11) a) i) State the Kepler’s laws. Discuss its importance in satellite communications.

Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around its primary (the earth) will be an
ellipse. This ellipse has two focal points (foci) F1 and F2 as shown in the figure below. Center of
mass of the earth will always present at one of the two foci of the ellipse.

If the distance from the center of the object to a point on its elliptical path is considered, then the
farthest point of an ellipse from the center is called as apogee and the shortest point of an ellipse
from the center is called as perigee.
Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as −
e=√a2−b2/a
Where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of the ellipse respectively.
For an elliptical path, the value of eccentricity (e) is always lie in between 0 and 1, i.e. 0 < e < 1,
since a is greater than b. Suppose, if the value of eccentricity (e) is zero, then the path will be no
more in elliptical shape, rather it will be converted into a circular shape.

Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time, the area covered by the satellite will be
same with respect to center of mass of the earth.

Assume, the satellite covers p1 and p2 distances in the same time interval. Then, the areas B1 and B2
covered by the satellite at those two instances are equal.

Kepler’s third law states that, the square of the periodic time of an elliptical orbit is proportional to
the cube of its semi major axis length. Mathematically,
Kepler's laws of planetary motion mark an important turning point in the transition from geo-
centrism to heliocentrism. They provide the first quantitative connection between the planets,
including earth. But even more they mark a time when the important questions of the times were
changing.

ii. Explain satellite launching and the types of launch vehicles.

The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching process. During this
process, from earth stations we can control the operation of satellite. Mainly, there are four stages in
launching a satellite.

 First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel for lifting the satellite
along with launch vehicle from ground.

 Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller rockets. These are
ignited after completion of first stage. They have their own fuel tanks in order to send the
satellite into space.

 Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the satellite
fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the satellite and it protects the satellite.

 Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch vehicle, when it has
been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”.
This orbit sends the satellite higher into space.

When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its subsystems like solar panels and
communication antennas gets unfurled. Then the satellite takes its position in the orbit with other
satellites.

Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on the requirement.
Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets. Following are the two types of satellite
launch vehicles.
Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV) and Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
b).i. Discuss the effect of non spherical earth atmospheric drag on the satellite orbit.

Atmospheric drag is the atmospheric force (friction) acting opposite to the relative motion of an
object. Atmospheric drag is particularly important for space flight and research as it both hinders an
object (often a rocket-propelled craft) exiting the atmosphere, and also pulls orbital objects back
towards Earth over time.

Atmospheric drag, sometimes called air resistance, is the force put on an object by the atmosphere
surrounding it.

In orbital space crafts, like space stations and telescopes, atmospheric drag caused by collision with
gas molecules is the main reason for orbital decay, whereby the orbital trajectory of an object
degrades overtime until ultimately it collides with the object it is orbiting. This is addressed through
corrective orbital boosts, which reposition the object on its orbital trajectory.

Atmospheric drag is affected by the density of the atmosphere—a more dense atmosphere will cause
more atmospheric drag than a lower density one. At higher altitudes, the atmosphere is less dense.

Solar activity such as solar radiation pressure increases atmospheric density as solar energy causes
the air molecules in the relatively denser lower atmosphere to rise into the less dense upper
atmosphere. Thus space weather, like solar wind, has a direct impact on the atmospheric drag orbital
objects experience.

In rocket propulsion, atmospheric drag works to keep objects from penetrating and exiting the upper
atmosphere and entering orbit; this significant force must be accounted for when designing and
launching space crafts to penetrate the atmosphere.

In fact, in space missions, atmospheric drag is the single greatest obstacle to getting objects like a
space shuttle into orbital space as it must penetrate multiple atmospheric layers such as the
mesosphere and thermosphere.

Orbital elements like spacecrafts, space stations, and satellite orbits, though in relatively thinner air
density, nonetheless must account for atmospheric drag since atmospheric drag is the main cause of
orbital decay, a pressing concern for all objects in circular orbit. This must be addressed regularly by
orbital mechanics according to certain time scales.

Orbital decay caused by atmospheric drag is characterized by positive feedback, meaning the more it
affects an object, the more that object is subject to its force. This is the case because:
1. Atmospheric drag brings objects closer to the objects they are orbiting, lowering their
altitude.
2. The lower an object’s altitude, the denser the air surrounding it.
3. This increases the drag on the object.
4. As this feedback increases, the attendant heat also increases.
 5. The object ultimately burns up as the atmosphere surrounding it becomes too dense.

ii) Explain how station keeping helps to keep a geostationary satellite in its correct Orbital slot.

The basic shape of the structure depends of the method of stabilization employed to keep the satellite
stable and pointing in the desired direction, usually to keep the antennas properly oriented toward
earth. Two methods are commonly employed: spin stabilization and three axis or body
stabilization. Both methods are used for GSO and NGSO satellites
Spin Stabilization
A spin stabilized satellite is usually cylindrical in shape, because the satellite is required to be
mechanically balanced about an axis, so that it can be maintained in orbit by spinning on its axis. For
GSO satellites, the spin axis is maintained parallel to the spin axis of the earth, with spin rates in the
range of 30 to 100 revolutions per minute. The spinning satellite will maintain its correct attitude
without additional effort, unless disturbance torques are introduced. External forces such as solar
radiation, gravitational gradients, and meteorite impacts can generate undesired torques. Internal
effects such as motor bearing friction and antenna subsystem movement can also produce unwanted
torque in the system. Impulse type thrusters, or jets, are used to maintain spin rate and correct any
wobbling or nutation to the satellite spin axis. The entire spacecraft rotates for spin-stabilized
satellites that employ omnidirectional antennas. When directional antennas are used, which is the
prevalent case, the antenna subsystem must be despun, so that the antenna is kept properly pointed
towards earth. The figure shows a typical implementation of a despun platform on a spin-stabilized
satellite.

Three-axis Stabilization
A three-axis stabilized satellite is maintained in space with stabilizing elements for each of the three
axes, referred to as roll, pitch, and yaw, in conformance with the definitions first used in the aircraft
industry. The entire body of the spacecraft remains fixed in space, relative to the earth, which is why
the three-axis stabilized satellite is also referred to as a bodystabilized satellite. Active attitude
control is required with three-axis stabilization. Control jets or reaction wheels are used, either
separately or in combination, to provide correction and control for ach of the three axes. A reaction
wheel is basically a flywheel that absorbs the undesired torques that would shift spacecraft
orientation. Fuel is expended for both the control jets and for the reaction wheels, which must
periodically be ‘unloaded’ of momentum energy that builds up in the wheel. The three-axis stabilized
satellite does not need to be symmetric or cylindrical, and most tend be box-like, with numerous
appendages attached. Typical appendages include antenna systems and solar cell panels, which are
often unfurled after placement at the on-orbit location. The Figure shows the geometry of the stable
points and the resulting drift patterns.

12. a) i. Explain the difference types of transmission losses in satellite communication with necessary
expression. Write the link power budget equation.
In any satellite transmission, there are always losses from various sources. Some of those losses may
be constant, others are dependent of statistical data and others vary with the weather conditions,
especially with rain.

PROPAGATION LOSSES
There are three major issues to take into account as far as propagation losses concern.
• Free space losses: Free space loss is the dominant component in the loss of the strength of the
signal. It doesn’t refer to attenuation of signal, but to its spreading through space.
• Atmospheric losses: This kind of losses derives from the absorption of energy by atmospheric
gases. They can assume two different types:
• Atmospheric attenuation;
• Atmospheric absorption.

• Pointing losses: There are two ways for misalignment:

• Off-axis loss at the satellite;
• Off-axis loss at the GS.
The first one is considered during the design of the satellite.
The second type of misalignment is the antenna pointing loss and it is usually quite small, not
reaching even 1 dB, being this value a good approximation for pointing misalignment loss. Antenna
misalignment losses (AML) are calculated using statistical data, so these values are an approximation
based on real data observed in several GS. Ergo, these values are not calculated, but estimated.

LOCAL LOSSES
These losses refer to loss of signal quality in each ground station.

Link Power Budget Equation:

In satellite communication systems, there are two types of power calculations. Those are transmitting
power and receiving power calculations. In general, these calculations are called as Link budget
calculations. The unit of power is decibel.

There are two types of link budget calculations since there are two links namely, uplink and
downlink.

Earth Station Uplink: It is the process in which earth is transmitting the signal to the satellite and
satellite is receiving it. Its mathematical equation can be written as

where,

Here, Losses represent the satellite receiver feeder losses. The losses which depend upon the
frequency are all taken into the consideration.

The EIRP value should be as low as possible for effective UPLINK. And this is possible when we
get a clear sky condition.

Here we have used the (subscript) notation “U”, which represents the uplink phenomena.

Satellite Downlink: In this process, satellite sends the signal and the earth station receives it. The
equation is same as the satellite uplink with a difference that we use the abbreviation “D”
everywhere instead of “U” to denote the downlink phenomena. Its mathematical equation can be
written as;
where,

Here, all the losses that are present around earth stations.

In the above equation we have not included the signal bandwidth B. However, if we include that the
equation will be modified as follows.

we can write the loss equation for free sky as

where,

12. a) ii) Discuss the different types of noise and their significance in the design of a satellitelink with
necessary expression.
Add from 4.9 from book

Noise temperature is useful concept in communication receivers, since it provides a way of

determining how much thermal noise is generated by active and passive devices in the receiving
system. At microwave frequencies, a black body with a physical temperature, Tp degrees kelvin,
generates electrical noise over a wide bandwidth. The noise power is given by
Pn=k TpBn
where
k=Boltzmann’s constant=1.39x10-23J/K=-228.6dBW/K/Hz
Tp=Physical temperature of source in kelvin degrees
Bn=noise bandwidth in which the noise power is measured, in hertz

12. b) i. Explain the following: input backoff, output backoff, earth station HPA and combined uplink and
downlink. C/N ratio.
Both the Output backoff (OPBO) and Input Backoff (IPBO) are used to determine the operating
power levels required in a satellite transponder TWTA or RF Power Amplifier to function in linear
region.

Output Back-Off (OPBO) is the power level at the output of RF amplifier relative to maximum
output level possible using the RF amplifier.

EXAMPLE:
Maximum output level = +40dBm
Measured output level of RF Amplifier = +34dBm
Output Backoff (OPBO)= 6dB
Input Back-Off: In a power amplifier, a measure of how far you must reduce the input power in
order to receive the desired output linearity and power. Stated differently, the ratio between
the input power that delivers maximum power to the input power that delivers the desired linearity.
Example:
Input power level causes max. output power = -20dBm
Actual input power level = -25dBm
Input backoff (IPBO)= 5dB

OPBO is used even to calculate inter-modulation distortion power levels at the output of
TWTA/SSPA. For SSPA output backoff is same as 1dB compression point and for TWTA output
backoff is same as saturated output power.

In a satellite link calculation, input backoff is calculated by taking difference between actual flux
density and the saturated flux density. Also calculated Output backoff help calculated actual EIRP of
the satellite.

The high-power amplifier (HPA) provides the RF power for a payload downlink. Before the signal
goes to the HPA, the preamplifier boosts the signal to a level proper for input to the HPA. We may
call these two together the HPA subsystem. There are two types of HPA subsystem: the traveling-
wave tube amplifier (TWTA) subsystem and the solid-state power amplifier (SSPA).

The HPA is used for the final power amplification of the digital RF signal in C-band/Ku band that is
fed to the antenna.

The important parameters of HPAs:

 Frequency range
 Output power at flange
 Bandwidth
 Gain variation (1.0 db (max.) for 40 MHz (narrow band)
 2.50 db for the full bandwidth

A ground station, Earth station, or Earth terminal is a terrestrial radio station designed for
extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft (constituting part of the ground segment of the
spacecraft system), or reception of radio waves from astronomical radio sources. Ground stations
may be located either on the surface of the Earth, or in its atmosphere.[1] Earth stations communicate
with spacecraft by transmitting and receiving radio waves in the super high frequency (SHF) or
extremely high frequency (EHF) bands (e.g. microwaves).

The combined C/N ratios give the information of uplink and downlink both. The complete satellite
circuit consists of an uplink and a downlink. Noise will be introduced on the uplink at the satellite
receiver input.
Carrier to noise ratio calculation:

 Denoting the noise power per unit bandwidth by PNU and the average carrier at the same
point by PRU, the carrier-to- noise ratio on the uplink is (C/No)U = (PRU/PNU).

 The carrier power at the end of the space link is shown as PR, which of course is also the
received carrier power for the downlink. This is equal to Æ´ times the carrier power input
at the satellite, where Æ´ is the system power gain from satellite input to earth station
input, as it includes the satellite transponder and transmits antenna gains, the downlink
losses, and the earth station receives antenna gain and feeder losses.

 The noise at the satellite input also appears at the earth station input multiplied by Æ´, and
in addition, the earth station introduces its own noise, denoted by PND. Thus the end-of-link
noise is Æ´ PNU PND.
 The combined noise-to-carrier ratio value by No /C, the uplink value by (No /C)U, and the
downlink value by (No /C)D then,

ii. For a satellite circuit the individual link carrier-to-noise spectral density ratios are:uplink 100
dB Hz; Downlink: 87 dB Hz. Calculate the combined U/No ratio.
 13.a). i. Compare pre-assigned FDMA and demand-
assigned FDMA.

https://www.globalspec.com/reference/76444/203279/14-4-demand-assigned-fdma

Frequency slots may be preassigned to analog and digital signals, and to illustrate the method, analog
signals in the FDM/FM/FDMA format will be considered first. As the acronyms indicate, the signals
are frequency-division multiplexed, frequency modulated (FM), with FDMA to the satellite. It will
be recalled that the voice-frequency (telephone) signals are first SSBSC amplitude modulated onto
voice carriers in order to generate the single sidebands needed for the FDM. For the purpose of
illustration, each earth station will be assumed to transmit a 60-channel supergroup. Each 60-channel
supergroup is then frequency modulated onto a carrier which is then upconverted to a frequency in
the satellite uplink band.
Whereas, in the demand-assigned mode of operation, the transponder frequency bandwidth is
subdivided into a number of channels. A channel is assigned to each carrier in use, giving rise to the
single-channel-per-carrier mode of operation discussed in the preceding section. As in the
preassigned access mode, carriers may be frequency modulated with analog information signals,
these being designated FM/SCPC, or they may be phase modulated with digital information signals,
these being designated as PSK/SCPC.
Demand assignment may be carried out in a number of ways. In the polling method, a master earth
station continuously polls all the earth stations in sequence, and if a call request is encountered,
frequency slots are assigned from the pool of available frequencies. The polling delay with such a
system tends to become excessive as the number of participating earth stations increases.
Instead of using a polling sequence, earth stations may request calls through the master earth station
as the need arises. This is referred to as centrally controlled random access. The requests go over a
digital orderwire, which is a narrowband digital radio link or a circuit through a satellite transponder
reserved for this purpose. Frequencies are assigned, if available, by the master station, and when the
call is completed, the frequencies are returned to the pool. If no frequencies are available, the
blocked call requests may be placed in a queue, or a second call attempt may be initiated by the
requesting station.

13. b) i) Compare the uplink power requirements of FDMA and TDMA

ii. Explain principles of Code-Division multiple Access.
http://www.faadooengineers.com/online-study/post/eee/satellite-communications/1147/comparison-
of-uplink-power-requirements-for-fdma-and-tdma

14.a). Write short notes on: i. Community antenna TV system ii. TVRO system
For TVRO : http://www.geosats.com/learntvro.html

b) Explain the major test equipments required at an earth station.

The earth segment of satellite communication system mainly consists of two earth stations. Those are
transmitting earth station and receiving earth station.

The transmitting earth station transmits the information signals to satellite. Whereas, the receiving
earth station receives the information signals from satellite. Sometimes, the same earth station can be
used for both transmitting and receiving purposes.

In general, earth stations receive the baseband signals in one of the following forms. Voice signals
and video signals either in analog form or digital form.

Initially, the analog modulation technique, named FM modulation is used for transmitting both voice
and video signals, which are in analog form. Later, digital modulation techniques, namely Frequency
Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) are used for transmitting those signals. Because,
both voice and video signals are used to represent in digital by converting them from analog.

The block diagram of digital earth station

1. Terrestrial Interface:
Earth station is a vital element in any satellite communication network.
The function of an earth station is to receive information from or transmit information to, the satellite
network in the most cost-effective and reliable manner while retaining the desired signal quality. The
design of earth station configuration depends upon many factors and its location. But it is
fundamentally governed by its
Location which are listed below,
• In land
• On a ship at sea
• Onboard aircraft
The factors are
• Type of services
• Frequency bands used
• Function of the transmitter
• Function of the receiver
• Antenna characteristics
2. Transmitter and Receiver
Any earth station consists of four major subsystems
• Transmitter
• Receiver
• Antenna
• Tracking equipment
Two other important subsystems are
• Terrestrial interface equipment
• Power supply
The earth station depends on the following parameters
• Transmitter power
• Choice of frequency
• Gain of antenna
• Antenna efficiency
• Antenna pointing accuracy
• Noise temperature
The functional elements of a basic digital earth station are shown in the below figure
Digital information in the form of binary digits from terrestrial networks enters earth station and is
then processed (filtered, multiplexed, formatted etc.) by the base band equipment.
• The encoder performs error correction coding to reduce the error rate, by introducing extra digits
into digital stream generated by the base band equipment. The extra digits carry information.
• In satellite communication, I.F carrier frequency is chosen at 70 MHz for communication using a
36 MHz transponder bandwidth and at 140 MHz for a transponder bandwidth of 54 or 72 MHz.
• On the receive side, the earth station antenna receives the low-level modulated R.F carrier in the
downlink frequency spectrum.
• The low noise amplifier (LNA) is used to amplify the weak received signals and improve the signal
to Noise ratio (SNR). The error rate requirements can be met more easily.
• R.F is to be reconverted to I.F at 70 or 140 MHz because it is easier design a demodulation to work
at these frequencies than 4 or 12 GHz.
• The demodulator estimates which of the possible symbols was transmitted based on observation of
the received if carrier.
• The decoder performs a function opposite that of the encoder. Because the sequence of symbols
recovered by the demodulator may contain errors, the decoder must use the uniqueness of the
redundant digits introduced by the encoder to correct the errors and recover information-bearing
digits.
• The information stream is fed to the base-band equipment for processing for delivery to the
terrestrial network.
• The tracking equipments track the satellite and align the beam towards it to facilitate
communication.
3. Earth Station Tracking System:
Tracking is essential when the satellite drift, as seen by an earth station antenna is a significant
fraction of an earth station’s antenna beam width.
An earth station’s tracking system is required to perform some of the functions such as
i)Satellite acquisition
ii)Automatic tracking
iii)Manual tracking
iv)Program tracking.
15. a). i. Explain with the neat diagram the indoor and outdoor units of DBS home receiver.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/satellite_communication/satellite_communication_examples_of_eart
h_stations.htm
ii. Discuss the satellite mobile services.
Mobile satellite services (MSS) refers to networks of communications satellites intended for use with
mobile and portable wireless telephones. ... A telephone connection using MSS is similar to a cellular
telephone link, except the repeaters are in orbit around the earth, rather than on the surface.

Typically, providers of satellite mobile communications use Geostationary Orbit (GEO), Medium
Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites or Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites to relay signals up from a handset
or terminal and back down to a ground station where the signal interfaces with the public telephone
system or the internet.

What Are Satellites Used For?

 Television. Satellites send television signals directly to homes, but they also are the backbone
of cable and network TV. ...
 Telephones. ...
 Navigation. ...
 Business & finance. ...
 Weather. ...
 Climate & environmental monitoring. ...
 Safety. ...
 Land stewardship.

Benefits of mobile satellite system

The area of coverage is a good advantage in satellite base communication which far exceeds that of
terrestrial system.
 The speed to deliver new services to the market is a merit of satellite communication over
that of terrestrial systems.
 Satellite - to - satellite communication links can be designed with great precision because the
conditions between communicating satellites are more time invariant than those between two
terrestrial wireless antennas.
 Transmission cost is independent of distance, within the satellite’s area of coverage. In
terrestrial wireless system more cost will be incurred to cover as much area as satellite does.
 Broadcast, multicast and point to point applications are already accommodated in satellite
communication systems.
 Very high bandwidths or data rates are available to satellite communication users.
 The quality of transmission is normally high in satellite communication than terrestrial
although satellite links are subject to short-term outages or degradation.

b). Explain the following satellite applications. i. GPS. ii. Satellite Navigational system.
Satellite Navigation is based on a global network of satellites that transmit radio signals in medium
earth orbit. Users of Satellite Navigation are most familiar with the 31 Global Positioning System
(GPS) satellites*. The United States, who developed and operates GPS, and Russia, who developed a
similar system known as GLONASS, have offered free use of their respective systems to the
international community. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), as well as other
international user groups, have accepted GPS and GLONASS as the core for an international civil
satellite navigation capability known as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).
GPS is composed of three segments:
 control segment
 space segment
 user segment

The Control Segment of GPS consists of

 Master Control Station: GPS ephemeris being a tabulation of computed positions, velocities
and derived right ascension and declination of GPS satellites at specific times, replace
"position" with "ephemeris" because the Master Control Station computes not only position
but also velocity, right ascension and declination parameters for eventual upload to GPS
satellites.
 Monitor Stations: The control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor stations
to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and clock. The prediction data is up-linked, or
transmitted, to the satellites for transmission back to the users.
 Ground Antennas: Four ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from horizon to
horizon. They also transmit correction information to individual satellites.

The user segment includes the equipment of the military personnel and civilians who receive GPS
signals. Military GPS user equipment has been integrated into fighters, bombers, tankers, helicopters,
ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps, and soldiers' equipment. In addition to basic navigation activities,
military applications of GPS include target designation, close air support, "smart" weapons, and
rendezvous.

11.a) i. Explain the interpretation of kepler’s laws.

Refer in book: 1.12 (Keplerian Element set)
12. a) With a neat sketch explain launching mechanism

Mechanism of Launching a Satellite

Theoretically a satellite could be placed into geosynchronous orbit in one step but practically it is a
two or three step process. The placement of satellite in the geostationary orbit is carried on the
principle of Hohmann Transfer. This post includes explanation of three commonly used satellite
launching mechanism that are employed and used by Space Transport System (STS), Expandable
Launch Vehicle (ELV) and Special Expandable Launch Vehicle (SELV) in detail. Launching a
satellite into orbit is a process which is described by the authorities.
Generally there are three techniques that are employed as the mechanism of launching a satellite.
Technique First :

In the first technique, first the satellite is placed in lower circular earth orbit at an altitude of around
300 Km. Then a velocity increment is required and it is carried out by various auxiliary propulsion
stages. One velocity increment changes the satellite lower circular earth orbit into an elliptical orbit
with a perigee of about 300 Km and apogee at 42164.2 Km (radius of geosynchronous orbit) Then in
this case second velocity increment is required and it finally places the satellite into the desired orbit.
Space Transport system (STS) follows this techniques.

Second Technique :

The second technique has been used by expendable launches vehicles such as Ariane, Delta or Atlas-
centaur launcher. In this case there is no initial circular orbit and the vehicle provides the necessary
velocity at the perigee of the elliptical transfer orbit. Thus here only one velocity factor increment
has been observed from the satellite at the apogee part.

Third Technique :

The third technique has been used by the Special Expendable Launch Vehicle such as US Titan III C
and the USSR Proton launchers. In this case satellites are directly placed into geostationary orbit.

The satellite velocity at the apogee and perigee can be calculated as given below:

Vs2 = (2µ/r) – (µ/a)

Where,
 µ = Gravitational constant
 A = Semi- major axis
 R = Distance from the center of the Earth to the point where velocity is required.

Above are the three most important techniques that are employed as the Satellite launching
mechanism.

Refer this too: https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Tutorials/satellite-launch-procedure.html