Petro-Mineralogy and Geochemistry As Tools of Provenance Analysis On Archaeological Pottery Study of Inka Period Ceramics From Paria, Bolivia

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 36 (2012) 1e17
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Petro-mineralogy and geochemistry as tools of provenance analysis on

archaeological pottery: Study of Inka Period ceramics from Paria, Bolivia
V. Szilágyi a, f, *, J. Gyarmati b, M. Tóth c, H. Taubald d, M. Balla e, Zs. Kasztovszky a, Gy. Szakmány f
a
Dept. of Nuclear Research, Institute of Isotopes, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 29-33 Konkoly-Thege Str., Budapest H-1121, Hungary
b
Museum of Ethnography, 12 Kossuth Sq., Budapest H-1055, Hungary
c
Institute of Geochemical Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 45 Budaörsi Str., Budapest H-1112, Hungary
d
Isotope Geochemistry, University of Tübingen, 56 Wilhelmstr., Tübingen D-72074, Germany
e
Inst. of Nuclear Techniques, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 9 Mu } egyetem Rakpart, Budapest H-1111, Hungary
f
Dept. of Petrology and Geochemistry, Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, Eötvös Loránd University, 1/c Pázmány stny., Budapest H-1118, Hungary
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper summarized the results of comprehensive petro-mineralogical and geochemical (archeo-
Received 18 February 2011 metrical) investigation of Inka Period ceramics excavated from Inka (A.D. 1438e1535) and Late Inter-
Accepted 15 November 2011 mediate Period (A.D. 1000/1200e1438) sites of the Paria Basin (Dept. Oruro, Bolivia). Applying geological
analytical techniques we observed a complex and important archaeological subject of the region and the
Keywords: era, the cultural-economic influence of the conquering Inkas in the provincial region of Paria appearing
Petrography
in the ceramic material.
Geochemistry
According to our results, continuity and changes of raw material utilization and pottery manufacturing
Archaeological application
Inka period pottery
techniques from the Late Intermediate to the Inka Period are characterized by analytical methods. The
Bolivia geological field survey provided efficient basis for the identification of utilized raw material sources. On
the one hand, ceramic supply of both eras proved to be based almost entirely on local and near raw
material sources. So, imperial handicraft applied local materials but with sophisticated imperial tech-
niques in Paria. On the other hand, Inka Imperial and local-style vessels also show clear differences in
their material which suggests that sources and techniques functioned already in the Late Intermediate
Period subsisted even after the Inka conquest of the Paria Basin. Based on our geological investigations,
pottery supply system of the Paria region proved to be rather complex during the Inka Period.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction a low pressure e high temperature (firing) process. Hence, classical

geological investigations are powerful methods to characterize the
Aspects of geology and archaeology are similar because both materials applied for ceramic making, to determine whether these
investigate the limited and sporadic remnants of the past. materials could be natural or not, to establish the efficient field
Archaeological finds can be entirely natural materials (e.g. stone survey for potential raw material sources and to model the possible
tools, building stones, bone artefacts) or artificial objects made with mixtures of the constituents. One the other hand, pottery is the
a technique which can be modelled with natural geological most abundant find in the archaeological excavations and its
processes (e.g. ceramics, metal objects, glass finds, textile). appearance (vessel shape, style) is highly influenced by the
On the one hand, pottery can be considered as a metasedi- cultural-social changes. Thus, getting detailed information about
mentary rock which is a result of an artificial technique: natural or the raw materials and manufacturing techniques of such archaeo-
non-natural mixture of sediments which is metamorphosed by logical artefacts can help to better understand the social processes
taking place in a certain region and era. The application of
geological methodology for answering archaeological questions is
* Corresponding author. Dept. of Nuclear Research, Institute of Isotopes, the topic of the archaeometrical research.
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 29-33 Konkoly-Thege Str., Budapest H-1121, In Inka Period (A.D. 1438e1535) archaeological excavations
Hungary. Tel.: þ36 1 392 2222x3214, fax: þ36 1 392 2584. from Ecuador to Chile there can be found an easily identifiable
E-mail addresses: szilagyiv@iki.kfki.hu (V. Szilágyi), jns.gyarmati@gmail.com
(J. Gyarmati), totyi@geochem.hu (M. Tóth), taubald@uni-tuebingen.de
ceramic style, the Inka Imperial which is manufactured with the
(H. Taubald), balla@reak.bme.hu (M. Balla), gyorgy.szakmany@geology.elte.hu quality of Cuzco Inka ware (Rowe, 1944). This type of pottery is
(Gy. Szakmány). characterized with the same quality and standard (concerning
0895-9811/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2011.11.001
2 V. Szilágyi et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 36 (2012) 1e17
shape and decoration) in every Inka site through the Empire. This The special role of the Paria Basin appears clearly in the
type of archaeological finds is one of the examples of the Inka ethnohistoric sources (Vaca de Castro, 1908: 435) as the imperial
standardizing intentions which can be traced in the whole Inka Inka road e which started from Cuzco and passed along the
material culture (e.g. architecture, metalworking or textiles). It is western side of Lake Titicaca e bifurcated at the ancient site of Paria
a principal question of the Inka archaeology how this standardi- with the main road heading towards Chile/Argentina and another
zation took place in the colonized territories of the huge empire. branch towards the Valley of Cochabamba (Gutiérrez Osinaga,
Were these Inka Imperial style ceramics manufactured in some 2005) and further to Incallacta (Hyslop, 1984; Guaman Poma de
specially controlled workshops (Morris, 1978; D’Altroy, 1992) or all Ayala, 1980). At this intersection, the Inka state established an
over the empire by local potters who were taught to follow the administrative centre, one of the capitals of the provinces to the
imperial standards (Hayashida, 1998)? To answer these questions south from Cuzco (Fig. 1). According to Cieza de León (1973, 1985),
a heterogeneous set of archaeological (ceramic, building materials) there were great buildings (depositories and lodgings for the Inka
and comparative geological samples was investigated. Our aim was and the Temple of the Sun) to be constructed in the settlement.
to clarify three interconnected questions corresponding to the Other ethnohistorical accounts indicate that maize grown in the
principal objective of the analysis: (1) whether the raw material of imperial state farms in the Valley of Cochabamba was transported
the ceramics belonging to the Inka style is similar to or different through ancient Paria (Repartimiento, 1977).
from the raw material of Late Intermediate Period pottery, i.e. the In this regard, the Paria Basin had a double function in the Inka
raw material used for pottery making changed in the Inka Period or Period. It formed the border between the different ecological levels
were the same sources used as in the former period; (2) whether and e at the same time e acted as an intermediate zone in the
the Inka style ceramics of the Paria Basin were made from local raw redistribution network of the Inka Empire. The PAP studied the
material; (3) whether the material of the vessels representing Inka interregional ecological relationships between the Andean Alti-
Imperial and Inka local style is different. plano and the temperate valleys, as well as the political and
The studies of ceramic collections from individual Inka period economic interactions that existed between the Inka imperial
sites similar to the research detailed in this paper are mainly centre and the peripheral zones. Until now, there are only unpub-
focused on the coastal Peru region (Ixer and Lunt, 1991; Hayashida, lished project reports that discuss the archaeological records and
1999; Hayashida et al., 2002, 2003a, b; Velde and Druc, 1999a;
Costin, 2001) or northwest Argentina (Bertolino and Fabra, 2003;
Ratto et al., 2002, 2004, 2005; Plá and Ratto, 2003). A compre-
hensive study on special types of ritual ceramics from all around
the Empire was also published (Bray et al., 2005). Some isolated
researches on Inka pottery are known from Ecuador (Jamieson and
Hancock, 2004) and Chile (Alden et al., 2006). However, the ceramic
manufacture of the Inka provincial region of the present Bolivia has
yet been investigated preliminary from archaeometrical point of
view (Williams et al., 2006).
This paper deals with the reconstruction of pottery manufacture
of the Late Prehispanic Paria Basin of the Bolivian Altiplano inves-
tigated by the Paria Archaeological Project (PAP) in 2004e2006.
The archaeometrical investigation of pottery from Paria started in
2004. Our preliminary results on petrographic observations and
mineralogical analysis (Szilágyi et al., 2005, 2007; Szilágyi and
Szakmány, 2009) provided a basis for the comprehensive study.
The main goals of the here presented examinations are the petro-
mineralogical and geochemical description of the ceramic arte-
facts (to provide fundamental raw data on Inka period pottery from
Bolivia), and the identification of their possible provenance and
technological characteristics by taking comparative geological
samples into the investigation.
2. Background
2.1. Archaeological context
The Paria Basin is located approximately 200 km to the south-

east of La Paz, Bolivia at an altitude of 3700e3800 metres above
m.s.l. The basin is situated at a strategically important geographical
location on the margin of the Sierra de Azanaques. This range of the
mountainous Andes forms a natural separation between the
immense Altiplano and the more temperate valleys of Cochabamba
and the eastern tropical foothills of the Andes. At this point, the
Paria Basin forms an ecological doorway between the different
zones and ecological levels. In this way, the territory played a vital
role in the life of Andean ethnic groups and in the political economy Fig. 1. Location of Paria site in the Inka Empire (map is modified after Gyarmati and
of the Inka Empire, as was suggested in John Victor Murra’s Varga, 1999), the satellite picture (source: Google Earth, 2008), sketch of the Ce 1
investigations (1972, 1983). site and the view of structure BH (photo by J. Gyarmati).
V. Szilágyi et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 36 (2012) 1e17 3
conclusions. Archaeological systematic surface survey extended to caldera. Their appearance is very heterogenous concerning their
a 95.5 km2 part of the Paria Basin, and located 113 sites ranging grain size, consolidation/cementation, porosity and fabric/struc-
from the Formative Period (B.C. 1000eA.D. 600) until the Colonial ture. However, their collective feature is that they are potentially
Period (A.D. 1535e1825). The most important and extended suitable for pottery making either as paste (finer grained, clayey
archaeological site of the basin is Paria, an Inka administrative sediments) or as temper (coarser grained, silty-sandy sediments)
centre (its code is No.1 on the map). According to 14C dating of raw materials (to favourably modify the physical properties of the
charcoal samples from one of the objects, the Inka conquest could plastic paste during shaping, drying and firing ceramics). All of
happen at about 1400e1420. This date indicates an earlier occu- them are related to former lacustrine, fluvial or recent eolian
pation of the southern territory by Inkas than the classical processes (GEOBOL, 1992, 1994). In the field, these formations
archaeological interpretation. The ceramic sherds analyzed in this appear in variously incised valleys (Fig. 2) or seasonally water-
paper originated from the surface collection of the identified sites flooded plain areas.
and the interior of a structure excavated at Paria in 2005.
3. Methods
2.2. Geological setting
In order to describe and compare the archaeological and
The known geological history of the Paria Basin and its geological samples, microscopic petrographic investigation (Dept.
surrounding started in the Palaeozoic. There are Palaeo-Mesozoic of Petrology and Geochemistry, Eötvös Loránd University of Buda-
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (Ordovician-Devonian shales- pest), X-ray powder diffraction analysis (Inst. of Geochemical
siltstones-sandstones, Jurassic-Cretaceous sandstones) in the area Research, HAS, Budapest), instrumental neutron activation analysis
as products of flysch formation. Subsequently, PaleogeneeNeogene (Inst. of Nuclear Techniques, Budapest University of Technology and
clastic sedimentary and volcanic rocks (volcanites-pyroclastics and Economics), X-ray fluorescence geochemical analysis (Dept. of
ores connecting to subduction related Miocene effusive volcanic Geochemistry, University of Tübingen) and prompt gamma acti-
activity) and finally Quaternary sediments (fluvial and lacustrine vation analysis (Dept. of Nuclear Research, Inst. of Isotopes, HAS,
clay-silt-sand-gravel) were formed (GEOBOL, 1992, 1994). Budapest) were used.
From the point of view of our investigation, the most important The microscopic petrographic investigations were carried out on
formations for possible raw materials of the pottery are the Silurian a Nikon ALPHAPHOT-2 polarizing microscope.
shales-siltstones-sandstones, the Miocene pyroclastics and vol- The mineral phase analyses were done on a Philips PW 1730
canites and those Quaternary clayey sediments which contain the diffractometer with a Bragg-Brentano alignment and graphite
fragments of the above mentioned rock types in large quantity or monochromator (other parameters: CuKa radiation, 45 kV tension,
have the apparently adequate physical properties (clay content- 35 mA intensity, 0.05e0.01 2Q step size, 1 s time constant).
plasticity, grain size distribution) for pottery making. The chemical measurements provided concentrations for 11
In a proper sense, sediments of the Paria Basin have their direct major and 29 trace elements. Since the element data detected with
source only from the Silurian siliciclastic sedimentary sequence various methods have overlapped in the case of the different
since this is the only material which can be eroded within 5 km samples the most sensitive method was used for certain elements
from the main archaeological site on the edges of the alluvial basin. in each case. The XRF and PGAA provided the major element
The relatively monotonous sequence of the Silurian grey shales- concentrations (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O,
siltstones-sandstones was subjected to a low grade meta- K2O, P2O5, H2O/LOI). Concerning the trace elements XRF results
morphism (GEOBOL, 1992, 1994). In the field, the Silurian rocks were applied for Rb, Sr, Ba, Zr, Nb, Y, V and Zn. For most of the other
form eroded ridges built of stratified (weakly folded) structures trace elements the INAA measurements were used (Th, U, Hf, Ta, La,
(Fig. 2). The thick, cyclical sequence (alternating finer and coarser Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Yb, Lu, Sc, Cr, Co, As, Sb, Cs), while PGAA provided B,
grained layers) forms a relatively homogeneous source for the Cl and Gd concentrations. If one of the methods could not be
alteration products. applied on a sample, the data were gained by the second most
The Miocene pyroclastics and volcanites connect with two main sensitive measurement.
structures and activities. The INAA measurements were realized in the pool-type reactor
The Morococala Volcanic Field is situated w15 km to the south- of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary.
east from Paria and is in connection with the basin area through The samples were irradiated with a thermal neutron flux of
rivers (it is at the upper course, near the beginning of the main 2.4 1012 n cm2s1 for 8 h. Gamma-spectrometric measurements
branch of Jacha Uma river). The complex was formed during the were performed by an HPGe Well-type detector (resolution
Miocene (25e5 Ma ago) (Morgan et al., 1998) and resulted in 1.95 keV, relative efficiency 20.5%). For the evaluation of spectra,
welded and non-welded rhyodacitic tuffs (ignimbrite) and lavas Sampo 90 software was used. Standardization was made by the
which form an extremely eroded plateau (Fig. 2). single-comparator method (De Corte, 1987), using gold as
The Soledad caldera is on the plain of the Altiplano, w30 km to comparator. The thermal/epithermal flux-ratio was monitored by
the west from Paria, the archaeological site. Its structure is a low- zirconium foils. The accuracy of the measurements was monitored
volume, nonresurgent “ash-flow”-type caldera (Redwood, 1987) by analysing samples of the NBS SRM 1633a Coal Fly Ash Standard
which was formed during the Miocene (15e5 Ma ago). The Reference Material.
interbedded, air-fall and non-welded ash-flow, dacitic tuffs and The XRF analyses were done with a wavelength dispersive X-ray
dacitic lavas build up the present remnants (rims) of the collapsed fluorescence analyser (Bruker AXS S4 Pioneer X-ray spectrometer,
caldera structure which rises above the plain of the Altiplano Rh tube at 4 kW, Hahn-Weinheimer et al., 1984) on homogenized
(Fig. 2). There is no permanent fluvial contact to the Paria Basin fused beads with 1.5 g of dried (at 1050 C over night) sample
presently. However, the Quaternary lacustrine environment could powder mixed with 7.5 g of Li2B4O7. Loss on ignition was deter-
possibly connect the two areas when different sediments could be mined at 1050 C externally and is displayed as LOI. Analytical error
mixed. and detection limits vary and depend on element and sample
The investigated Quaternary sediments are from the Paria Basin composition. The samples were measured using an internal rock
(with an erosional area of the Silurian sedimentary rocks and the calibration curve with 35 international standards, compiled in
Morococala Volcanic Field) and the surrounding of the Soledad Govindarau (1989).
Fig. 2. Geological sketch of the Paria Basin and the eastern rim of the Altiplano with the caldera of Soledad. Stars mark the archaeological sites, while circles show the geological
sampling points. Photos show the view of the main geographic units of the territory.
The PGAA facility of the Budapest Neutron Centre is operated on the k0 principle (Molnár et al., 1998). The element identification was
an external cold neutron beam at the 10 MW Budapest Research performed using the spectroscopic data libraries developed at the
Reactor, Hungary (5 107 cm2s1 flux, for detailed description see Institute of Isotopes, HAS (Révay and Molnár, 2003; Révay et al.,
Révay and Belgya, 2004; Lindstrom and Révay, 2004; Révay et al., 2000, 2001b; Choi et al., 2007; Révay et al., 2004). The composi-
2008). Gamma-ray spectra were measured using a calibrated tion was determined following the method described in Révay
HPGe detector (Belgya and Révay, 2004; Fazekas et al., 1999; Molnár (2009), the uncertainties of the concentration values were deter-
et al., 2002). For the spectrum evaluation, the Hypermet PC soft- mined according to GUM (1993) and Révay (2006). Since this
ware was used (Phillips and Marlow, 1976; Fazekas et al., 1997; method is able to measure hydrogen, H2O content (which is not
Révay et al., 2001a, 2005). The quantitative analysis is based on equal with LOI) of the samples could be calculated.
4. Analyzed materials descriptive parameters were grain size distribution, shape, round-
ness, sphericity of grains, fabric and orientation, quantity and
In the framework of our research 206 ceramic fragments (144 composition of aplastic inclusions, porosity and optical behaviour
pieces from the excavation, 62 pieces collected from the surface), 8 of the paste. The properties of geological samples comparable to
building material remnants (4 adobes and 4 building stones) and 50 that of the ceramics were completed with the description of the
comparative geological samples were investigated (Table 1). mineral and lithic fragments and the partly vitrified matrix in the
case of volcaniclastics and volcanites. Based on the petrographic
4.1. Archaeological samples classification of pottery, it was possible to make a comparison to the
potential raw materials e especially the tempering clasts.
The investigated archaeological finds derived from different The main discriminative phenomenon for ceramics was the
stages of the archaeological sampling work (field survey and aplastic inclusion composition, but for detailed subgrouping, the
excavations). The sample set consists of 62 sherds collected at sites fabric and grain size distribution was also taken into consideration.
from the Formative to the Inka period (Fig. 2), while the majority of The investigated 206 ceramic fragments can be classified into three
the analyzed potsherds (144 pieces) were excavated from a struc- main petrographic groups: (I) pyroclastic and volcanic originated,
ture of Paria (site No.1). (II) sedimentary rock originated and (III) metamorphic rock
The selected ceramic material belonged to the Inka Imperial, originated.
pre-Inka local and transitional styles (Fig. 3) (transitions among Group I has predominance in the collection with 106 samples. It
stylistic groups are poorly observed, e.g. Bray, 2004). Inka Imperial has 20e30% aplastic inclusion content which is mainly volcani-
ceramics (Fig. 3a) are manufactured with the quality of Cuzco Inka clastic/volcanic rock originated and its fine-grained paste is well
ware (Rowe, 1944), which is of the same quality and standard sorted, weakly anisotropic or isotropic and sometimes the optical
(concerning shape and decoration) in the whole Empire. Inka activity changes in bends. Further division of group I (four
pacaje ceramics (Fig. 3d), which are thought to be regional variants subgroups) is based on the difference in the quality of the volca-
of the Inka Imperial style, basically are bowls with special llama niclastic (I/A with pumice, I/B with glass shard fragments), volcanic
decoration. Pre-Inka local style (Fig. 3c) means a vessel type of the rock (I/C) and mineral (I/D without rock) grains (Fig. 4aed)(see
Late Intermediate period (LIP, A.D. 1000/1200e1438) utilized also detailed qualitative and quantitative description in Szilágyi and
in the Inka period. Transitional styles (Inka local (Fig. 3b) and mixed Szakmány, 2009).
(Fig. 3e) style) follow a fashion mixing the imperial and local Subgroup I/A contains fine (50 mm) to coarse grained (300 mm),
characteristics concerning the form and decoration but their hiatal fabric ceramics dominantly with low sphericity, angular to
quality never reach that of the Inka Imperial style. The assemblage subangular, unweathered pumiceous tuff rock and mineral frag-
also contained some fragments of a special white ware which ments. The ceramic paste is a micaceous, fine grained silt with
shows regional rather than imperial characteristics. Classifying the variable optical behaviour (from homogeneous anisotropic and red
excavated ceramics according to the vessel forms, the major types through sandwich structure to homogeneous isotropic and grey
are the jars, bowls, plates, cooking pots and big dishes of coarse paste). The pumiceous clasts are fresh, angular grains. Subgroup I/
material, while there are only some fragments of pukus (straight- A/a can be characterized as a fine grained ceramic group with
side bowls) and queros (ceremonial cups). 50e100 mm dominant pumice size and it contains quartz, plagio-
For the excavated Inka period structures, stone, dried and clase, similar quantities of coarse grained (w120 mm) biotite and
unfired brick (adobe) and clayey paste as plaster/daub were utilized fine grained (w30 mm) hornblende (rarely orthopyroxene) crystals
as building materials. To sample the surely local materials used in and occasionally volcanite or siltstone fragments. Subgroup I/A/b is
the Inka period, aside from ceramic fragments, four adobe samples a coarser grained ceramic type with 100e275 mm dominant pumice
(No. 4/3-6) were taken from an adobe structure and four fragments size and with plagioclase, quartz, biotite (w700 mm), very rare
of building stones (No. 4/1-2, 4/7-8) from another structure. hornblende or orthopyroxene, and in some cases volcanite, meta-
morphic quartzite or siltstone fragments. Accessories appear in
4.2. Geological samples limited amount in both subgroups (opaque minerals), in addition
secondary phases (limonite) are present.
Simultaneously with archaeological finds, 50 comparative Subgroup I/B collects fine (50e75 mm) to coarse grained
sediments and hard rocks were also collected. Based on the above (150e175 mm), hiatal fabric ceramics dominantly with pyroclastic,
presented knowledge on the geological setting, the main targets of very angular, low sphericity, unweathered glass shard and pumi-
the sampling were the potential sources of the clay paste and silt- ceous tuff rock (15e30 w%) and mineral fragments. The micaceous,
sand sized tempering component raw materials for the pottery fine silty paste is anisotropic and red or isotropic. Subgroup I/B/
making process. These were the fine-grained alluvial sediments of a contains fine grained ceramics with almost only bone-shaped
the Paria Basin (22 samples: No. SED/01-04, No. 1/1-3, 2/1, 5/1-8, 7/ glass shards (with 50e75 mm dominant glass shard size) and fel-
1-2, 7/4-7) and the eastern rim of the Altiplano (4 samples from sic components (plagioclase and quartz). Subgroup I/B/b is
present brick clay mines: CLAY/01-04), the Silurian shale-siltstone- a coarser grained (with 125e175 mm dominant glass shard size)
sandstone ridges of the Eastern Cordillera (6 samples: No. 3/1-2a- pottery type mainly with bone-shaped glass shards and pumice
2b, 6/8, 7/3, 7/8) and the pyroclastics-volcanites of the south (with biotite, hornblende and plagioclase phenocrysts) and subor-
eastern Morococala Volcanic Field (2 samples: No. 6/4-5) and the dinately siltstone fragments. Subgroup I/B/c is similarly a coarser
western Soledad caldera (16 samples: No. 8/1-6 with subsamples). grained (with 125e175 mm dominant glass shard size) ceramic type
See Fig. 2 for the location of the sampling points. but with the predominance of bone-shaped glass shards and silt-
stone clasts and minor content of pumice (with biotite). Subgroup I/
5. Results B/d has glass shards as major constituents but with a less typical
shape (not bone- but irregular shaped), the additional pumice
5.1. Petrographic investigations clasts have only biotite content. Accessory minerals (opaque pha-
ses, rare titanite) are rare in all of the subgroups.
Petrographic examinations were carried out on almost the Subgroup I/C gathers medium grained (100e125 mm) pottery
complete sample collection (249 thin sections). The basic with volcanic rock fragments as temper. This subordinate subgroup
Table 1
Chemical composition of the investigated samples. Results are gained by the combination of different methods: XRF data are with normal, PGAA with italics, INAA with
underlined letters.
Sample Type SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI(H2O) Sum(%) Rb Sr Ba Th U Zr Hf
ppm
Ceramics
P/12.20. I/A/a 64.00 0.85 18.80 6.70 0.08 1.90 1.00 1.29 4.00 n.d. 0.81 99.43 165 n.d. 890 16.4 4.5 n.d. 5.2
I.19.8. I/A/a 59.48 0.75 19.45 6.78 0.10 2.54 1.88 1.72 4.55 0.33 2.14 99.96 194 466 918 n.d. n.d. 155 n.d.
I.20.18. I/A/a 61.00 0.82 18.89 6.31 0.10 2.01 4.01 1.86 4.05 0.35 0.79 100.39 136 377 818 n.d. n.d. 173 n.d.
I.29.1. I/A/a 60.29 0.83 18.67 6.27 0.09 1.98 4.03 1.82 4.02 0.25 0.79 99.26 132 363 824 n.d. n.d. 171 n.d.
Average of I/A/a 61.19 0.81 18.95 6.52 0.09 2.11 2.73 1.67 4.16 0.31 1.13 157 402 863 16.4 4.5 166 5.2
PA/4 I/A/b 62.00 0.64 19.40 4.80 0.06 2.20 1.90 2.13 4.80 n.d. 2.15 100.08 216 n.d. 1220 20.1 6.1 n.d. 6.0
PA/6 I/A/b 62.21 0.73 17.98 4.95 0.05 1.49 2.08 1.93 4.87 0.39 n.d. 96.91 251 400 1132 19.7 5.5 206 5.7
P/12.17. I/A/b 63.00 0.62 18.70 5.10 0.08 2.00 1.40 2.51 5.20 n.d. 1.40 100.01 228 n.d. 810 19.8 4.5 n.d. 3.6
P/34.88. I/A/b 61.04 0.77 18.55 5.13 0.08 1.68 1.74 1.45 4.70 0.29 n.d. 95.75 208 384 1829 19.9 4.2 208 5.5
P/92.4. I/A/b 55.45 0.86 22.08 6.40 0.06 2.14 2.72 1.87 3.64 0.19 n.d. 95.73 146 485 1743 23.3 2.4 294 8.2
I.10.24. I/A/b 62.65 0.80 20.22 5.39 0.06 1.85 1.86 1.86 4.04 0.20 1.03 100.16 220 327 763 n.d. n.d. 173 n.d.
I.16.24. I/A/b 60.95 0.88 22.38 5.92 0.06 1.85 1.62 1.66 3.83 0.22 0.77 100.36 210 309 850 n.d. n.d. 178 n.d.
Average of I/A/b 61.04 0.76 19.90 5.38 0.07 1.89 1.90 1.92 4.44 0.18 1.34 148 381 1192 20.6 4.5 212 5.8
I.15.7. I/B/a 67.78 0.59 17.11 4.79 0.08 1.61 1.60 1.93 3.75 0.24 0.76 100.42 169 233 718 n.d. n.d. 162 n.d.
I.20.6. I/B/a 59.64 0.57 17.04 5.19 0.09 1.90 4.15 1.52 5.04 0.26 3.90 99.48 201 200 839 n.d. n.d. 189 n.d.
P/34.1. I/B/b 63.36 0.68 17.57 5.29 0.04 1.72 1.26 1.10 4.09 0.15 n.d. 95.46 197 251 868 21.1 6.7 254 6.8
P/34.2. I/B/b 62.41 0.68 19.01 5.85 0.04 2.00 0.97 1.08 4.57 0.15 n.d. 96.97 223 236 818 21.6 6.7 205 6.1
P/34.143. I/B/b 61.65 0.67 17.92 5.27 0.04 1.82 1.31 1.00 4.30 0.17 n.d. 94.34 209 238 838 19.9 6.0 221 6.5
I.14.6. I/B/b 64.57 0.68 18.77 5.36 0.04 1.97 1.20 1.21 4.84 0.23 1.19 100.25 220 207 595 n.d. n.d. 217 n.d.
I.15.1. I/B/b 64.11 0.71 19.21 5.54 0.04 2.20 1.29 1.21 4.54 0.18 0.89 100.11 217 242 626 n.d. n.d. 216 n.d.
Average of I/B/a 63.36 0.65 18.09 5.33 0.05 1.89 1.68 1.29 4.45 0.20 1.69 205 230 757 20.9 6.5 209 6.5
BA/1 I/C/a 58.00 0.97 21.00 7.10 0.19 2.50 2.60 1.86 4.50 n.d. 1.07 99.79 187 n.d. 1600 15.5 3.2 n.d. 4.4
P/1.166. I/C/a 57.99 0.76 18.41 6.27 0.11 3.21 3.26 1.93 4.36 0.25 n.d. 96.82 137 580 1257 15.5 3.4 190 5.5
P/33.5. I/C/a 59.42 0.97 17.75 6.35 0.10 3.15 2.99 1.85 3.67 0.39 n.d. 96.92 119 628 1152 15.7 3.8 219 5.9
P/48.101. I/C/a 58.75 0.73 19.25 6.31 0.07 2.38 2.08 1.70 4.25 0.20 n.d. 95.93 185 371 834 15.9 4.0 183 4.7
I.30.5. I/C/a 59.71 0.78 18.66 6.22 0.14 3.80 3.47 2.20 4.18 0.34 1.07 100.84 138 623 1304 n.d. n.d. 187 n.d.
Average of I/C/a 58.77 0.84 19.01 6.45 0.12 3.01 2.88 1.91 4.19 0.23 1.07 153 551 1229 15.7 3.6 195 5.1
P/1.186. I/C/b 60.36 0.79 18.64 5.97 0.06 1.73 1.86 1.31 4.09 0.34 n.d. 95.37 224 439 1069 16.9 4.5 157 5.0
I.16.1. I/C/b 61.35 0.87 20.89 4.29 0.06 1.91 2.60 3.19 3.57 0.44 1.05 100.60 91 1084 1630 n.d. n.d. 250 n.d.
Average of I/C/b 60.85 0.83 19.76 5.13 0.06 1.82 2.23 2.25 3.83 0.39 1.05 158 762 1350 16.9 4.5 204 5.0
P/12.13. I/D 63.27 0.73 18.32 5.36 0.10 2.27 3.02 1.13 3.81 0.17 n.d. 98.41 191 483 811 15.2 3.2 212 5.6
P/42.9. I/D 61.23 0.76 17.62 5.82 0.09 1.88 3.31 1.02 3.72 0.15 n.d. 95.81 178 377 829 14.9 3.3 220 5.8
Average of I/D 62.25 0.74 17.97 5.59 0.10 2.07 3.16 1.07 3.76 0.16 185 430 820 15.1 3.2 216 5.7
P/53.79. II/A 61.09 0.79 20.82 7.04 0.10 2.07 1.16 0.88 4.68 n.d. 1.27 99.90 183 n.d. 730 14.6 2.9 n.d. 5.9
I.10.68. II/A 60.06 0.82 21.53 7.45 0.07 2.26 1.70 0.69 4.13 0.25 1.21 100.35 206 142 658 n.d. n.d. 196 n.d.
I.20.14. II/A 57.73 0.75 21.95 8.66 0.06 1.79 1.71 0.75 4.35 0.97 1.28 100.22 197 270 760 n.d. n.d. 194 n.d.
I.20.20. II/A 57.31 0.74 21.73 8.77 0.07 1.79 1.71 0.74 4.23 0.97 2.14 100.50 198 272 752 n.d. n.d. 190 n.d.
Average of II/A 59.05 0.78 21.51 7.98 0.08 1.98 1.57 0.77 4.35 0.73 1.48 196 228 725 14.6 2.9 193 5.9
PA/1 II/B or C 64.00 0.94 19.00 6.70 0.11 2.00 0.38 1.01 4.70 n.d. 1.28 100.12 202 n.d. 1100 18.5 4.4 n.d. 7.2
P/1.21. II/C 58.08 0.78 22.03 8.00 0.10 2.46 1.39 0.99 4.64 0.26 n.d. 98.94 215 237 827 n.d. n.d. 177 n.d.
P/53.108. II/B 58.80 0.80 20.65 7.28 0.08 1.97 0.56 0.75 4.17 0.18 n.d. 95.42 199 136 804 n.d. n.d. 191 n.d.
P/63.7. II/B 58.84 0.75 22.57 7.20 0.10 1.91 0.52 0.77 4.60 0.16 n.d. 97.63 232 142 872 16.1 3.1 209 5.9
41.125. II/B 61.48 0.82 21.39 5.93 0.05 1.64 1.62 0.61 4.24 0.25 2.21 100.47 207 187 1255 n.d. n.d. 221 n.d.
I.7.18. II/C 61.16 0.79 22.04 8.02 0.10 1.39 0.78 0.68 3.92 0.14 1.09 100.36 216 138 1237 n.d. n.d. 224 n.d.
I.13.9. II/B 60.57 0.69 19.70 7.07 0.06 2.14 1.52 0.98 3.99 0.51 2.96 100.38 175 196 625 n.d. n.d. 207 n.d.
Average of II/B-C 60.42 0.80 21.05 7.17 0.09 1.93 0.97 0.83 4.32 0.25 1.89 207 173 960 17.3 3.7 205 6.6
PA/5 III 56.00 1.18 28.70 2.43 0.03 4.80 0.33 0.91 4.00 n.d. 1.43 99.81 189 n.d. 850 24.7 6.6 n.d. 5.4
Adobes
4/3 Adobe 62.07 0.83 16.13 4.92 0.09 1.61 2.55 1.31 3.55 0.19 6.26 99.51 172 205 612 n.d. n.d. 203 n.d.
4/4 Adobe 46.27 0.46 21.82 7.09 0.07 2.24 4.56 0.72 4.18 0.22 11.91 99.56 220 282 2297 n.d. n.d. 140 n.d.
4/5 Adobe 59.78 0.69 18.65 6.16 0.12 1.63 0.89 1.21 3.82 0.20 6.41 99.55 181 211 757 n.d. n.d. 194 n.d.
4/6 Adobe 58.20 0.80 19.47 6.12 0.09 1.85 1.53 1.04 4.01 0.22 5.28 98.62 193 179 712 n.d. n.d. 183 n.d.
Average of adobe 56.58 0.69 19.02 6.07 0.09 1.83 2.38 1.07 3.89 0.21 7.47 191 219 1094 180
Sediments
CLAY-01 Brickclay 71.91 0.94 13.24 5.17 0.07 1.02 0.35 1.14 2.78 0.20 3.17 100.14 129 130 358 n.d. n.d. 379 n.d.
SED-01 River sediment, 77.00 0.53 10.20 4.20 0.07 0.80 0.91 1.49 2.41 n.d. 2.42 100.03 77 n.d. 500 7.2 2.2 n.d. 3.6
sand
sand
sand
SED-04 River sediment, 70.56 0.35 7.45 3.61 0.05 0.52 0.54 1.11 1.83 0.12 n.d. 86.14 92 146 422 5.1 1.5 163 7.0
sand
2/1 River sediment, 74.03 0.53 11.99 4.57 0.05 1.04 0.92 1.42 2.62 0.17 2.53 99.87 118 238 575 n.d. n.d. 200 n.d.
sand
5/2 River sediment, silt 50.62 0.44 21.39 7.13 0.07 2.30 2.82 0.66 4.03 0.20 10.21 99.87 215 276 2175 n.d. n.d. 167 n.d.
Nb Ta Y La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb Lu Sc V Cr Co Ni Zn As Sb Cs B Cl Gd
n.d. 1.6 n.d. 47 103 38 8.1 1.5 n.d. 3.4 0.36 16.1 n.d. 102 16.4 n.d. 104 13 22.2 60 117 600 6.8
14.0 n.d. 30 57 108 51 8.7 1.6 n.d. 2.8 n.d. n.d. 120 56 16.0 44.0 143 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. n.d. 28 39 78 36 4.8 1.2 n.d. 2.5 n.d. n.d. 134 34 16.0 37.0 121 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
14.0 1.6 29 46 91 44 6.7 1.4 2.8 0.36 16.1 128 57 15.9 40.0 122 13 22.2 60 117 600 6.8
n.d. 1.6 n.d. 61 121 50 8.8 1.7 n.d. 2.2 0.32 12.6 n.d. 51 11.2 n.d. 98 13 3.2 42 109 350 6.0
16.2 1.4 18 60 122 52 9.3 1.5 n.d. 1.6 0.21 9.8 82 62 9.2 n.d. 109 72 2.9 30 118 400 6.0
n.d. 1.7 n.d. 45 82 33 5.8 1.1 n.d. 1.7 0.26 12.5 n.d. 65 10.2 n.d. 138 30 30.1 29 143 430 5.0
17.2 1.5 30 61 126 74 9.6 1.8 1.2 2.5 0.36 13.8 82 70 12.5 n.d. 83 13 2.5 22 n.d. n.d. n.d.
18.4 1.3 25 69 137 62 9.2 1.9 0.8 1.6 0.22 13.3 97 68 13.5 15.8 95 21 1.7 12 104 582 6.4
18.0 1.5 25 59 116 52 8.3 1.5 1.0 2.1 0.27 12.4 103 66 11.9 42.6 100 30 8.1 27 95 441 5.9
15.4 1.3 29 43 92 35 7.3 1.3 0.9 2.8 0.36 13.5 104 72 11.5 8.8 92 133 9.5 37 n.d. n.d. n.d.
14.4 1.4 26 48 101 35 7.8 1.3 1.1 2.8 0.37 15.5 116 88 13.8 20.0 103 154 7.2 40 n.d. n.d. n.d.
15.4 1.5 25 44 93 39 7.0 1.2 0.8 2.3 0.35 14.2 105 74 10.4 n.d. 86 205 18.8 41 205 295 5.1
16.2 1.4 27 46 99 40 7.7 1.1 0.9 2.6 0.36 14 104 59 11.7 38.1 100 164 11.9 39 205 295 5.1
n.d. 1.1 n.d. 43 84 43 7.6 1.5 n.d. 2.7 0.42 22.6 n.d. 118 19.0 n.d. 118 23 8.3 15 94 154 6.4
n.d. 0.9 27 49 98 52 7.9 1.8 n.d. 2.4 0.32 15.8 111 60 14.8 8.4 124 14 1.4 12 n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. n.d. 29 51 112 47 8.7 2.1 n.d. 2.6 0.31 16.6 134 118 19.6 1.3 170 10 1.6 18 n.d. n.d. n.d.
14.0 1.4 28 49 103 49 8.1 1.8 1.2 2.5 0.35 15.9 110 120 16.5 n.d. 111 16 3.6 32 n.d. n.d. n.d.
14.0 1.1 27 51 103 47 7.8 1.8 1.2 2.5 0.35 17.7 120 90 17.2 18.6 129 16 3.7 19 94 154 6.4
16.6 1.7 19 50 98 45 7.4 1.4 n.d. 1.8 0.24 13.0 103 52 6.9 n.d. 123 53 3.4 61 n.d. n.d. n.d.
16.6 1.7 22 79 140 61 8.3 2.1 1.9 0.24 13 97 62 8.0 39.0 101 53 3.4 61
14.2 1.2 33 44 92 38 7.3 1.5 0.9 2.7 0.38 14.0 108 70 13.2 28.9 87 6 2.0 260 149 78 6.0
14.6 1.5 31 43 93 41 7.3 1.4 1.0 2.7 0.39 14.2 106 79 13.7 13.6 85 9 9.2 163 n.d. n.d. n.d.
14.4 1.4 32 44 93 40 7.3 1.4 0.9 2.7 0.39 14.1 107 75 13.5 21.3 86 7 5.6 212 149 78 6.0
n.d. 1.5 n.d. 44 89 38 7.6 1.4 1.0 3.1 0.46 16.6 163 93 16.1 n.d. 110 23 6.3 43 136 86 6.4
17.3 1.5 38 48 98 42 7.2 1.1 1.0 3.4 0.46 16.6 149 81 17.8 41.7 257 23 6.3 43 136 86 6.4
n.d. 1.6 n.d. 58 130 48 9.7 1.8 1.2 4.1 0.57 17.8 n.d. 92 17.5 n.d. 120 7 1.5 12 91 60 9.0
18.0 1.5 36 46 95 42 7.8 1.5 1.0 3.0 0.42 17.8 128 87 15.3 54.5 117 26 3.8 46 130 94 6.2
17.7 1.6 40 47 110 45 7.7 1.1 1.1 3.7 0.50 17.8 138 77 17.5 64.8 102 17 2.7 29 110 77 7.6
n.d. 2.4 n.d. 72 159 80 8.9 2.5 1.5 5.1 0.62 25.4 n.d. 138 8.5 n.d. n.d. 10 1.6 19 125 n.d. 10.6
16.3 32 43 98 35 6.0 0.9 3.0 125 52 15.0 56.9 84
n.d. 0.9 n.d. 23 49 17 3.5 0.9 0.4 1.3 0.19 6.2 n.d. 30 7.8 n.d. 48 12 18.2 23 61 69 4.2
n.d. 1.0 n.d. 28 59 21 4.4 1.0 0.6 1.7 0.25 7.3 n.d. 40 9.0 n.d. 55 16 14.9 24 93 400 4.9
n.d. 0.9 n.d. 19 40 14 3.7 0.8 0.6 1.7 0.23 5.4 n.d. 24 7.2 n.d. 61 22 4.6 17 74 95 2.8
n.d. 0.6 14 15 31 13 2.5 0.6 0.4 1.5 0.23 4.1 38 21 5.2 n.d. 42 34 9.5 13 n.d. n.d. n.d.
(continued on next page)

Table 1 (continued)
Sample Type SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI(H2O) Sum(%) Rb Sr Ba Th U Zr Hf
ppm
silty clay
gravely sand
sand
silty sand
sand
sand
clay
Average of 69.77 0.61 13.38 5.60 0.09 1.17 0.93 1.07 2.68 0.16 3.89 132 152 600 7.0 2.2 254 5.0
sediments
Sedimentary rocks
3/2a Claystone/shale 39.43 0.82 16.85 23.31 0.11 2.52 1.44 0.54 2.81 0.10 11.03 98.96 147 64 362 n.d. n.d. 141 n.d.
3/2b Sandstone 65.48 0.54 11.95 8.33 0.17 2.38 2.57 1.14 1.27 0.17 5.93 99.93 65 53 213 n.d. n.d. 167 n.d.
6/8 Siltstone 57.67 0.87 21.25 7.39 0.05 2.61 0.27 0.86 4.52 0.14 4.21 99.83 227 47 609 n.d. n.d. 154 n.d.
7/3 Siltstone/shale 67.84 0.77 14.33 5.23 0.06 2.07 0.48 1.95 2.85 0.16 2.68 98.40 140 68 388 n.d. n.d. 256 n.d.
Average of sed. 57.61 0.75 16.10 11.06 0.10 2.39 1.19 1.12 2.86 0.14 5.96 144 58 393 179
rocks
Volcanoclastic-volcanic rocks
6/4 Morococala 67.74 0.46 16.00 2.61 0.04 0.90 2.04 3.44 4.75 0.26 1.16 99.40 258 517 894 n.d. n.d. 196 n.d.
rhyodacitic tuff
6/5 Morococala 66.96 0.46 16.45 2.52 0.03 1.26 2.10 3.24 4.64 0.26 1.52 99.45 231 526 941 n.d. n.d. 194 n.d.
rhyodacitic tuff
Average of 67.35 0.46 16.23 2.56 0.04 1.08 2.07 3.34 4.69 0.26 1.34 244 521 918 195
Morococala tuff
8/1 Soledad prim. 68.24 0.92 15.54 2.60 0.04 0.94 4.13 3.32 2.50 0.16 0.97 99.37 57 658 1023 n.d. n.d. 328 n.d.
weath. sand
8/2b Soledad dacitic tuff 62.82 0.82 15.77 4.05 0.06 2.08 3.20 2.57 4.16 0.32 4.11 99.94 152 547 1287 n.d. n.d. 256 n.d.
8/2d Soledad dacitic tuff 63.14 0.82 15.50 4.22 0.06 1.85 3.19 2.72 4.33 0.32 3.53 99.66 156 553 1305 n.d. n.d. 248 n.d.
8/3 Soledad dacitic tuff 68.46 0.50 15.08 2.26 0.03 0.96 2.39 3.35 3.43 0.18 2.52 99.15 122 490 1246 n.d. n.d. 154 n.d.
8/5b Soledad dacitic tuff 49.38 0.61 11.69 14.44 0.07 1.17 2.15 2.72 3.77 0.37 12.18 98.56 123 539 1286 n.d. n.d. 181 n.d.
8/6a Soledad dacite 68.61 0.69 15.38 3.09 0.04 1.32 2.47 3.51 4.84 0.10 0.43 100.70 151 525 862 n.d. n.d. 234 n.d.
8/6b Soledad dacite 66.31 0.69 15.51 3.33 0.05 1.39 2.82 3.27 4.06 0.27 1.88 99.84 165 545 1264 n.d. n.d. 226 n.d.
8/6c Soledad dacitic tuff 66.67 0.63 15.14 3.13 0.05 1.47 2.92 2.97 4.58 0.26 1.88 99.69 166 515 1337 n.d. n.d. 212 n.d.
8/6d Soledad dacitic tuff 67.13 0.69 16.09 3.56 0.04 0.83 3.00 3.48 4.43 0.31 0.48 100.02 164 568 1284 n.d. n.d. 227 n.d.
8/6g Soledad dacitic tuff 65.16 0.68 16.39 4.29 0.05 1.64 2.62 2.29 3.97 0.26 1.77 99.12 154 522 1576 n.d. n.d. 223 n.d.
8/6h Soledad dacite 66.52 0.69 15.42 3.38 0.04 1.39 2.73 2.94 4.79 0.27 1.92 100.35 164 535 1370 n.d. n.d. 230 n.d.
Average of 64.77 0.70 15.23 4.39 0.05 1.37 2.87 3.01 4.08 0.26 2.88 143 545 1258 229
Soledad rocks
contains very varied samples with anisotropic and yellowish- are natural components of the anisotropic and brown, coarse silty
reddish, silty paste and different originated volcanic clasts. paste. Division of the group into three subgroups (II/A-B-C) is based
Subgroup I/C/a has low sphericity, angular to subangular, on the dominant grain size of the aplastic sedimentary rock clasts
unweathered, hialopilitic volcanites as aplastics with different (Fig. 4eeg). Subgroup II/A contains pottery fragments with fine
composition (from dacitic through andesitic to basaltic andesitic e grained (claystone/shale-siltstone) sedimentary (sometimes low
based on mineralogical and fabric observations). Subgroup I/C/ grade metamorphic) rock and mineral fragments. The aplastic
b has an aplastic content of medium sphericity, subrounded, inclusions themselves contain quartz, muscovite-sericite (some-
weathered, vitrophyric volcanic rock fragments. times biotite) and plagioclase in a weakly-well oriented fabric.
Subgroup I/D has an almost serial fabric and contains no rock Subgroup II/B has similar composition to the previous one as regard
fragments (dominant grain size 50e100 mm). The major constitu- the aplastic inclusions but their dominant grain size is coarser
ents of these ceramics are quartz, plagioclase, biotite, hornblende (claystone-siltstone together with sandstone) and their fabric do not
and rare orthopyroxene. All of these mineral clasts are medium shows any metamorphic feature. It contains both rock and mineral
sphericity, subangular-subrounded and unweathered. Limited clasts. Subgroup II/C can be characterized with the coarsest domi-
opaque phases are present. nant grain size of the aplastics since this group of pottery has mainly
Group II (with sedimentary origin) is the other dominant petro- sandstone rock and mineral fragments as clastic constituents.
graphic group of the pottery assemblage with 93 representatives. It Regarding the mineralogical composition, this subgroup is also
has medium-coarse grained (175e200 mm and 300e1300 mm) hiatal similar to the previous ones.
fabric, 30e35% aplastic inclusion content. This group can be char- Group III (with metamorphic origin) is the smallest group in the
acterized on the base of the presence of subrounded-well rounded, investigated assemblage with 7 samples (Fig. 4h). This group
low-medium sphericity, clastic sedimentary rock fragments which incorporates coarse grained (200e300 mm), hiatal fabric ceramics
Table 1 (extended)
Nb Ta Y La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb Lu Sc V Cr Co Ni Zn As Sb Cs B Cl Gd
19.0 0.8 34 34 77 31 5.6 0.9 0.5 2.8 0.23 5.8 97 46 15.7 73.5 65 21 11.8 19 76 188 4.0
15.5 36 35 79 33 6.9 0.8 3.3 123 74 23.1 101.8 99
n.d. n.d. 14 65 115 42 7.5 1.4 n.d. 1.2 n.d. n.d. 47 n.d. n.d. 19.9 53 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. n.d. 14 69 118 45 6.3 1.4 n.d. 1.2 n.d. n.d. 47 n.d. n.d. 20.4 51 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
14 67 117 43 6.9 1.4 1.2 47 20.2 52
n.d. n.d. 46 691 1123 381 67.4 6.4 n.d. 3.8 n.d. n.d. 66 n.d. 1.4 27.6 52 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
20 113 203 73 12.3 2.0 1.6 72 20 4.4 29.8 86
with well rounded, medium sphericity and e in contrast to group I partly micaceous, secondarily carbonized silty clays. Their
and II e metamorphic mica schist rock and mineral fragments secondary carbonatic and limonitic content is present in the form of
(muscovite, quartz, opaque phases) in a white, isotropic clay paste. 75e175 mm sized nodules and dispersed mottles. The average
The eight building material remnants are divided into two types mineralogical composition is quartz, plagioclase, carbonate (most
(adobes and rocks) from the point of view of the petrographic probably calcite), limonite, mica (rather biotite than muscovite),
description. The adobe samples represented four types of adobes opaque phases and rare tourmaline. Occasionally argillaceous rock
according to their colour and internal structure: (1) loose fabric, grey fragments are found too. The remnants of the plant tempering can
adobe with a high quantity of plant remnants (No. 4/3), (2) loose be observed as characteristic shaped pores or sometimes
fabric, dark red adobe with a high quantity of plant remnants (No. 4/ phytolithes.
4), (3) loose fabric, light red adobe with a high quantity of plant The building stone samples are relatively monotonous,
remnants (No. 4/5), (4) loose fabric, yellowish brown plaster with finely layered, clastic sedimentary rock fragments with similar
a high quantity of plant remnants (No. 4/6). The most abundant mineralogical composition (normal or slightly undulatory extinc-
building stones are sandstones and siltstones, which clearly charac- tion quartz, fine grained muscovite or sericite (rare limonitized
terize the local geology. The selected building stone samples were: (1) mica) and weathered plagioclase, tourmaline, opaque phases,
fine-grained, dark grey, schistose siltstone (No. 4/1), (2) medium- zircon and secondary limonite) but with variable dominant grain
grained, fine bedded reddish brown sandstone (No. 4/2), (3) size (from 10e50 mm to 100e150 mm).
medium-grained, green, micaceous sandstone with undulate The investigated geological samples (35 thin sections) were
bedding planes (No. 4/7), (4) greenish grey shale (No. 4/8). separated according to the sampling considerations and the
The adobes are basically fine grained (from 10e30 mm to 50 mm geological setting. The alluvial sediments of the Paria Basin and the
average grain size), almost serial and quite dense fabric, limonitic, eastern rim of the Altiplano (18 samples: No. SED/01-04, No. 1/2-3,
Fig. 3. Archaeological styles of ceramic appearing at Paria Basin exemplified by plates (aeb) and bowls (cee).
5/1-3, 5/5-8, 7/1-2, 7/4-5, 7/7) were ranging from silty clay to fine four adobe remnants and 36 geological comparative samples
gravely sand and all of those could have originated from the fluvial (Table 1). Two separate ways of processing the raw data were
weathering of the Palaeozoic clastic sedimentary unit of the Eastern applied: 1) plotting of element concentrations in normalized,
Cordillera. These weakly-medium layered, medium sphericity, multi-elemental abundance (so called spider-) diagrams and 2)
rounded-well rounded, medium-well sorted sediments mainly displaying the concentrations in bivariate correlation diagrams,
consist of rock and mineral fragments of the above mentioned using element ratios instead of absolute concentrations. This way, it
Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks (shales/claystones-siltstones-sand- was possible to better outline the similarities and differences
stones) and subordinately varying quantities of weathered among the individual samples. The normalization of the multi-
volcanic-volcaniclastic rock clasts (their content depends on the elemental abundance patterns was done relative to an average
locality and its distance from the nearest volcanic sources). The value for Post Archaean Australian Shale (PAAS) which is
major mineral phases of sedimentary origin are quartz, feldspars, a preferred standard material in geochemical sedimentary rock
mica (muscovite-biotite) and clay minerals. The volcanic related investigations for fine grained siliciclastic sediments (Nance and
constituents are mainly devitrified, weathered volcanic glass with Taylor, 1976; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; McLennan, 1989, 2001).
crystallites and phenocrystals of feldspar, biotite (rarely horn- The interpretation of the spider diagrams using groups defined
blende) and quartz. by petrographic characteristics made it possible to check and prove
Samples from the Silurian sedimentary ridges of the Eastern the coherence of the groups by an independent method. For this
Cordillera (2 samples: No. 3/1-2a-2b) are weakly-well layered, reason see Fig. 5 for each group and subgroup. Group I can be
medium-well sorted shales-siltstones-sandstones mainly consist- generally characterized with basically average (similar to PAAS)
ing of quartz, feldspars, muscovite-biotite and probably clay major and trace element concentrations (Fig. 5aed). This pattern is
minerals invisible under the microscope. accompanied with a slight enrichment of specific cations in the
The pyroclastics of the south eastern Morococala Volcanic Field (2 silicate phases (MgO, CaO, Na2O), P2O5, mobile trace elements (Rb,
samples: No. 6/4-5) are weakly welded dacitic tuffs (ignimbrites) Sr, Ba), Zn and light rare earth elements, while TiO2, Fe2O3, Yb, V, Cr
with highly vitric, pumiceous matrix and feldspar (mainly plagioclase and Co show lower concentrations compared to the reference
and less K-feldspar), quartz and biotite phenocrysts. Low quantity of material. In the cases of I/A, I/B and I/D subgroups geochemical
accessories is represented: opaque minerals, apatite and zircon. composition supports the petrographic classification, the members
The tuffs and volcanites of the western Soledad caldera (13 of the groups are similar to each other from the point of view of the
samples: No. 8/1-3 and 8/5-6 with subsamples) have acidic- distribution of the immobile major and trace elements. In contrast
intermediate composition too. Welded dacitic-rhyodacitic tuffs with other subgroups of petrographic group I, subgroup I/C is
have feldspar (mainly plagioclase), biotite, hornblende and minor incoherent from both a petrographic and a geochemical point of
quartz content in the vitric, pumiceous matrix. Volcanites are dacites- view. This feature expresses the heterogeneity of the applied raw
rhyodacites with vitroporphyric fabric and similar phenocrysts as in materials of this subgroup concerning the mineralogy of both the
the volcaniclastics. The most abundant accessory is titanite. clay paste and the aplastics. Although some immobile elements (Zr,
Nb, Y) show similar relative content in subgroup I/C, most of the
5.2. Chemical analyses silicate cation position filling major elements vary. This character-
istic makes it very probable that the individual members of this
Three different methods for chemical analyses of solid materials subgroup originated from different sources.
(XRFþ/-INAAþ/-PGAA) were carried out on 39 representative Both major and trace element distribution of ceramics of group
ceramic fragments e chosen on the basis of microscopic studies e , II are more similar to the average composition of PAAS (Fig. 5eef).
Fig. 4. Thin section photomicrographs of the main petrographic types of pottery.
The most variable elements are Ca, P and Eu, Zn. The complete aplastics: i.e. finer grained subgroup II/A (with claystone/shale
group II is quite coherent especially in the case of immobile trace fragments) shows partly higher CaO and lower Eu concentrations
elements. Concerning this petrographic group, on the base of than the coarser grained samples.
geochemistry the subgroups cannot be distinguished as unequiv- The major and trace element distribution of petrographic group
ocally as by petrography. However, some tendencies can be out- III is basically different from that of the previous types (Fig. 5geh).
lined in connection with the average grain size and clay content of The high TiO2, Al2O3 and average rare earth element content, and
Fig. 5. Major and trace element distribution of the main petrographic types of pottery.
Fig. 6. Discrimination of the main petrographic types (I, II, III) of pottery by geochemically significant element ratios. (a) K2O/Na2O vs. SiO2/Al2O3 and (b) TiO2/Al2O3 vs. Y diagrams.
Legend: 1 e fine-grained alluvial sediments (clay-silt), 2 e coarse-grained alluvial sediments (sand-gravely sand), 3 e adobes, 4 e Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks, 5 e alluvial clay
from recent brick mine, 6 e Soledad tuffs, 7 e Morococala tuffs, 8 e petrographic type I of ceramics, 9 e petrographic type II of ceramics, 10 e petrographic type III of ceramics;
A e cluster of potential tempering materials of volcaniclastic origin, B e cluster of potential clayey paste materials of sedimentary origin, C e cluster of 1st group ceramics which
could be modelized.
the low Fe2O3, MgO, CaO and Co content of the sample underlines element diagram. However, the coarser grained sediments/rocks
a peculiar chemical character. This supports the idea of a different cluster closer to the higher TiO2/Al2O3 and lower Y values.
geological origin of the third group, although this suggestion is Using the bulk chemistry for the characterization of the
based on one measurement only. ceramics, the separation of the specimens into certain subgroups is
To present the geochemical characteristics of ceramic and not that clear, easy and evident as with petrography. However, the
comparative sediment/rock groups, absolute concentrations as well petrographic groups I and II can be quite clearly distinguished and
as ratios of elements of geochemical significance in provenance their relation to the potential raw material sources can be
analysis were applied. This led us to the conclusion that immobile assumed, additionally, almost all of the immobile major and trace
and partly incompatible major and trace elements should be elements suggest the same relationships. This outlines the
preferred. Fig. 6 shows bivariate correlation diagrams of major important role of aplastic inclusions in the bulk composition of
(Fig. 6a) and trace (Fig. 6b) element ratios. The main clusters of ceramics. The sample set of petrographic group I (marked with
ceramics in Fig. 6a group to the lower left part of the diagram which field C) is between the clusters of the pyroclastics (both Moroco-
can be explained by the predominance of the finer grained and cala and Soledad, marked with field A) and of the finer grained
more clay containing (with higher Al2O3 concentrations) raw sediments of the Paria Basin (marked with field B). On the other
materials (grouping in field B below the red broken line). Those can hand, the cluster of the petrographic group II overlaps well with
be separated into petrographic group I with lower and group II and the set of the finer grained sediments of the Paria Basin, and
III with higher K2O/Na2O ratios. The single representative of group especially to the archaeological adobes from Paria and partly the
III has the lowest SiO2/Al2O3 value. Considering the potential raw brick clays of the eastern rim of the Altiplano. It was not possible to
material samples, it can be stated that major element ratios cannot make a distinction between the two pyroclastic sources based on
distinguish the two volcaniclastic sources: both groups of tuffs and the bulk chemistry. Utilizing the major element ratios, the finer
volcanites have relatively low major element ratios (marked with (clayish-silty) and the coarser (sandy-gravely) sediments of the
field A). alluvial plain of the Paria basin could be separated. It was an
In contrast, chemical composition of the Silurian sedimentary important feature that all of the investigated ceramics clustered
rocks and sediments of the Paria Basin and of the adobe samples rather closer to the finer than to the coarser grained sediments.
disperse in a wide range. This complex data set can be separated
into two main clusters: a low SiO2/Al2O3 e high K2O/Na2O one and 5.3. Phase analyses
a high SiO2/Al2O3 e low K2O/Na2O one. The former is identical with
the Al2O3-rich, clayey (fine grained) sediments/rocks (marked with Instrumental mineralogical examination was used to determine
field B below the red broken line), while the latter resembles the the crystalline and weakly crystalline phases of the fine grained
coarser grained siliciclastic materials (above the red broken line). paste of the ceramics. Interpreting these data, the estimation of the
The trace element values and ratios in Fig. 6b outline a quite maximum firing temperature and the basic characterization of the
compact grouping of ceramic samples with medium TiO2/Al2O3 firing atmosphere could be done. In addition, further examination
(0.03e0.05) and medium Yb (20e40 ppm) values. Samples of of the firing conditions is planned. The XRD analyses were per-
petrographic group II shows a bit higher Y and lower TiO2/Al2O3 formed on the complete ceramic assemblage (206 pieces).
values than that of group I on the average. In this bivariate diagram, Fig. 7 shows typical representatives of each petrographic
the tuff related samples of the two volcaniclastic sources (low- ceramic group. The basic mineral phases of group I subtypes (the
medium TiO2/Al2O3 and low Y values) can be better distinguished lower curves in Fig. 7) are quartz, different feldspar types (plagio-
from each other (though they still do not have discriminative clase and K-feldspar) with variable crystallization stages and 10Å-
importance) since Morococala’s samples have lower TiO2/Al2O3 type phyllosilicate phase (illite-sericite, sometimes muscovite-
ratios than Soledad’s ones. When we use this combination of biotite with (002) basal reflection at 9.98 Å, weak (110) reflection
element ratios, sediments and Silurian sedimentary rocks of the at 4.48 Å, weak triplet between 2.70 and 3.00 Å). Weak elevation of
Paria Basin and the adobe samples can be separated much better the baseline between 3 and 4 Å indicates the presence of amor-
and form much clearer distinctive groups than in the major phous phase, especially in the case of subgroups I/A and I/B. In
Fig. 7. Mineralogical compositions of the main petrographic types of pottery by XRD.
addition, amphibole is present in subgroups I/A and I/D, and recrystallization of the matrix at about 850e950 C maximum firing
goethite and hematite are in quantities of accessories. Based on the temperature.
mineral assemblage, no significant phase changes could be detec- Variable but permanent presence of hematite in the ceramic
ted, so the estimated maximum firing temperature could not material signifies the basically oxidative character of the firing
exceed the 650e700 C. atmosphere, even in the case of the entirely white walled vessels
Group II ceramic (second curve from the top in Fig. 7) has high (e.g. petrographic group III).
quartz content too, but its 10Å-type phyllosilicate is rather illite
(with expressed (110) reflection at 4.49 Å, moderated (002) basal 6. Discussion
reflection at 9.98 Å and (004) reflection at 4.95 Å) and its feldspar
phase is more monotypical (plagioclase). Some dolomite and trace 6.1. Provenance
of hematite are also present. Similarly to the samples of group I of
pottery, no high-temperature phase formation during the firing Petrographic observation of ceramic fragments resulted in the
was observed. The maximum firing temperature is estimated to be classification of the assemblage into three main aplastic constituent
between 650 and 700 C (since the carbonate content is secondary, material groups: (I) pyroclastic and volcanic originated, (II) sedi-
it is irrelevant in the calculation). mentary rock originated and (III) metamorphic rock originated.
Group III of pottery (uppermost curve in Fig. 7) has an absolutely Based on the aplastics’ petrology-mineralogy and the fabric
different XRD pattern. Together with the predominant quartz, phyl- features, subgroups could be separated inside those groups. Con-
losilicate phase with basal reflection at 9.32 Å, mullite phase (with fronting this result with the geochemical data of the local rock
peaks at 5.39 Å, 4.66 Å, 3.43e3.46 Å) and an unidentifiable phase types and the knowledge on the geological setting, the applied raw
at 3.11 Å are detectable. In addition, a small amount of K-feldspar material (temper) sources of the first ceramic group have to be the
and hematite could be identified. Due to the neoformed Al-silicate pyroclastic areas of both the Morococala Volcanic Field and the
(mullite) phase, the mineral assemblage indicates high-temperature Soledad Caldera (10e30 km far from the site, so these are near
sources). On the one hand, this conclusion contradicts Arnold’s idea basically used for lower quality coarse ware production. In contrast,
(Arnold, 2005) that pottery raw material comes from not more than pyroclastic rocks of the surroundings of the Paria Basin became
a 7 km distance (if we presume that the place of manufacture was commonly used as tempering materials of fine wares during the
in the archaeological site of Paria and not outside of the settle- Inka period and especially for the Inka Imperial style pottery.
ment). On the other hand, it is in agreement with recent publica-
tions which identify the source area of ceramic materials at a longer 6.2. Technology
distance (Valera Guarda, 2002; Alden et al., 2006). The provenance
statement for the second ceramic group is that the utilized raw Information on the manufacturing technology of pottery could
material (untempered silty clay paste) came from the alluvial plain be obtained from the fabric investigations by petrographic micro-
of the Paria basin (max. 5 km distance from the site, so it is a local scope and phase analysis by XRD. The results of the former method
source). There is no potential source of the third ceramic group, have shown a basic difference concerning the three petrographic
neither in the vicinity nor in the wider surroundings (w50 km) of groups of ceramics. The first group of ceramics was formed from
the site. This information and the fact that the third ceramic group a mixture of artificially added temper and a relatively pure
is presented with a very low ratio in the pottery assemblage suggest (elutriated?) clay paste which proved to be a high quality, fine to
a foreign (imported) origin of the petrographic group III. medium-grained raw material. The pumiceous clasts of subgroup
There was a purposive selection of the sedimentary rock I/A are artificially added (temper) since fresh, angular grains could
derived, fluvial sediments as raw materials both for pottery and not survive as natural components of a clayey sediment (weath-
adobe production. The adobe samples clearly agree with the ering product). Unweathered, angular clasts of subgroup I/B are also
geochemical composition of the fine grained sediments of the Paria added to the paste as temper. The only exceptions are the repre-
Basin. Since these adobes show expressed similarity to the material sentatives of subgroup I/D (these samples have an almost serial
of the second ceramic group, this provides further evidence of the fabric, so it is not very probable that it was created intentionally).
local origin of the ceramic group II. It is not clear that the collected The utilization of unweathered rock fragments has modern analo-
local fine grained sediments could provide the raw material (clay gies (Velde and Druc, 1999b; Ixer and Lunt, 1991). The method of
paste) for petrographic group I. the preparation could be e similarly to the present-day techniques
Based on the fact that tuff and partly volcanic lithofragments in e the exploiting, crushing, sieving and mixing with the clay paste.
group I of ceramics are mostly quite unweathered, a raw material The second ceramic group contains fragments of vessels man-
site near to the original, physically unweathered rock outcrop has to ufactured from untempered silty clay which was a natural mixture
be assumed. However, for some subgroup I/C samples it has to be and potters used this lower quality, coarser grained material
mentioned that: on the one hand, the grain size and the quantity of without any significant elaboration (e.g. elutriation).
certain lithic clast types does not always correlate, while on the Clastic components of group III are natural parts of the mixture,
other hand, the quantity and the unweathered condition of the and the fabric suggests the usage of the primary weathering
clasts directly correlates. product near to the rock outcrop as the raw material. It means that
As was already discussed by others (Bray et al., 2005), it is very the third group of pottery was made from a natural (untreated),
probable that it was not only the shape and decoration that rep- coarse grained, sandy-silty clay which could be exploited from the
resented value in the classical Inka imperial pottery but the immediate vicinity of the rock outcrop.
material itself (and its source) too. In addition to this, it is The XRD technique provided information on the firing condi-
a common feature throughout the Andes in space and time that tions of the ceramic production. In contrast with the case of the raw
volcanic and tuff rocks were used as temper of the ceramics (Ixer material preparation types, it is not possible to make significant
and Lunt, 1991; Velde and Druc, 1999a) and this can be traced in distinctions between the first and second petrographic groups of
the present-day traditional handicraft too (Arnold, 1972). Based on ceramics. Characterizing these pottery groups together, it can be
these suggestions, it is possible that in the case of Paria the usage of said that the majority of the ceramics of Paria was fired at the same
volcaniclastic rocks was not a chance of the Inka ceramic making or similar circumstances, namely at 700e900 C maximum firing
potters but a conscious selection of a more highly esteemed temperature and in a dominantly oxidizing but varying atmosphere.
material. These statements are just partly in agreement with the former
Combining archaeometrical results with the basic archaeolog- conclusions on Inka pottery. For coastal and Lake Titicaca region
ical data on the ceramic artefacts leads to new insights. It is very ceramics Wagner et al. (1989) suggested a higher, 850e1000 C
probable that the material used relates rather to the vessel styles firing temperature by Mössbauer spectroscopic investigations. The
(quality and stylistic features) and e in this way e to the age of the atmosphere of the pottery firing in Paria is similar to the typical
artefacts than to the function. This idea is supported by the fact that Inka imperial ceramic style, which is hard reduction fired with
potteries of Inka and Inka-Colonial Period are entirely classified surface oxidation (sandwich structured) or oxidized throughout in
into the petrographic group I, while potteries of the Late Interme- cross section (Menzel and Riddell, 1986).
diate Period are only from the petrographic group II. Another In contrast, the third petrographic group of pottery can be
important observation relates to the Inka Period ceramic assem- distinguished from the former ones concerning even the firing
blage. On the one hand, Inka style (high-quality Inka Imperial and conditions. The presence of the neoformed, high-temperature phase
Inka pacaje) potteries can almost entirely (96%) be connected to the (mullite) suggests a higher (850e950 C) maximum firing tempera-
petrographic group I (and about two-third to subgroup I/B). On the ture. The final surface colour is white and in cross section white, light
other hand, lower-quality Inka-imitating local potteries, artefacts grey or pale rose. These differences e together with the foreign
with a mixed style (of both Late Intermediate and Inka) and Late material utilization e suggest a pottery making technology isolated
Intermediate Period ceramics excavated from Inka buildings are from the Inka imperial fashion or the typical highland traditions (Ixer
almost entirely (93%) classified into the petrographic group II. and Lunt, 1991). However, the vessel shapes and principally their
These observations suggest that the local alluvial sediments of decorations are typical Inka forms (plates) which can rather indicate
the Paria Basin were utilized for pottery manufacturing from the a separated, well defined Inka pottery manufacturing workshop.
earlier periods (Late Intermediate) and stayed in use during the The above estimated firing temperatures do not contradict the
Inka Period for the making a local product imitating the imperial idea of open pit firing suggested by others (Ixer and Lunt, 1991;
fashion (i.e. the Inka local style). In addition, this raw material is Hayashida, 1998; Sillar, 1997). Although some pottery workshop
sites have been identified by finding equipments of manufacturing financially supported by the OTKA Hungarian Scientific Research
(e.g. Hayashida, 1998; Donnan, 1997), no actual Inka kiln remnants Fund (Grant T 047048), the Curtiss T. & Mary G. Brennan Founda-
have ever been found. tion and the Heinz Foundation. The PGAA experiments have been
done at the Budapest Neutron Centre, with the support of NAP
7. Conclusions VENEUS05 Contract No. OMFB 00184/2006. The geological field
work was supported by the Hungarian Geological Society. The
The first detailed archaeometrical investigations on Inka authors are thankful to Carola Condarco (project Co-Director),
Period ceramics from the territory of Bolivia were carried out on Alvaro Condarco Castellón and Mile Vargas Rosquellas (Oruro,
excavated and surface finds of the Paria Basin (Dept. of Oruro). To Bolivia). A special thank to Margit Csömöri (Dept. of Petrology and
get information on the raw material usage and the manufacturing Geochemistry, Eötvös Loránd University of Budapest) for giving
techniques applied by the potters, we made a comparative anal- efficient help in the sample preparation. For the careful reading and
ysis of the ceramic fragments, other archaeological artefacts linguistic corrections of the manuscript, many thanks to dr. Jesse L.
(adobes/plasters, building stones) and potential raw materials Weil and dr. Katalin Gherdán.
(fine grained sediments for the clay paste and clastic materials for
the temper). References
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Petro-Mineralogy and Geochemistry As Tools of Provenance Analysis On Archaeological Pottery Study of Inka Period Ceramics From Paria, Bolivia

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 36 (2012) 1e17

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of South American Earth Sciences

Petro-mineralogy and geochemistry as tools of provenance analysis on

1. Introduction a low pressure e high temperature (ﬁring) process. Hence, classical

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2.1. Archaeological context

The Paria Basin is located approximately 200 km to the south-

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(continued on next page)

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14 67 117 43 6.9 1.4 1.2 47 20.2 52

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Fig. 4. Thin section photomicrographs of the main petrographic types of pottery.

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Fig. 7. Mineralogical compositions of the main petrographic types of pottery by XRD.

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