Assignment No.

1 : Long Span Structure

• Structures with span larger than 15-20 meters are

regarded to as long span structures.
• For such structures span is unable to be achieved
with ordinary R.C.C. construction.
• Generally long span result in flexible, column – free
internal spaces, reduces substructure costs and
time to erect the structure.

Common structural systems for long

span structure :
• Long span beams
• Long span trusses
• Long span roof structure
Loads acting onto a structural systems :
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Wind load
4. Stress created by temperature differences
5. Stress created by other form of disruption including
ground movement, vibration, deformation or earthquake
Materials suitable for various forms of long Materials suitable for various
forms of long span and complex structure span and complex structure
1. All reinforced concrete including precast
2. All metal (e.g. mild-steel, structural steel, stainless steel or alloyed
aluminum
3. All timber
4. Laminated timber
5. Metal/RC combined
6. Plastic-coated Textile material
7. Fiber reinforced plastic
 Classification of long span structures

Form – Active Section – Active Vector – Active Surface – Active

• System of flexible , • Systems of rigid, • Systems of short, solid, • System of flexible or
non-rigid matter , in solid, linear straight lineal members, in rigid planes able to
which the redirection elements, in which which the redirection of forces resist tension,
of forces is effected redirection of is effected by vector partition, compression or shear,
by particular form forces is effected I.e. by multidirectional in which the
design and by mobilization of splitting of single force simply redirection of forces
characteristic form sectional forces. to tension or compressive is effected by
elements. mobilization of
sectional forces.
Long span beams:
• The use of long span beams results in range of
benefits, including flexible, columns- free internal
spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced
steel erection times.
• Many long span solutions are also well adapted to
facilitate the integration of services without
increasing the overall floor depth.

Types of long span beams:

1. Parallel beam approach
2. Composite beams with web
openings
3. Cellular composite beams
4. Hunched composite beams
Parallel beam approach :
• The parallel beam approach is effective for
spans up to around 20 m.
• Floor grids comprise two layers of fully continuous
beams running in orthogonal directions.
• Services running in either direction can be
integrated within these two layers, so
that services passing in any direction can
be accommodated within the structural floor depth.
• A further benefit is that , being fully continuous ,
the depth of the beams themselves is
reduced without incurring the expense and
complexity of rigid, full strength connections.
Composite beams with web openings :
• Web openings are typically formed in beams to
allow services to pass through the beams.
• This enables the structural and services zones to
occupy the same space, thereby reducing the
effective overall depth of floor construction for
a given spanning capability.
• Openings may also be formed for aesthetic reasons,
for instance with cambered beams used
to support a roof.
• Span : 15-30 m
Cellular composite beams :
• Cellular beams are a form of beam with
multiple regular web openings, formed by
splitting two rolled sections
longitudinally, to form two tee sections.
• The two tees, which may not
come from the same donor section are
then welded together to form an I-section
with web openings which have a
characteristic shape.
Hunched composite beams :
• Haunches may be added at the ends of
a composite beam to provide
moment continuity.
• The stiffness and strength of
the connections mean that the rest of
the span can be shallower ,and
services passed under it.
• Span : 20-30 m

Long span trusses​ :

• A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural
elements.
• The most common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors
and internal loading such as services and suspended celling, are readily provided.
• The main reasons for using trusses are :
1. Long span
2. Light-weight
3. Reduced deflection
4. Opportunity to support considerable loads.
Types of long span trusses :
1. Pratt truss
2. Warren truss
3. North light truss
4. Saw tooth truss
5. Fink truss Typical truss building
arrangements
Pratt truss :
• Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 75 m in span.
• In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads.
• This type of truss is used where gravity loads are predominant, uplift loads are predominant,
which may be the case in open buildings such as aircraft hangers.

Pratt truss (gravity loads) Pratt truss with secondary members

Pratt truss (uplift loads) Duo-pitch Pratt truss

Warren truss :
• In this type of truss, diagonal members are
alternatively in tension and in compression. Modified Warren truss
• The warren truss has equal length compression and
tension web members, and fewer members than a
Pratt truss.
• Warren trusses are commonly used in long
span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in span.
• This type of truss it's also used for
the horizontal truss of gantry/crane girders.

North Light truss North light truss :

• North light trusses are traditionally used for short
spans in industrial workshop-type buildings.
• They allow max. Benefit to be gained from
natural lighting by the use of glazing on the steeper
sloping pitch which generally faces north or north-
east to reduce solar gain.
• Truss running perpendicular to the plane of
the north light truss, to provide large column-free
spaces.
Saw-tooth truss :
• A variation of the north light truss is the saw-
tooth truss which is used in multi-bay Saw-tooth (or Butterfly) truss
buildings.
• Similar to the north light truss, it is typical to
include a truss of the vertical face running
perpendicular to the plane of the saw-tooth
truss.

Fink truss :
Fink truss • The fink truss offers economy in term of steel
weight for short-span high-pitched roofs as the
members are subdivided into shorter elements.
• There are many ways of arranging and
subdividing the chords and internal members.
• This type of truss is commonly used to construct
roofs in houses.
Long span roof structure :
• Long span roofs are generally defined as those that exceed 12 m in span
• Long span roofs can create flexible, column-free internal spaces and can
reduce substructure costs & construction times.
• They are commonly found in a wide range of building types such as
factories, warehouses, agricultural buildings, hangars, large shops, public
halls , gymnasiums and arenas.
• Their primary functions are, similar to normal roofs, typically, protecting
against the weather, restricting the spread of fire, providing sound and
thermal insulation.

Portal frames :
• Portal frame are a type of structural frame, that, in their simplest form,
are characterized by a beam (or rafter ) supported at either end
by columns , however, the joints between the beam and columns are 'rigid'
so that the bending moment in the beam is transferred to the columns.
This means that the beam can be reduced in sectional size and can span
large distances.
• Typically, the joint between the beam and the columns is made 'rigid' by
the addition of a haunch, bracket, or by a deepening of the section at the
joints. Portal frames are generally fabricated from steel, reinforced precast
concrete, or laminated timber sometimes referred to as 'glulam'.
•Apex System
•Apex bracket to full depth of the rafter 'C' sections with full width return flanges for strength.
•Apex brace (collar tie in tension) is vital in the construction process and aids greatly in maintaining structural
integrity in high winds.
•Haunch Bracket
•Designed to strengthen the rafter-over-column haunch joint and prevent axial torque (twisting).
•In larger buildings, the addition of knee braces helps to further strengthen the haunch bracket.
•Purlins and Girts
•Only high grade New Zealand Steel between 450-550 MPa is used within our frames.
•Minimum of 10% overlap on purlins and girts to decrease lateral movement within the portal frame.
• Footing Fixing
• A number of fixing methods are available to combat the internal pressures and the reduction of bracing when
adding openings into the building design.
• Bracing
• Bracing is an essential element when designing portal frame buildings.
• Cross bracing, fly bracing and double eave connections are just some of the bracing elements used.

Types of portal frames :

1. Pitched roof symmetric
portal frame
2. Portal frame with internal
mezzanine floor
3. Crane portal frame with column
brackets
4. Tied portal frame
5. Mono-pitch portal frame
6. Propped portal frame
7. Mansard portal frame
8. Curved rafter portal frame
9. Cellular beam portal frame