Department of Mathematics and Statistics

University of Jaffna
Classical Mechanics (AMM302G3)

Introduction

Classical Mechanics is the most important scientific theory. Its basic concepts are
mass, acceleration, force etc. Based on these concepts, the laws of classical mechanics
were first formulated by Newton until the discovery of the small-scale phenomena of
atomic and nuclear physics; classical mechanics was the most successful scientific
theory.
To describe the basic concepts like acceleration or force the concepts of space and
time have to be brought into the picture. We assume that space and time are
continuous and that there are universal standards of length and time. In classical
physics the meaning of the universal time scale will be that two derivatives located
anywhere in the world will agree about the time of any event. To specify positions
and time an observer may choose a zero of the time scale, an origin in space, and a set
of three Cartesian co-ordinates axes, and all these can be referred to as a frame of
reference. With respect to this frame, the position and time of any event can be
written as x, y, z and t. Another important concept involved in the observations in
classical mechanics is that the observers must be non accelerated.

Motion of a Particle

1. Equation of motion
Consider a particle of mass m moving with velocity V with respect to some
fixed origin O. Then its equation of motion is given by
d d dr
F (mV )  (m )  ( A) ,
dt dt dt
where r is the vector displacement of the particle with respect to O and F is the
resultant of the forces acting on it.
In the case in which m is constant, equation (A) reduces to
dV d2r
F  m m 2  ( B)
dt dt
Equations (A) and (B) are simply vector expressions of Newton’s Second Law of
Motion, viz. that the rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal both
in magnitude and direction to the resultant force acting on the particle. The equivalent
Cartesian equations are
d  dx  d  dy  d  dz 
X m  , Y  m  and Z   m 
dt  dt  dt  dt  dt  dt 
or in the case in which m is constant,
d 2x d2y d 2z
X  m 2 , Y  m 2 and Z  m 2 ;
dt dt dt

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where (X, Y, Z) are the components of F and (x, y, z) those of r , respectively
parallel to a set of fixed orthogonal axes having their origin at O.

2. Integrals of the motion

Energy integral: If the particle undergoes a small displacement  r in an interval of

time  t , then we have from equation (B), on multiplying scalarly by  r
dV
F . r  m . r .
dt
This yields, on integrating with respect to t over a finite interval of time ( t1 , t 2 ) in
which the particle moves from the position r1 to the position r2 ,

r2 t2
dV
 F.d r
r1
  m dt . d r
t1

t2
dV d r
 m . dt
t1
dt dt
t2
dV
  m (V . )dt
t1
dt
1
  m (V . V ) tt12  1 m (V2 . V2 )  1 m (V1 . V1 )
2 2 2

where V1 and V2 are the velocities of the particle at time t1 and t 2 respectively.
If we write,
1 1
T  mv 2  m (V . V )
2 2
so that T is the kinetic energy of this particle, then this may be written
r2

T2  T1   F .d r
r1

We thus have the general result: the change in the kinetic energy of a particle in any
interval of time is equal to the total work done on the particle by the forces acting on
it in the same interval of time.
n
Let Fi (i  1, n) denote the forces acting on the particle, so that F   Fi
i 1

Also, let ( X i , Yi , Z i ) be the components of Fi parallel to the orthogonal axes

through O and let ( i, j , k ) be three unit vectors respectively parallel to these axes.
Then, in the case in which all the Fi can be derived from potential energy functions
Vi ( x, y , z ) , i  1, n so that Fi  X i i  Yi j  Z i k   Vi (i  1, n) ,
_ _ _
where   i x  j y  k z , we have,

2
 r2 r2 n
T2  T1   F . d r   ( F i ). d r
r1 r1 11
r2 n
   (  Vi ). d r
r1 i 1

( x2 , y 2 , z2 ) n
 Vi Vi V 
    x dx 
( x1 , y1 , z1 ) i 1
y
dy  i dz 
z 
( xx , y2 , z2 ) ( xx , y2 , z2 )
n
n 
   i 
d V   Vi 
i 1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) i 1  ( x1 , y1 , z1 )

where ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) being the Cartesian components of r 1 and r 2

respectively.
n
If we write V   Vi then the above result may be written
i 1

T2  T1  V1  V2
T2  V2  T1  V1  (C )
That is, the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the particle remains
constant during the motion.
Equation (C) is equivalent to T+V = constant,
which is known as the equation of energy, represents a first integral of the motion.

Angular Momentum Integral:

An important quantity associated with the motion of a particle is the moment of its
linear momentum with respect to a point. It is termed the moment of momentum or
the angular momentum of the particle with respect to the point. If we denote the
moment of momentum of the particle with respect to the origin O by H , then
H  r  MV
Let us now consider its rate of change, this is given by
dH d
 (r  mV )
dt dt
dr d dr d
  mV  r  (mV ) But  V , while (mV )  F [by ( A)]
dt dt dt dt
dH
Hence  V  mV  r  F
dt
dH
rF  ( D) [V  V  0]
dt
We thus have the result: the rate of change of the moment of momentum of a particle
with respect to a fixed point is equal to the moment of the resultant forces acting on
the particle with respect to the same point.
If r  F  0 in equation (D), then

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dH
0
dt
That is, H is a constant vector.

Suppose, however, that we multiply equation (D) scalarly by a unit vector 

localized at O, and then we have,
dH
.   .(r  F )
dt
The right hand side of this equation represents the component of the resultant moment
of the forces acting on the particle about the line through O whose direction is that of
.
If  is such that  .(r  F )  0 ,
i.e) If  , r and F are coplanar, then the component of the resultant moment with
respect to this line vanishes, and we have
dH
.  0  (E)
dt
If in addition,  is a constant unit vector.
i.e) it has a constant direction in space, then we can write
dH d
.  (  .H ) ,
dt dt
so that equation (E) becomes
d
( . H )  0
dt
  . H  constant .

That is, the component of the moment of the momentum of the particle with respect to
the line through O, whose direction is that of  , is constant throughout the motion.

Components of velocity and acceleration

Cylindrical Co-ordinates:

Let OXYZ be a set of right handed rectangular axes fixed in space and let the
Co-ordinates of a general point P in cylindrical Co-ordinates be (r , , z ) , where

OM= r , MP= z , M O X   , M being the foot of the perpendicular from P onto the
plane OXY. Also let (i r , i  , i z ) be three unit vectors, i r in the direction of OM, i  in
the plane OXY and at right angles to OM in the direction of  increasing, and i z in
the direction of the upward vertical.

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 
Let OP  r
then r can be written in terms of i r , i  and i z as
  
r  OP  OM  MP  r i r  z i z
Hence the velocity of the particle is
dr d
V  (r i r  zi z )
dt dt
dr dz di di
 .i r  .i z  r. r  z. z
dt dt dt dt
dir di z
 r i r  z i z  r z  (*)
dt dt

But, if (i , j , k ) are three unit vectors in the directions of OX , OY, OZ respectively

then
i r  cos  i  sin  j , i    sin  i  cos  j , i z  k
since i , j and k , are unit vectors with constant directions in space ,
dir
  sin   i  cos   j
dt
  (  sin  i  cos  j )
  i 
d i
  cos   i - sin   j
dt
   (cos  i  sin  j )
 -  i r

di z
Similarly 0  (**)
dt

Substituting these values in equation (*) , we have

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V  r i r  r i   z i z  (* * *)
The components of V in the directions of r,  and z increasing are thus
. . .
V  (Vr , V , V z )  (r , r  , z )

To obtain the corresponding components of the acceleration we have, on

differentiating (***) w.r.t t ,we get,
dv d di di di
f   ri r  (r )i   z i z  r r  r   z z  (* * **)
dt dt dt dt dt

(**) and (****)

d
 f  ri r  (r )i   zi z  r i   r 2 i r
dt
d 
 (r  r 2 )i r   (r )  r i   zi z
 dt 
1d 
 (r  r 2 )i r   (r 2 )i   zi z
r  dt 

The components accelerations in the direction of r ,  and z increasing respectively

are given by
1 d
( f  , f  , f z )  (r  r 2 , (r 2 ), z) .
r dt

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 Spherical polar Co-ordinates.

If the spherical polar Co-0rdinates of a general point P, are (r ,  ,  ) ,then

on introducing three unit vectors (orthogonal) (i r , i  , i  ) in the directions of r,  , and
 increasing respectively. And proceeding as for cylindrical polar-Co-ordinates the
components of the velocity and of the acceleration corresponding to these directions,
interms of (r ,  ,  ) and their first and second derivatives w.r.t the time , are found
to be
. . .
(Vr , V , V )  (r , r  , r sin   )
.. . 2 . 2 1 d 2 . . 2 1 d 2 .
( f r , f  , f  )  {r  r (  sin 2   ), (r  )  r sin  cos   , (r sin   )}
r dt r sin  dt
respectively.

Definition: Rigid body

A system of particle is called a rigid body if the distances between all pairs of
particles remain constant throughout the motion.

Definition:
If the vector displacement of any particle of a rigid body is equal to the same
vector throughout the motion then the body is said to be in translational motion.

Note:
The most general displacement of a rigid body, one pointing which is fixed, in
rotating about some axis passing through the fixed point.

The above axis is called the axis of the rotation and the point above is called the base
point.

Infinitesimal displacement of the rigid body

Consider a body rotating about a fixed point O.P is the position of the particle at time
t, and P’ is the position of the particle at time t   t .
Where a - unit vector along the axis of rotation.

Take b - unit vector along PP '     r is the vector displacement.

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   
PP'  PA  AP'
 PA .i p  BP(i m )
 
 PP' cos i p  PP' sin im
2 2
 
 [cos i p  sin i m ]PP'
2 2
  
 2r sin  sin [cos i p  sin im ]
2 2 2 displacement about
  
 (2 sin cos )a  r  2 sin 2 r sin  i p [ by( R )] the axis.
2 2 2 i.e) the vector
 ar
 sin  (a  r )  2 sin 2 .r sin  (  a) displacement
2 r sin 
 r     r.
 sin  (a  r )  (1  cos  ) 2 ((a  r )  a)
  (a  r )  0 [  sin     cos   1]
First we consider the
   r where     a is the rotational
base point O.
Let  s 0 be the translational displacement then the general displacement of a point P

on the rigid body is given by


 s   s0     r  (1) where OP  r
And   is rotational displacement about the axis passing through O.

Similarly take O ' be the another base point on the rigid body and let O' P  r '
Then the general displacement of P is given by
 s   s 0 '  ' r '  ( 2)
Where   ' is the rotational displacement about the axis through O ' .
Now taking O as the base point then the general displacement of O ' is

 s 0 '   s 0     OO '  (3)
From (1) & (2)

 s 0     r   s 0 ' ' r '   s 0 '   OO '  ' r ' [ by (3)]
    r     ( r  r ' )    ' r '
    r     r     r '  ' r '
 (     ' )  r '  0
      ' // r ' [r '  0]
      '   r'
      '  r '
Since the rotation of the rigid body does not depend on the element of the rigid body
(i.e)   does not depend on the point P )
  0
     '
i.e) The rotational displacements are the same, both as regards their magnitudes and
their directions, whatever the choice of base point.

Theory of rotating axes

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Consider the frame rotating about O.
Let P be the position of a particle moving in space at time t.
Let p ' (t   t ) be the position of P after a time  t .
Let p F be the point of the particle in the rotating frame F coincident with the point P
at time t. and PF ' be its new position at time t   t. then the displacement of the

particle in space PP '
  
PP  PP ' F  P ' F P '
  
PP ' PP' F  P ' F P '

t t

PP ' dr
Let Limit
 t 0  the velocity of the particle in space.
t dt

P ' P '  r the velocity of the particle relative to the frame F.
Limit F 
 t 0 t t

Also we have PF P ' F     r

P P'   r   
 Limit F F  Limit  Limit    r    r
 t 0 t  t 0 t  t 0
 t 

  
Where   Limit   is defined as the angular velocity of the rotating frame.
 t 0   t 
 
dr r
V     r  (*)
dt t
The above equation (*) can be treated as an Operator equation which gives the
relation between the time derivatives in the space and the rotating Co-ordinate
systems.
d
Where  is the rate of change in space.
dt

is the rate of change in rotating frame F.
t
d r r
Velocity V     r
dt t
Acceleration of the particle in space is

9
 dV d   r 
f      r
dt dt  t 
   r 
           r 
 t  t 
2 r  r
  (  r )       (  r )
t 2
t t
 2 r  r
 2   r  2     (  r )
t t t

If  is a Constant, Then
2 r r
f   2     (  r )
t 2
t
Now Consider the rotation of the particle of mass M in the rotating frame F,  is the
angular velocity of the frame F.
If we assume that the Newton’s second law of motion holds in space and F is
d2r
force acting on the particle then the equation of motion is F  M
dt 2
 2 r  r  
 F  M  2  2    r    (  r ) 
 t t t 
If  is a constant vector then we have
2 r r
F  M  2M    M   (  r )
t 2
t
2 r r
 M 2  F  2M    M   (  r )
t t
Where   r - velocity due to rotation of the axis or frame F.
  (  r ) is called the centrifugal acceleration.
r 2 r
Let F '  F  2M    M   (  r ) , where F '  M then
t t 2
M   (  r ) is called the centrifugal force arising as a result of the rotating of the
r
frame F. 2 M   is called coriolis force arising as a result of the motion of the
t
particle in the rotating frame F.

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