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Huum - Info The Perfect Answer Chemistry Revision Guide Edexcel Igcse 9 1 1st Edition PD PR
Huum - Info The Perfect Answer Chemistry Revision Guide Edexcel Igcse 9 1 1st Edition PD PR
Huum - Info The Perfect Answer Chemistry Revision Guide Edexcel Igcse 9 1 1st Edition PD PR
1. Principles of Chemistry
States of matter ...................................................................................................................... 3
Electrolysis ...........................................................................................................................11
2. Inorganic Chemistry
Group 1 (alkali metals) ..........................................................................................................13
3. Physical Chemistry
Energetics .............................................................................................................................25
4. Organic Chemistry
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................29
Alkanes ................................................................................................................................. 31
Alkenes ................................................................................................................................. 31
Alcohols ................................................................................................................................ 32
Esters ................................................................................................................................... 33
Copyright © Hazel Lindsey & Martin Bailey, 2019. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission from Science with Hazel Ltd
1. Principles of Chemistry
States of matter
- solids - particles arranged regularly and packed closely together. Vibrate in fixed
positions. Strong forces between particles
- liquids - particles are mostly touching with some gaps. Particles move about at
random. Medium forces between particles
- gases - particles move at random and quickly. Particles are far apart. Weak forces
between particles.
- particles with the greatest amount of K.E (kinetic energy) break away from the surface
of the liquid
Define diffusion
- this tells you that NH3 diffuses faster (the reason being it has a lower Mr)
- saturated solution - a solution where no more solute can dissolve in the solvent
Define solubility
- the mass of solute which must dissolve in 100g of solvent at that temperature to form a
saturated solution
What is an element?
- a substance which contains one TYPE of atom only
What is a compound?
- A substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined
What is a mixture?
- A substance made up of two or more elements NOT chemically bonded together
- filtration
- evaporation or distillation
- fractional distillation
What method is used to separate petrol and water and why is this used?
- separating funnel
About chromatography:
Atomic structure
What is an atom?
- the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist
What is a molecule?
- two or more atoms chemically bonded together
Relative charge 1 0 -1
What is an isotope?
- atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
Define malleable
- may be hammered into shape
Define ductile
- may be drawn into a wire
4. Find the empirical formula of a compound which contained 5.85g K, 2.10g N and 4.8g O
K N O
Mr 39 14 16
divide by smallest
0.15/0.15 = 1 0.15/0.15 = 1 0.3/0.15 = 2
number
ratio 1 1 2
Answer = KNO2
6. 4.5g of hydrochloric acid, HCl, reacted with calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. Calculate the
mass of Calcium Chloride, CaCl2, formed.
- an atom either loses (to form a positive ion) or gains electrons (to form a negative ion)
1. for groups 1-3, the charge on the ion is the same as the group number e.g. Mg is in
group 2 and therefore forms Mg2+
2. for groups 5,6 and 7, the charge on the ion is 8 - group number. e.g. N is in group 5
and therefore 8-5=3, therefore N3-
- Ag+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, Zn2+, H+, OH-, NH4+, CO32-, NO3-, SO42-
Covalent bonding
Why does the boiling point of simple molecular substances increase with increasing
relative molecular mass?
- boiling breaks the intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules
- substances with greater Mr have greater intermolecular forces of attraction which need
breaking
- therefore more heat energy is needed to overcome these forces
- no free electrons
Why does C60 fullerene have a lower melting and boiling point than graphite and diamond?
- simple molecular structure
Electrolysis
Define electrolysis
- the breaking down of a substance using electricity
What is an ion?
- charged particle - an atom which has either gained or lost electrons
What is an anion?
- negative ion
What is a cation?
- positive ion
Electrolysis rules:
- positive electrode attracts negative ions
- negative electrode attracts positive ions
- the least reactive element forms at the negative electrode i.e. jewellery metals or
hydrogen
- halogens form before all other elements at the positive electrode
What does oxidation and reduction mean? (Use OIL RIG to help you)
Predict the products at the cathode and anode of the following electrolysis reactions:
1. molten lead (II) bromide
Pb2+ + 2e- —> Pb (cathode - reduction)
2Br- - 2e- —> Br2 (anode - oxidation)
More information:
- hydrogen gas forms at the negative electrode because hydrogen is less reactive than
sodium. Hydrogen is used as a fuel.
- chlorine forms at the positive electrode because it is a halogen. Chlorine is used to
make bleach and to kill pathogens in swimming pools.
- sodium hydroxide is left over in the solution and is used in making paper and bleach
- alkali metals
- in oil
- very reactive
- float, move, fizz (releasing hydrogen), melt, turn UI blue (due to release of OH-)
What is the word equation for when group 1 metals are added to cold water?
What is the balanced symbol equation for when sodium (for example) is added to cold
water?
- as with other group 1 elements, Francium is soft, has low melting and boiling point, low
density, shiny (tarnishes when exposed to air)
- it’s near the bottom of the periodic table which means its reactions will be more violent
Group 7 (halogens)
KCl KBr KI
Cl x reaction reaction
Br no reaction x reaction
I no reaction no reaction x
E.g.
E.g.
Name the gases present in the air and their approximate percentage by volume
- Nitrogen 78%
- Oxygen 21%
- Argon 0.9%
Describe how copper can be used to show the percentage of oxygen in the air
- copper is put in a large tube that is attached to two gas syringes
Describe how iron can be used to show the percentage of oxygen in the air
- iron filings placed in a burette that is full of air
Write word and symbol equations for the reactions that occur when copper(II) carbonate
and calcium carbonate are heated strongly
- Calcium carbonate —> calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
Reactivity series
- a list of metals in order of their reactivity with the most reactive metals at the top and
the least reactive at the bottom
- place in cold water (most will not react) - those which react are the most reactive
metals
- if no reaction, test with acid (note: only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series
will react with hydrogen)
- potassium
- sodium
- lithium
- calcium
- magnesium
- aluminium
- carbon
- zinc
- iron
- hydrogen
- copper
- silver
- gold
- water
- oxygen
- iron is coated in a more reactive metal which undergoes oxidation in preference to iron
Define oxidation
- gain of oxygen
- loss of electrons
Define reduction
- loss of oxygen
- gain of electrons
Define redox
- a reaction where both reduction and oxidation take place at the same time
Why is iron obtained by reduction with coke (carbon) in the Blast Furnace?
- iron is less reactive than carbon
What is an alloy?
- a mixture of metal with either other metals or carbon
Give some uses of aluminium and link them with an appropriate property of aluminium
- aeroplanes (low density)
- electricity cables (good conductor of electricity, ductile)
- saucepans (good conductors of heat, malleable)
Types of indicator:
indicator colour in acid colour in alkaline
- green = neutral
- 7- neutral
- H+
- OH-
Define acid
- H+ donor
Define base
- H+ acceptor
- OH- donor
- e.g. metal carbonate, hydroxide, oxides, ammonia
Define alkali
- soluble base
What is a salt?
- an ionic compound formed by the neutralisation of an acid by a base
Salts background:
- all acids contain hydrogen e.g. HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3
- when hydrogen in an acid is replaced with a metal or ammonium a salt is formed
- e.g. Magnesium sulfate, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride and potassium nitrate
- E.g. potassium carbonate + nitric acid —> potassium nitrate + water + carbon dioxide
How do you make soluble salts (except ammonium, potassium and sodium salts)?
For the reactants, you can use:
- FILTER
How do you make soluble salts - that do contain sodium, potassium or ammonium?
For the reactants, you can use:
- acid + metal hydroxide/carbonate
- acid + ammonia solution
Give an explanation of what happens in precipitation reactions using the reaction of sliver
nitrate and sodium chloride as an example.
- in silver nitrate solution the Ag+ and NO3- are attracted weakly
- in the sodium chloride the Na+ and Cl- are attracted weakly
- when you mix the 2 solutions, the 4 ions mix together
- Ag+ and Cl- attract strongly forming AgCl
- Na+ and NO3- attract weakly and remain in solution
- H3O+
Chemical tests
- dip in sample
Results:
How do you test for copper (Cu2+), iron (II) (Fe2+) and iron (III) (Fe3+)?
- add sodium hydroxide solution, no precipitate is formed, but smell of ammonia is given
off
Detecting halides:
Detecting sulfates:
- add dilute hydrochloric acid (removes carbonate ions)
Detecting Carbonates:
- add dilute nitric acid
Energetics
Define exothermic
- more energy is needed to make the bonds than break the bonds
- ΔH is negative
Define endothermic
- less energy is needed to make the bonds than break the bonds
- ΔH is positive
- the quantity of energy, (in Joules), needed to change the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one degree Celsius
- Q = mcΔT
Example: Calculate the specific heat capacity of an alloy if a 13.7 g sample absorbs 382 J
when it is heated from 0.0C to 38.1C
- m = 13.7g
- Q = 382J
- c = 382/(13.7x38.1)
- 0.731 J/gC
How do you calculate molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy change (Q)?
- ΔH = Q/n
Example: 0.674g of C2H6 reacts with O2 to from CO2 + H20. The reaction heated 100cm3
of water from 24C to 33C. How much energy would be obtained from one mole of C2H6?
- Q = mcΔT
- q = 100 x 4.18 x 9
- = 3762J
- Moles = mass/Mr
- = 0.674/30
- =0.0224 mol
- ΔH = Q/n
- = 3762/0.0224
What effect does increasing the concentration have on the rate of reaction?
- more particles in the same volume
What effect does increasing the surface area have on the rate of reaction?
- collisions occur more frequently
Define catalyst
- a substance that increases the rate of reaction
- chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
What effect does the addition of a catalyst have on the position of equilibrium?
- catalyst has no effect on the position of equilibrium
- because the rates of the forward and reverse reactions increase equally
Describe and explain the effect of increasing the temperature on a reversible reaction
- increasing the temperature favours the endothermic reaction
- position of equilibrium shifts in favour of the endothermic reaction
Describe and explain the effect of increasing the pressure on a reversible reaction
- increasing the pressure favours the side with fewer moles of gas
- position of equilibrium shifts to the side with fewer moles of gas
Describe and explain the effect of decreasing the pressure on a reversible reaction
- decreasing the pressure favours the side with more moles of gas
- position of equilibrium shifts to the side with more moles of gas
Example:
2NO2(g) N2O4(g) delta H = -57KJ/mol
brown colourless
Describe and explain the effect of increasing the temperature on the colour of the reaction
vessel
- increasing the temperature favours the endothermic (reverse reaction)
- position of equilibrium shifts to the left
- mixture turns brown
Describe and explain the effect of increasing the pressure on the colour of the reaction
vessel
- increasing the pressure favours the side with fewer moles of gas (the right hand side)
- position of equilibrium shifts to the right
- mixture turns colourless
Why are the conditions used in the Haber Process described as ‘compromised’?
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
What effect does the iron catalyst have on the yield of ammonia?
- no effect on yield but increases the rate of the forward and reverse reactions equally
Introduction
What is a hydrocarbon?
- a compound which contains hydrogen and carbon atoms ONLY
Crude oil
What is a fuel?
- a substance which releases energy when burnt
What is a fraction?
- group of substances with similar boiling points
Compare the colour, viscosity and boiling point of bitumen and refinery gases
- bitumen darker in colour, refinery gases are lighter in colour
- bitumen high boiling point, refinery gases low boiling point
- bitumen very viscous, refinery gases not viscous at all
What is cracking?
- the breaking down of long alkane chains into smaller, more useful chains of alkanes and
alkenes
1 methane
2 ethane
3 propane
4 butane
5 pentane
- UV radiation required
Alkenes
1 n/a
2 ethene
3 propene
4 butene
5 pentene
- addition reaction
Alcohols
1 methanol
2 ethanol
3 propanol
Carboxylic Acids
1 methanoic acid
2 ethanoic acid
3 propanoic acid
Esters
Give uses of esters and how they are linked to their properties
- food flavourings and perfumes because they are highly volatile
Synthetic polymers
Define monomer
Define polymer