedouin tent Suspension roof Air supported structure

Figure 1.2 Structural concepts

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now be used for roofing permanent structures, e.g. the
Millennium Dome. Another form in this group, using
compressed air as the supporting medium for similar types
of membrane, dispenses with compression members over
which, in the tent form, the membrane is stretched. In
this the membrane is fixed and sealed at ground level, is
tensioned into shape, supported by air pumped into the
interior and maintained under slight pressure (figure 1.2).
Alternatively, inflated tubes may be incorporated which
form supporting ribs to the membrane stretched between
them. These are called air-stabilised or pneumatic structures.
In a third form in this group the membrane consists of steel
cables suspended from supports and carrying a thin applied
cladding and weatherproof covering (figure 1.2).
Surface roof structures are particularly economic over
wide spans and for a more detailed consideration of them
reference should be made to Part 2.
1.4 Forms of construction
Ways of constructing the building fabric, that is to say the
manner in which it is formed of different materials, vary
with:
1 the structural concept on which it is based;
2 the nature of the materials used; and
3 the manner in which the materials are combined.
For example, if solid loadbearing wall construction
is adopted this may be constructed of masonry units or
of concrete; the type of masonry units can vary and can
be combined in different ways and the concrete may be
formed into walls by in situ casting or by precasting.6 The
form of construction will also vary with the functional
requirements of particular parts of the fabric since these
may be satisfied by various materials in varying combina-
tions. As explained in chapter 5, for example, adequate
weather resistance can be provided in external walls by
using either solid masonry of considerable thickness or
a thinner wall incorporating a cavity, which prevents the
passage of moisture from the external, wet face to the
interior face of the wall.
Different forms of construction are, fundamentally,
organisational devices used for economic reasons. They
vary with the availability and the relative costs of building
resources, especially of labour and materials, and develop
for reasons of economy of time, labour and materials.
1.4.1 Economic aspects
Over the course of history building materials have been,
and very largely still are, heavy and bulky, and the earliest
buildings were constructed of local materials in the
Forms of construction 7
absence of a cheap and easy means of transport. As the
supply of these materials became locally depleted and the
need to import from other areas arose, the economic use
of materials became increasingly important and new forms
of construction were introduced, developed from a better
understanding of these materials, in which they were used
more economically, thus requiring less labour in obtaining
them and less transport.
Economy of labour in actual building also exercises
considerable influence on forms of construction, because
of either rising costs of labour or scarcity of labour. Thus,
as building passed from the ‘self-build’ stage of the early
building days into the ‘contractor-built’ era, involving paid
labour, forms of construction developed in which less
labour was required, for example the development of brick
construction to supersede labour-intensive forms such as
traditional rammed earth construction for walling.
As well as the actual cost of labour the relative costs
of labour and materials can have a significant effect
upon forms of construction. Where the cost of labour is
considerably higher than that of materials, methods tend
to develop in which the labour content of the building
operations is reduced at the expense of an increase in
the amount of material used. An example is the American
‘plank and beam’ form of timber floor and roof con-
struction, which uses large, widely spaced joists or beams
spanned by thick boarding involving a greater timber con-
tent than forms of floor construction shown in chapter 8
but involving less labour in fabrication.
Scarcity of labour, particularly skilled labour, has a
similar effect to that of rising costs of labour. Both
bring about forms of construction which are economic of
labour, such as the use of concrete blocks instead of
bricks for masonry work because these are quicker to lay
(see page 94) or the use of modern trussed rafters (see
page 154) for timber roof construction, which greatly
reduces the labour content of site fabrication compared
with that of traditional methods. Because of the scarcity of
plasterers in the past, the use of plasterboard in place of
lath and plaster has become an accepted technique.
Forms of construction that reduce labour content
often decrease the time required for the operations, that is,
they result in increased productivity. When scarcity of
labour and the need to increase productivity are current
problems of the building industry the development of new
forms of construction requiring less labour is an important
exercise. But production can also be increased by good
organisation as well as by changes in construction and this
has led to a general re-appraisal of the whole process of
production in the field of building. This is considered in
the next chapter under section 2.2, ‘The industrialisation
of building’, page 12.
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8 Chapter 1 The nature of buildings and building
Notes
1 These environmental factors are discussed fully in MBS:
Environment and Services and standards relating to them, which
are normally required to be met, are given.
2 The types and nature of materials used for building work are
covered fully in MBS: Materials.
3 The Office, a Facility Based on Change, Robert Propst, 1968.
4 Enclose here implies also the division of the internal space.
5 See Frei Otto – Structures by Conrad Roland, Longman 1972.
6 ‘Cast in situ’ means cast in the actual position to be occupied
in the completed structure. ‘Precast’ means cast in a mould in
a position other than that which will be occupied in the structure
and requiring to be placed in position.