Water filter

A large-scale flocculation water filter

A water filter is a device which removes impurities from water by means of a fine physical
barrier, chemical process and/or biological process. Filters are used to cleanse water for
irrigation, drinking water, aquariums, and swimming pools.

Methods of filtration
Main article: Filtration

The physics of water filters is based on sieving, adsorption, ion exchanges and other processes.
Unlike a sieve or screen, a filter can remove particles much smaller than the holes through which
the water passes.

Types of filters
Water treatment plant filters

Types of water filters include media filters, screen filters, disk filters, slow sand filter beds, rapid
sand filters and cloth filters.[1]

Point-of-use/domestic drinking water filters

A number of different filter types are available for use in the home, including granular activated
carbon filters (GAC), metallic alloy filters, microporous ceramic filters, carbon block resin
(CBR) and ultrafiltration membranes. Some filter units may be composite systems comprising
several of these filter technologies. Jug filters can be used for small quantities of water for
drinking. Some kettles have such filters built in, predominantly to reduce the effects of limescale.
Portable water filters

Water filters are also used by recreational hikers, by aid organizations during humanitarian
emergencies, and by the military. These filters are usually small, portable and light (1-2
pounds/0.5-1.0 kg or less) and usually filter water by working a mechanical hand pump, although
some use a siphon drip system to force water through while others are built right into water
bottles. Dirty water is pumped via a screen-filtered flexible silicon tube through a specialized
filter, ending up in a container. These types of filters work to remove bacteria, protozoa and
microbial cysts, all of which can cause disease. Filters include fine meshes, which must be
replaced, and ceramic water filters which must have their outside abraded off when it becomes
clogged with impurities.

These water filters should not be confused with devices or tablets that are water purifiers. Some
of these devices have the ability to remove or kill viruses such as hepatitis A and rotavirus.

Homemade water filters

A homemade waterfilter is often employed for making drinking water

Water filters can also be made on-site, using locally available materials such as grass, charcoal
(eg from burned firewood) and sand. These filters have been used by soldiers, and outdoor
enthusiasts.[2] Due to their low cost, they can be made/used by anyone, including the poor, who
often do not have access to safe drinking water.

See also
 Backwash (physical phenomenon)
 Water purification
 Reverse osmosis
 Distillation
 Carbon filtering
 Sand separator
 Settling basin
 Swimming pool sanitation
Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solution through a
membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side.
More formally, it is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high solute concentration
through a membrane to a region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of
the osmotic pressure. This is the reverse of the normal osmosis process, which is the natural
movement of solvent from an area of low solute concentration, through a membrane, to an area
of high solute concentration when no external pressure is applied. The membrane here is
semipermeable, meaning it allows the passage of solvent but not of solute.

The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense barrier layer in the polymer matrix where
most separation occurs. In most cases the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass
through this dense layer while preventing the passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This process
requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high concentration side of the membrane, usually
2–17 bar (30–250 psi) for fresh and brackish water, and 40–70 bar (600–1000 psi) for seawater,
which has around 24 bar (350 psi) natural osmotic pressure which must be overcome.

This process is best known for its use in desalination (removing the salt from sea water to get
fresh water), but it has also been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial and domestic
applications since the early 1970s.

When two solutions with different concentrations of a solute are mixed, the total amount of
solutes in the two solutions will be equally distributed in the total amount of solvent from the
two solutions.

Instead of mixing the two solutions together, they can be put in two compartments where they
are separated from each other by a semipermeable membrane. The semipermeable membrane
does not allow the solutes to move from one compartment to the other, but allows the solvent to
move. Since equilibrium cannot be achieved by the movement of solutes from the compartment
with high solute concentration to the one with low solute concentration, it is instead achieved by
the movement of the solvent from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute
concentration. When the solvent moves away from low concentration areas, it causes these areas
to become more concentrated. On the other side, when the solvent moves into areas of high
concentration, solute concentration will decrease. This process is termed osmosis. The tendency
for solvent to flow through the membrane can be expressed as "osmotic pressure", since it is
analogous to flow caused by a pressure differential.

In reverse osmosis, in a similar setup as that in osmosis, pressure is applied to the compartment
with high concentration. In this case, there are two forces influencing the movement of water: the
pressure caused by the difference in solute concentration between the two compartments (the
osmotic pressure) and the externally applied pressure.
Applications
Drinking water purification

Around the world, household drinking water purification systems, including a reverse osmosis
step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking.

Such systems typically include a number of steps:

 a sediment filter to trap particles including rust and calcium carbonate

 optionally a second sediment filter with smaller pores
 an activated carbon filter to trap organic chemicals, and chlorine which will attack and degrade
TFC reverse osmosis membranes
 a reverse osmosis (RO) filter which is a thin film composite membrane (TFM or TFC)
 optionally a second carbon filter to capture those chemicals not removed by the RO membrane.
 optionally an ultra-violet lamp is used for disinfection of any microbes that may escape filtering
by the reverse osmosis membrane.

In some systems, the carbon pre-filter is omitted and cellulose triacetate membrane (CTA) is
used. The CTA membrane is prone to rotting unless protected by the chlorinated water, while the
TFC membrane is prone to breaking down under the influence of chlorine. In CTA systems, a
carbon post-filter is needed to remove chlorine from the final product water.

Portable reverse osmosis (RO) water processors are sold for personal water purification in
various locations. To work effectively, the water feeding to these units should best be under
some pressure (40 psi or greater is the norm). Portable RO water processors can be used by
people who live in rural areas without clean water, far away from the city's water pipes. Rural
people filter river or ocean water themselves, as the device is easy to use (Saline water may need
special membranes). Some travelers on long boating trips, fishing, island camping, or in
countries where the local water supply is polluted or substandard, use RO water processors
coupled with one or more UV sterilizers. RO systems are also now extensively used by marine
aquarium enthusiasts. In the production of bottled mineral water, the water passes through an RO
water processor to remove pollutants and microorganisms. In European countries, though, such
processing of Natural Mineral Water (as defined by a European Directive) is not allowed under
European law. (In practice, a fraction of the living bacteria can and do pass through RO
membranes through minor imperfections, or bypass the membrane entirely through tiny leaks in
surrounding seals. Thus, complete RO systems may include additional water treatment stages
that use ultraviolet light or ozone to prevent microbiological contamination.)

In the water treatment industry there is a chart of types of contaminants, their sizes and which
ones pass through the various types of membranes.[1] Membrane pore sizes can vary from 1 to
50,000 angstroms depending on filter type. "Particle filtration" removes particles of 10,000
angstroms or larger. Microfiltration removes particles of 500 angstroms or larger.
"Ultrafiltration" removes particles of roughly 30 angstroms or larger. "Nanofiltration" removes
particles of 10 angstroms or larger. Reverse osmosis is in the final category of membrane
filtration, "Hyperfiltration", and removes particles larger than 1 angstrom.
In the United States military, R.O.W.P.U.'s (Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit,
pronounced "roh-poo") are used on the battlefield and in training. They come ranging from 1500
GPD (gallons per day) to 150,000 GPD and bigger depending on the need. The most common of
these are the 600 GPH (gallons per hour) and the 3,000 GPH. Both are able to purify salt water
and water contaminated with N.B.C. (Nuclear/Biological/Chemical) agents from the water.
During a normal 24 hour period, one unit can produce anywhere from 12,000 to 60,000 gallons
of water, with a required 4 hour maintenance window to check systems, pumps, R.O. elements
and the engine generator. A single ROWPU can sustain a force of a battalion size element or
roughly 1,000 to 6,000 soldiers.

Water and wastewater purification

Rain water collected from storm drains is purified with reverse osmosis water processors and
used for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling in Los Angeles and other cities, as a solution
to the problem of water shortages.

In industry, reverse osmosis removes minerals from boiler water at power plants. The water is
boiled and condensed repeatedly. It must be as pure as possible so that it does not leave deposits
on the machinery or cause corrosion. It is also used to clean effluent and brackish groundwater.

The process of reverse osmosis can be used for the production of deionized water.

In July 2005, Singapore announced that a process named NEWater would be a significant part of
its future water plans. It involves using reverse osmosis to treat domestic wastewater before
discharging the NEWater back into the reservoirs.

Dialysis

Reverse osmosis is similar to the technique used in dialysis, which is used by people with kidney
failure. The kidneys filter the blood, removing waste products (e.g. urea) and water, which is
then excreted as urine. A dialysis machine mimics the function of the kidneys. The blood passes
from the body via a catheter to the dialysis machine, across a filter.

Food Industry

In addition to desalination, reverse osmosis is a more economical operation for concentrating

food liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional heat-treatment processes. Research has been
done on concentration of orange juice and tomato juice. Its advantages include a low operating
cost and the ability to avoid heat treatment processes, which makes it suitable for heat-sensitive
substances like the protein and enzymes found in most food products.

Reverse osmosis is extensively used in the dairy industry for the production of whey protein
powders and for the concentration of milk to reduce shipping costs. In whey applications, the
whey (liquid remaining after cheese manufacture) is pre-concentrated with RO from 6% total
solids to 10-20% total solids before UF (ultrafiltration) processing. The UF retentate can then be
used to make various whey powders including WPI (whey protein isolate) used in bodybuilding
formulations. Additionally, the UF permeate, which contains lactose, is concentrated by RO from
5% total solids to 18–22% total solids to reduce crystallization and drying costs of the lactose
powder.

Although use of the process was once frowned upon in the wine industry, it is now widely
understood and used. An estimated 60 reverse osmosis machines were in use in Bordeaux,
France in 2002. Known users include many of the elite classed growths (Kramer) such as
Château Léoville-Las Cases in Bordeaux.

Reverse osmosis is used globally throughout the wine industry for many practices including wine
and juice concentration, taint removal; such as acetic acid, smoke taint and brettanomyces taint;
and alcohol removal. The patent holder for these processes, Vinovation, Inc., claims to have
served over 1000 wineries worldwide, either directly or through one if its licensed partners, in
the last 15 years. Its use has become so widely accepted that patent infringers have sprung up on
several continents.

Car Washing

Because of its lower mineral content, Reverse Osmosis water is often used in car washes during
the final vehicle rinse to prevent water spotting on the vehicle. Reverse osmosis water displaces
the mineral-heavy reclamation water (municipal water). Reverse Osmosis water also enables the
car wash operators to reduce the demands on the vehicle drying equipment such as air blowers.

Maple Syrup Production

Starting in the 1970s, some maple syrup producers started using reverse osmosis to remove water
from sap before being further boiled down to syrup. The use of reverse osmosis allows
approximately 75–80% of the water to be removed from the sap, reducing energy consumption
and exposure of the syrup to high temperatures. Microbial contamination and degradation of the
membranes has to be monitored.

Hydrogen production

For small scale production of hydrogen, reverse osmosis is sometimes used to prevent formation
of minerals on the surface of electrodes and to remove organics and chlorine from drinking
water.

Reef aquariums

Typical RO/DI unit used for an aquarium

Many reef aquarium keepers use reverse osmosis systems for their artificial mixture of seawater.
Ordinary tap water can often contain excessive chlorine, chloramines, copper, nitrogen,
phosphates, silicates, or many other chemicals detrimental to the sensitive organisms in a reef
environment. Contaminants such as nitrogen compounds and phosphates can lead to excessive,
and unwanted, algae growth. An effective combination of both reverse osmosis and deionization
(RO/DI) is the most popular among reef aquarium keepers and is preferred above other water
purification processes due to the low cost of ownership and minimal running costs. (Where
chlorine and chloramines are found in the water carbon filterion is needed before the membrane
as the common residential membrane used by reef keepers does not cope with these compounds.)

Desalination
Areas that have no or limited surface water or groundwater may choose to desalinate seawater or
brackish water to obtain drinking water. Reverse osmosis is the most common method of
desalination, although 85 percent of desalinated water is produced in multistage flash plants.[2]
Large reverse osmosis and multistage flash desalination plants are used in the Middle East,
especially Saudi Arabia. The energy requirements of the plants are large, but electricity can be
produced relatively cheaply with the abundant oil reserves in the region. The desalination plants
are often located adjacent to the power plants, which reduces energy losses in transmission and
allows waste heat to be used in the desalination process of multistage flash plants, reducing the
amount of energy needed to desalinate the water and providing cooling for the power plant.

Sea Water Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) is a reverse osmosis desalination membrane process that
has been commercially used since the early 1970s. Its first practical demonstration was done by
Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan from UCLA in Coalinga, California. Because no heating
or phase changes are needed, energy requirements are low in comparison to other processes of
desalination, though still much higher than other forms of water supply (including reverse
osmosis treatment of wastewater).[citation needed]

The typical single pass SWRO system consists of the following components:

 Intake
 Pre-treatment
 High-pressure pump
 Membrane assembly
 Remineralization and pH adjustment
 Disinfection

Pre-treatment

Pre-treatment is important when working with RO and nanofiltration (NF) membranes due to the
nature of their spiral wound design. The material is engineered in such a fashion to allow only
one way flow through the system. As such the spiral wound design doesn't allow for backpulsing
with water or air agitation to scour its surface and remove solids. Since accumulated material
cannot be removed from the membrane surface systems they are highly susceptible to fouling
(loss of production capacity). Therefore, pretreatment is a necessity for any RO or NF system.
Pretreatment in SWRO system has four major components:

Screening of solids

Solids within the water must be removed and the water treated to prevent fouling of the
membranes by fine particle or biological growth, and reduce the risk of damage to high-pressure
pump components.

Cartridge filtrationation - Generally string-wound polypropylene filters that remove between 1 - 5

micrometre sized particles.

Dosing of oxidizing biocides such as chlorine to kill bacteria followed by bisulfite dosing to deactivate the
chlorine which can destroy a thin-film composite membrane. There are also biofouling inhibitors which
do not kill bacteria but simply prevent them from growing slime on the membrane surface.

Prefiltration pH adjustment

If the pH, hardness and the alkalinity in the feedwater result in a scaling tendency when they are
concentrated in the reject stream, acid is dosed to maintain carbonates in their soulble carbonic
acid form.

CO3-- + H3O+ = HCO3- + H2O

HCO3- + H3O+ = H2CO3 + H2O

Carbonic acid cannot combine with calcium to form calcium carbonate scale. Calcium Carbonate Scaling
tendency is estimated using the Langelier Saturation Index. Adding too much sulfuric acid to control
carbonate scales may result in calcium sulfate, barium sulfate or strontium sulfate scale formation on
the RO membrane.

Prefiltration Antiscalants

Scale inhibitors (also known as antiscalants) prevent formation of all scales compared to acid
which can only prevent formation of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate scales. In
addition to inhibiting carbonate and phosphate scales, antiscalants inhibit sulfate and fluoride
scales, disperse colloids and metal oxides and specialty products exist to inhibit silica formation.

High pressure pump

The pump supplies the pressure needed to push water through the membrane, even as the
membrane rejects the passage of salt through it. Typical pressures for brackish water range from
225 to 375 lbf/in² (1.6 to 2.6 MPa). In the case of seawater, they range from 800 to 1,180 lbf/in²
(6 to 8 MPa).
Membrane assembly

The membrane assembly consists of a pressure vessel with a membrane that allows feedwater to
be pressed against it. The membrane must be strong enough to withstand whatever pressure is
applied against it. RO membranes are made in a variety of configurations, with the two most
common configurations being spiral-wound and a hollow-fiber.

Reinmineralisation and pH adjustment

The desalinated water is very corrosive and is "stabilized" to protect downstream pipelines and
storages usually by adding lime or caustic to prevent corrosion of concrete or cement lined
surfaces. Liming material is used in order to adjust pH at 6.8 to 8.1 to meet the potable water
specifications, primarily for effective disinfection and for corrosion control.

Disinfection

Post-treatment consists of stabilizing the water and preparing for distribution. Desalination
processes are very effective barriers to pathogenic organisms, however disinfection is used to
ensure a "safe" water supply. Disinfection (sometimes called germicidal or bactericidal) is
employed to kill any bacteria protozoa and virus that have bypassed the desalination process into
the product water. Disinfection may be by means of ultraviolet radiation, using UV lamps
directly on the product, or by chlorination or chloramination (chlorine and ammonia). In many
countries either chlorination or chloramination is used to provide a "residual" disinfection agent
in the water supply system to protect against infection of the water supply by contamination
entering the system.

Disadvantages
Reverse osmosis units sold for residential purposes offer water filtration at the cost of large
quantities of waste water [3].

New developments
Prefiltration of high fouling waters with another, larger-pore membrane with less hydraulic
energy requirement, has been evaluated and sometimes used since the 1970s. However, this
means the water passes through two membranes and is often repressurized, requiring more
energy input in the system, increasing the cost.

Other recent development work[4] has focused on integrating RO with electrodialysis in order to
improve recovery of valuable deionized products or minimize concentrate volume requiring
discharge or disposal.
Activated carbon

Activated carbon

Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal or activated coal, is a form of carbon that has
been processed to make it extremely porous and thus to have a very large surface area available
for adsorption or chemical reactions. [1] The word activated in the name is sometimes substituted
by active. Due to its high degree of microporosity, just one gram of activated carbon has a
surface area of approximately 500 m², as determined typically by nitrogen gas adsorption.
Sufficient activation for useful applications may come solely from the high surface area, though
further chemical treatment often enhances the adsorbing properties of the material. Activated
carbon is usually derived from charcoal.

Production
Activated carbon is produced from carbonaceous source materials like nutshells, wood and coal.
It can be produced by one of the following processes:

1. Physical reactivation: The precursor is developed into activated carbons using gases.
This is generally done by using one or a combination of the following processes:
o Carbonization: Material with carbon content is pyrolysed at temperatures in the
range 600-900 °C, in absence of air (usually in inert atmosphere with gases like
argon or nitrogen)
o Activation/Oxidation: Raw material or carbonised material is exposed to oxidizing
atmospheres (carbon dioxide, oxygen, or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C,
usually in the temperature range of 600-1200 °C.
2. Chemical activation: Impregnation with chemicals such as acids like phosphoric acid or
bases like potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide or salts like zinc chloride, followed by
carbonization at temperatures in the range of 450-900 °C. It is believed that the
carbonization / activation step proceeds simultaneously with the chemical activation. This
technique can be problematic in some cases, because, for example, zinc trace residues
may remain in the end product. However, chemical activation is preferred over physical
activation owing to the lower temperatures and shorter time needed for activating
material.
Properties
A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m², with 1500 m² being
readily achievable. Carbon aerogels, while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and
are used in special applications.

Under an electron microscope, the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed.
Individual particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of porosity; there may be
many areas where flat surfaces of graphite-like material run parallel to each other, separated by
only a few nanometers or so. These micropores provide superb conditions for adsorption to
occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many surfaces simultaneously. Tests of
adsorption behaviour are usually done with nitrogen gas at 77 K under high vacuum, but in
everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption
from its environment, liquid water from steam at 100 °C and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an
atmosphere.

Physically, activated carbon binds materials by Van der Waals force or London dispersion force.

Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including alcohols, glycols, ammonia,
strong acids and bases, metals and most inorganics, such as lithium, sodium, iron, lead, arsenic,
fluorine, and boric acid. Activated carbon does adsorb iodine very well and in fact the iodine
number, mg/g, (ASTM D28 Standard Method test) is used as an indication of total surface area.

Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve
the adsorptive capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), radioisotopes iodine-131 (131I)
and mercury (Hg). This property is known as chemisorption.

Classifications
Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their
behaviour, surface characteristics and preparation methods. However, some broad classification
is made for general purpose based on their physical characteristics.

Powdered activated carbon (PAC)

Traditionally, active carbons are made in particular form as powders or fine granules less than
1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between .15 and .25 mm.[citation needed] Thus they present a
large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. PAC is made up of crushed or
ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated mesh sieve or sieve.
Granular activated carbon is defined as the activated carbon being retained on a 50-mesh sieve
(0.297 mm) and PAC material as finer material, while ASTM classifies particle sizes
corresponding to an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. PAC is not commonly used
in a dedicated vessel, owing to the high headloss that would occur. PAC is generally added
directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity
filters.

Granular activated carbon (GAC)

Granular activated carbon has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated
carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus
an important factor. These carbons are therefore preferred for all adsorption of gases and vapours
as their rate of diffusion are faster. Granulated carbons are used for water treatment,
deodourisation and separation of components of flow system. GAC can be either in the granular
form or extruded. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8x20, 20x40, or 8x30 for liquid phase
applications and 4x6, 4x8 or 4x10 for vapour phase applications. A 20x40 carbon is made of
particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally
specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm)
(generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm)
as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous phase carbons are the 12x40 and 8x30
sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and headloss characteristics.

Extruded activated carbon (EAC)

Consists of extruded and cylindrical shaped activated carbon with diameters from 0.8 to 45 mm.
These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high
mechanical strength and low dust content.

Impregnated carbon

Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnant such as iodine, silver, cation
such as Al, Mn, Zn, Fe, Li, Ca have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution
control especially in museums and galleries. Due to antimicrobial/antiseptic properties, silver
loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purifications of domestic water. Drinking
water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated
carbon and flocculating agent Al(OH)3. Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of
H2S and mercaptans. Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported.

Polymers coated carbon

This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to give a
smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The resulting carbon is useful for
hemoperfusion. Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's
blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the
blood.

Other

Activated carbon is also available in special forms such as cloths and fibres.
Properties of activated carbon
Iodine Number

Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. Iodine number is the most fundamental
parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level
(higher number indicates higher degree of activation), often reported in mg/g (typical range 500-
1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 Å, or up to
2 nm) by adsorption of iodine from solution. It is equivalent to surface area of activated carbon
between 900 m²/g and 1100 m²/g. It is the standard measure for liquid phase applications.

Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbon when the
iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is 0.02 normal. Basically, iodine number is a measure
of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in
the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging
from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a
carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution as chemical interactions
with the adsorbate may affect the iodine uptake giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine
number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it
has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental
correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the
particular application.

Molasses

Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. Molasses number or molasses
efficiency is a measure of the macropore content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 Å, or
larger than 2 nm) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a
high adsorption of big molecules (range 95-600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is
similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%-185%)
and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number
(range 525-110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.

Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution

that has been dilited and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of
color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger
adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular
waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good
measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this
parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given
two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses
number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into
the adsorption space.
Tannin

Tannins are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of
macropores and mesopores adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported
in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm-362 ppm).

Methylene blue

Some carbons have a mesopore (20 Å to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium
size molecules, such as the dye Methylene Blue. Methylene Blue adsorption is reported in
g/100g (range 11-28 g/100g).

Dechlorination

Some carbons are evaluated based on the dechlorination half-value length, which measures the
chlorine-removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the
depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine level of a flowing stream from 5 ppm to 3.5 ppm.
A lower half-value length indicates superior performance.

Apparent density

Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better quality activated
carbon.

Hardness/abrasion number

It is a measure of the activated carbon’s resistance to attrition. It is important indicator of

activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces imposed by
backwashing, etc. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on
the raw material and activity level.

Ash content

It reduces the overall activity of activated carbon. It reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The
metals (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water soluble
ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important
for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths, a carbon with a low soluble ash content
should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and
excess plant/algal growth.

Carbon tetrachloride activity

Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated carbon

tetrachloride vapour.
Particle size distribution

The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the
faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against
pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution
can provide significant operating benefits.

Examples of adsorption
Heterogeneous catalysis

The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst
interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst
surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and
allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.

Adsorption refrigeration

Adsorption refrigeration and heat pump cycles rely on the adsorption of a refrigerant gas into an
adsorbent at low pressure and subsequent desorption by heating. The adsorbent acts as a
"chemical compressor" driven by heat and is, from this point of view, the "pump" of the system.
It consists of a solar collector, a condenser or heat-exchanger and an evaporator that is placed in
a refrigerator box. The inside of the collector is lined with an adsorption bed packed with
activated carbon adsorbed with methanol. The refrigerator box is insulated filled with water. The
activated carbon can adsorb a large amount of methanol vapours in ambient temperature and
desorb it at a higher temperature (around 100 degrees Celsius). During the daytime, the sunshine
irradiates the collector, so the collector is heated up and the methanol is desorbed from the
activated carbon. In desorption, the liquid methanol adsorbed in the charcoal heats up and
vaporizes. The methanol vapour condenses and is stored in the evaporator.

At night, the collector temperature decreases to the ambient temperature, and the charcoal
adsorbs the methanol from the evaporator. The liquid methanol in the evaporator vaporizes and
adsorbs the heat from the water contained in the trays. Since adsorption is a process of releasing
heat, the collector must be cooled efficiently at night. As mentioned above, the adsorption
refrigeration system operates in an intermittent way to produce the refrigerating effect.

Helium gas can also be 'pumped' by thermally cycling activated carbon 'sorption pumps' between
4 kelvins and higher temperatures. An example of this is to provide the cooling power for the
Oxford Instruments AST series dilution refrigerators. 3He vapour is pumped from the surface of
the dilute phase of a mixture of liquid 4He and its isotope 3He. The 3He is adsorbed onto the
surfaces of the carbon at low temperature (typically <4K), the regeneration of the pump between
20 and 40 K returns the 3He to the concentrated phase of the liquid mixture. Cooling occurs at
the interface between the two liquid phases as 3He 'evaporates' across the phase boundary. If
more than one pump is present in the system a continuous flow of gas and hence constant
cooling power can be obtained, by having one sorption pump regenerating while the other is
pumping. Systems such as this allow temperatures as low as 10 mK (0.01 kelvin) to be obtained
with very few moving parts.

Applications
Activated carbon is used in gas purification, gold purification, metal extraction, water
purification, medicine, sewage treatment, air filters in gas masks and filter masks, filters in
compressed air and many other applications.

One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing field. It is
very widely employed for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is a main
purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A
variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities
and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. Due to passage of direct
current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives
generate unwanted break down products in solution. Their excessive build up can adversely
affect the plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment
removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level.

Environmental applications

Carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water streams
both in the field and in industrial processes such as:

 Spill cleanup
 Groundwater remediation
 Drinking water filtration
 Air purification
 Volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry cleaning, gasoline dispensing
operations, and other processes

In 2007 University college West-Flanders HOWEST (Belgium) started the research after water
treatment on festivals. The result was a fullscale activated carbon installation, applicated at the
Dranouter music festival in 2008. The next 20 years the water of this festival will be treated with
this technology.

Medical applications

Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion.

It is thought to bind to poison and prevent its absorption by the gastrointestinal tract. In cases of
suspected poisoning, medical personnel either administer activated charcoal on the scene or at a
hospital's emergency department. Dosing is usually empirical at 1 gram/kg of body weight,
usually given only once. Depending on the drug taken, it may be given more than once. In rare
situations activated charcoal is used in Intensive Care to filter out harmful drugs from the blood
stream of poisoned patients. Activated carbon has become the treatment of choice for many
poisonings, and other decontamination methods such as ipecac-induced emesis or stomach
pumps are now used rarely.

While activated carbon is useful in an acute poisoning situation, it has been shown to not be
effective in long term accumulation of toxins, such as with the use of toxic herbicides.[2]

Ingestion of activated carbon prior to consumption of ethanol has been shown to reduce
absorption of alcohol into the blood. 5 to 15 milligrams of charcoal per kilogram of body weight
taken at the same time of 6 ounces of pure ethanol (which equals about 10 servings of a alcoholic
beverage alcohol), over the course of one hour, has very apparent effects at reducing potential
blood alcohol content[3]

Mechanisms of action:

 Binding of the toxin to prevent stomach and intestinal absorption. Binding is reversible so
a cathartic such as sorbitol may be added as well.
 It interrupts the enterohepatic circulation of some drugs/toxins and their metabolites

Incorrect application (e.g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration which can sometimes
be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.[4] The use of activated charcoal is
contraindicated when the ingested substance is an acid, an alkali, or a petroleum product.

For pre-hospital use, it comes in plastic tubes or bottles, commonly 12.5 or 25 grams, pre-mixed
with water. The trade names include InstaChar, SuperChar, Actidose, and Liqui-Char, but it is
commonly called simply Activated Charcoal.

In the past charcoal biscuit was sold in England in the early 19th century, originally as an
antidote to flatulence and stomach trouble.[5]

Tablets of activated charcoal are still used as a folk remedy and over-the-counter drug to treat
diarrhea, indigestion, and flatulence.[6] They were also used in the past by doctors for this
purpose. There is some evidence of its effectiveness as a treatment for irritable bowel syndrome
(IBS),[7] and to prevent diarrhea in cancer patients who have received irinotecan.[8] It can interfere
with the absorbency of some medications, and lead to unreliable readings in medical tests such as
the guaiac card test.[9] A type of charcoal biscuit has been marketed as a pet care product.

Gas purification

Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove
oil vapours, odours, and other hydrocarbons from the air. The most common designs use a 1
stage or 2 stage filtration principle where activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media.
Activated charcoal is also used in spacesuit Primary Life Support Systems.
Distilled alcoholic beverage purification

Activated carbon filters can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can
affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon
filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and
significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.

Mercury scrubbing
Activated carbon, often impregnated with iodine or sulfur, is widely used to trap mercury
emissions from coal fired power stations, medical incinerators, and from natural gas at the
wellhead. This carbon is a specialty product costing more that $2.00 per pound. However, it is
often not recycled.

The mercury laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. If the activated carbon contains
less than 260 ppm mercury, Federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in
concrete) for landfilling. However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in
the high mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule). It is this material
which is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of
1000 tons per year.

The problem of disposal of mercury laden activated carbon is not unique to the U.S. In the
Netherlands this mercury is largely recovered[10] and the activated carbon is disposed by
complete burning.

01828100956241 FORID:11

 
Anthracite

Anthracite coal

Anthracite (Greek Ανθρακίτης, literally "a type of coal", from Anthrax [Άνθραξ], coal) is a
hard, compact variety of mineral coal that has a high lustre. It has the highest carbon count and
contains the fewest impurities of all coals, despite its lower calorific content.

Anthracite coal is the highest of the metamorphic rank, in which the carbon content is between
92% and 98%.[1] The term is applied to those varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other
hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition. Anthracite ignites with difficulty
and burns with a short, blue, and smokeless flame.

Other terms which refer to anthracite are blue coal, hard coal, stone coal (not to be confused
with the German Steinkohle or Dutch steenkool which are broader terms meaning all varieties of
coal of a stonelike hardness and appearance, like bituminous coal and often anthracite as well, as
opposed to Lignite, which is softer), blind coal (in Scotland), Kilkenny coal (in Ireland), crow
coal (or craw coal from its shiny black appearance), and black diamond ("Blue Coal" is the
term for a once-popular, specific, trademarked brand of anthracite coal, mined by the Glen Alden
Coal Company in Pennsylvania, and sprayed with a blue dye at the mine before shipping to its
Northeastern U.S.A. markets to distinguish it from its competitors). The imperfect anthracite of
north Devon and north Cornwall (around Bude) in England, which is used as a pigment, is
known as culm. Culm is also the term used in geological classification to distinguish the strata in
which it is found and similar strata in the Rhenish hill countries are known as the Culm
Measures. In America, culm is used as an equivalent for waste or slack in anthracite mining.
Properties
Anthracite is similar in appearance to the mineraloid jet and is sometimes used as a jet imitation.

Anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its greater hardness, its higher relative
density of 1.3-1.4, and luster, which is often semi-metallic with a mildly brown reflection. It
contains a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. It is also free
from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when rubbed. Anthracitization
is the transformation of bituminous coal into anthracite coal.

The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15 percent. The heat
content of anthracite ranges from 22 to 28 million Btu per short ton (26 to 33 MJ/kg) on a moist,
mineral-matter-free basis. The heat content of anthracite coal consumed in the United States
averages 25 million Btu/ton (29 MJ/kg), on the as-received basis (i.e., containing both inherent
moisture and mineral matter). Note: Since the 1980s, anthracite refuse or mine waste has been
used for steam electric power generation.

Anthracite coal may be considered to be a transition stage between ordinary bituminous coal and
graphite, produced by the more or less complete elimination of the volatile constituents of the
former; and it is found most abundantly in areas that have been subjected to considerable earth-
movements, such as the flanks of great mountain ranges. Anthracite coal is a product of
metamorphism and is associated with metamorphic rocks, just as bituminous coal is associated
with sedimentary rocks. For example, the compressed layers of anthracite that are deep mined in
the folded (metamorphic) Appalachian Mountains of the Coal Region of northeastern
Pennsylvania are extensions of the layers of bituminous coal that are strip mined on the
(sedimentary) Allegheny Plateau of Kentucky and West Virginia, and Western Pennsylvania. In
the same way the anthracite region of South Wales is confined to the contorted portion west of
Swansea and Llanelli, the central and eastern portions producing steam coal, coking coal and
domestic house coals.

Structurally it shows some alteration by the development of secondary divisional planes and
fissures so that the original stratification lines are not always easily seen. The thermal
conductivity is also higher, a lump of anthracite feeling perceptibly colder when held in the
warm hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal at the same temperature. The chemical
composition of some typical anthracites is given in the article coal.

Economic value
In southwest Wales, anthracite was burned as a domestic fuel from the medieval period or
earlier.[2]

In the United States, anthracite coal history began in 1790 in Pottsville, Pennsylvania, with the
discovery of coal made by the hunter Necho Allen in what is now known as the Coal Region.
Legend has it that Allen fell asleep at the base of Broad Mountain and woke to the sight of a
large fire because his campfire had ignited an outcropping of anthracite coal. By 1795, an
anthracite-fired iron furnace had been built on the Schuylkill River.

Anthracite was first experimentally burned as a residential heating fuel in the USA on 11
February 1808, by Judge Jesse Fell in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, on an open grate in a
fireplace. Anthracite differs from wood in that it needs a draft from the bottom, and Judge Fell
proved with his grate design that it was a viable heating fuel.

In the spring of 1808, John and Abijah Smith shipped the first commercially-mined load of
anthracite down the Susquehanna River from Plymouth, Pennsylvania, marking the birth of
commercial anthracite mining in the United States. From that first mine, production rose to an
all-time high of over 100 million tons in 1917.

From the late 1800s until the 1950s, anthracite was the most popular fuel for heating homes and
other buildings in the northern United States, until it was supplanted first by oil burning systems
and more recently by natural gas systems as well. Many large public buildings, like schools,
were heated with anthracite-burning furnaces through the 1980s.

Current anthracite production averages around 5 million tons per year.

The principal use of anthracite today is for a domestic fuel in either hand-fired stoves or
automatic stoker furnaces. It delivers high energy per its weight and burns cleanly with little
soot, making it ideal for this purpose. Its high value makes it prohibitively expensive for power
plant use. Other uses include the fine particles used as filter media, and as an ingredient in
charcoal briquettes.

Anthracite is processed into different sizes by what is commonly referred to as a breaker (see
coal). The large coal is raised from the mine and passed through breakers with toothed rolls to
reduce the lumps to smaller pieces. The smaller pieces are separated into different sizes by a
system of graduated sieves, placed in descending order. Sizing is necessary for different types of
stoves and furnaces.

During the American Civil War, Confederate blockade runners burned anthracite as fuel for their
boilers to avoid giving away their position to the blockaders.[citation needed]

In the early 20th century United States, the Lackawanna Railroad started using only the more
expensive anthracite coal in their passenger locomotives, dubbed themselves "The Road of
Anthracite," and advertised widely that travelers on their line could make railway journeys
without getting their clothing stained with soot. The advertisements featured a white-clad woman
named Phoebe Snow and poems containing lines like "My gown stays white / From morn till
night / Upon the road of Anthracite". Similarly, the Great Western Railway in the UK was able
to use its access to anthracite (it dominated the anthracite region) to earn a reputation for
efficiency and cleanliness unmatched by other UK companies.

Formerly, anthracite was largely used, both in America and South Wales, as blast-furnace fuel
for iron smelting, but for this purpose it has been largely superseded by coke in the former
country and entirely in the latter. An important application has, however, been developed in the
extended use of internal combustion motors driven by the so-called "mixed", "poor", "semi-
water" or "Dowson gas" produced by the gasification of anthracite with air and a small
proportion of steam. This is probably the most economical method of obtaining power known;
with an engine as small as 15 horse-power the expenditure of fuel is at the rate of only 1 lb. per
horse-power hour, and with larger engines it is proportionately less. Large quantities of
anthracite for power purposes were formerly exported from South Wales to France, Switzerland
and parts of Germany. Commercial mining has now ceased.

In June 2008, anthracite was US$150/short ton wholesale.[3]

Anthracite coal mining today

Anthracite coal mining in Eastern Pennsylvania continues in the early 21st Century and
contributes up to 1% of the Pennsylvania Gross State Product. Over 2,000 people were making
their living mining anthracite coal as of 1995. Most of the mining currently involves reclaiming
coal from slag heaps (waste piles from past coal mining) next to closed mines. Some
underground anthracite coal mining is also taking place up to this day. As petroleum and natural
gas grow more expensive, anthracite coal is growing more important as an energy source for an
energy-hungry country. Source

Underground Fires
Historically from time to time, underground veins of coal have caught fire, probably from
careless or unfortunate mining activities. The pocket of ignited coal is fed oxygen by vent paths
that have not yet been discovered. These smolder year in, year out. Exhaust vents in populated
areas are soon sensed and are sealed. Vents in uninhabited areas remain undiscovered.
Occasionally, vents are discovered via fumes sensed by passers-by, often in forested areas.
Attempts to extinguish those remaining have been futile. The existence of the site of the
underground combustion is usually identified in the winter where fallen snow is seen to be
melted by the warmth conducted from below. Proposals for harnessing this heat as geothermal
energy have not been successful. Several such combustion areas exist today, known mainly to
the local Wyoming Valley residents.

A vein of anthracite that caught fire in Centralia, Pennsylvania in 1962 has been burning ever
since, turning the once thriving mining hamlet into a ghost town.[4]

Major reserves
The largest fields of anthracite coal in the United States are found in Northeastern Pennsylvania
called the Coal Region, where there are 7 billion short tons (6.3 billion tonnes) of minable
reserves. Deposits at Crested Butte, Colorado were mined historically.

Anthracites of newer, tertiary or cretaceous age, are found in the Crow's Nest part of the Rocky
Mountains in Canada, and at various points in the Andes in Peru.
Classifications
The common American classification is as follows:[citation needed]

Lump, steamboat, egg and stove coals, the latter in two or three sizes, all three being above 1-1/2
in. size on round-hole screens.

Classification Minimum Size (inches) Maximum Size (inches)

Chestnut 7/8 1 1/2
Pea 9/16 7/8
Buckwheat 3/8 9/16
Rice 3/16 3/8
Barley 3/32 3/16

The primary sizes used in the United States for domestic heating are Chestnut, Pea, Buckwheat
and Rice, with Chestnut and Rice being the most popular. Chestnut and Pea are used in hand
fired furnaces while the smaller Rice and Buckwheat are used in automatic stoker furnaces. Rice
is currently the most sought after size due to the ease of use and popularity of that type of
furnace.

In South Wales a less elaborate classification is adopted, but great care is exercised in hand-
picking and cleaning the coal from included particles of pyrites in the higher qualities known as
best malting coals, which are used for kiln-drying malt and hops.

Anthracite dust can be made into briquettes and is sold in the United Kingdom under trade names
such as Phurnacite, Ancit and Taybrite.

Iron oxide
.

Iron oxide pigment

Altogether there are sixteen known iron oxides and oxyhydroxides.[1]

Oxides
 FeO, iron(II) oxide, (wüstite)
 Fe3O4, iron(II,III) oxide, (magnetite)
 Fe2O3, iron(III) oxide
o α-Fe2O3, hematite
o β-Fe2O3
o γ-Fe2O3, maghemite
o ε-Fe2O3

Hydroxides
 iron(II) hydroxide (Fe(OH)2)
 iron(III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3), (bernalite)

Oxide-hydroxides
 goethite (α-FeOOH),
 akaganéite (β-FeOOH),
 lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH),
 feroxyhyte (δ-FeOOH),
 ferrihydrite (Fe5HO8·4H2O approx.)
 high-pressure FeOOH
 schwertmannite
 green rusts FeIIIxFeIIy(OH)3x+2y-z(A-)z; where A- is Cl- or 0.5SO42-

Uses
Some iron oxides are widely used in ceramic applications, particularly in glazing. Many metal
oxides provide the colors in glazes after being fired at high temperatures.

Iron oxides yield pigments (see Iron oxide pigments). Natural iron oxides pigments are called
ochres. Many classic paint colors, such as raw and burnt siennas and umbers, are iron-oxide
pigments. These pigments have been used in art since the earliest prehistoric art known, the cave
paintings at Lascaux and nearby sites. Iron (III) oxide is typically used.

Iron pigments are also widely used in the cosmetic field. They are considered to be nontoxic,
moisture resistant, and nonbleeding. Iron oxides graded safe for cosmetic use are produced
synthetically in order to avoid the inclusion of ferrous or ferric oxides, and impurities normally
found in naturally occurring iron oxides. Typically, the Iron(II) oxide pigment is black, while the
Iron(III) oxide is red or rust-colored. (Iron compounds other than oxides can be other colors.)

Black oxide converts ferrous materials into magnetite for corrosion resistance purposes. A grade
of hematite called MIO (micaceous iron oxide) is used as anti-corrosion paint (many bridges,
Eiffel tower).

Iron oxides are used as contrast agent in Magnetic Resonance Imaging, to shorten proton
relaxation times, (T1, T2 and T2*). The superparamagnetic contrast agents are composed of a
water insoluble crystalline magnetic core, usually magnetite (Fe3O4) or maghemite (γ-Fe2O3).
The mean core diameter ranges from 4 to 10 nm. This crystalline core is often surrounded by a
layer of dextran or starch derivatives. The total size of the particle is expressed as the mean
hydrated particle diameter. USPIO, Ultrasmall Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide nanoparticles,
which usually have single crystal cores, have a mean hydrated particle diameter less than 50 nm.
Iron oxide tastes good They may also be used in electrochromic paints.

Properties
 Iron(II) oxide (FeO) or ferrous oxide is also known as wüstite in its mineral form. As a
powder this black oxide can cause explosions as it readily ignites.

 Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) or ferric oxide is also known as hematite (alpha form) or
maghemite (gamma form) in its mineral form. As an industrial chemical it is commonly
called rouge. Purified, it is used as a coating in magnetic audio and computer media. In a
dry or alkaline environment it can cause passivation and inhibits rust, yet it is also a
major component of rust and dried blood.

 Iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4) or ferrous ferric oxide is also known as magnetite or lodestone
in its mineral form, a major iron ore. Magnetite forms readily when iron oxidizes
underwater, and so is often found inside tanks or below the waterline of ships.

It is not difficult to extract iron from ore as compared with the similarly abundant elements
aluminium and titanium.
Slow sand filter
Slow sand filters are used in water purification for treating raw water to produce a potable
product. They are typically 1 to 2 metres deep, can be rectangular or cylindrical in cross section
and are used primarily to treat surface water. The length and breadth of the tanks are determined
by the flow rate desired by the filters, which typically have a loading rate of 0.1 to 0.2 metres per
hour (or cubic metres per square metre per hour). Although they are often the preferred
technology in many developing countries they are also used to treat water in some of the most
developed countries such as the UK where they are used to treat water supplied to London.

Features
Slow sand filters have a number of unique qualities:

1. Unlike other filtration methods, slow sand filters use biological processes to clean the
water, and are non-pressurized systems. Slow sand filters do not require chemicals or
electricity to operate.
2. Cleaning is traditionally by use of a mechanical scraper, which is usually driven into the
filter bed once it has been dried out. However, some slow sand filter operators use a
method called "wet harrowing", where the sand is scraped while still under water, and the
water used for cleaning is drained to waste;
3. For municipal systems there usually is a certain degree of redundancy, it is desirable for
the maximum required throughput of water to be achievable with one or more beds out of
service;
4. Slow sand filters require relatively low turbidity levels to operate efficiently. In summer
conditions and in conditions when the raw water is turbid, blinding of the filters occurs
more quickly and pre-treatment is recommended.
5. Unlike other water filtration technologies that produce water on demand, slow sand filters
produce water at a slow, constant flow rate and are usually used in conjunction with a
storage tank for peak usage. This slow rate is necessary for healthy development of the
biological processes in the filter.

While many municipal water treatment works will have 12 or more beds in use at any one time,
smaller communities or households may only have one or two filter beds.

In the base of each bed is a series of herringbone drains that are covered with a layer of pebbles
which in turn is covered with coarse gravel. Further layers of sand are placed on top followed by
a thick layer of fine sand. The whole depth of filter material may be more than 1 metre in depth,
the majority of which will be fine sand material. On top of the sand bed sits a supernatant layer
of raw, unfiltered water.

How it works
Slow sand filters work through the formation of a gelatinous layer (or biofilm) called the
hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke in the top few millimetres of the fine sand layer. The
Schmutzdecke is formed in the first 10-20 days of operation[1] and consists of bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic insect larvae. As a Schmutzdecke ages, more algae tend
to develop and larger aquatic organisms may be present including some bryozoa, snails and
Annelid worms. The Schmutzdecke is the layer that provides the effective purification in potable
water treatment, the underlying sand providing the support medium for this biological treatment
layer. As water passes through the Schmutzdecke, particles of foreign matter are trapped in the
mucilaginous matrix and dissolved organic material is adsorbed and metabolised by the bacteria,
fungi and protozoa. The water produced from a well-managed slow sand filter can be of
exceptionally good quality with 90-99% bacterial reduction.[2]

Slow sand filters slowly lose their performance as the Schmutzdecke grows and thereby reduces
the rate of flow through the filter. Eventually it is necessary to refurbish the filter. Two methods
are commonly used to do this. In the first, the top few millimetres of fine sand is scraped off to
expose a new layer of clean sand. Water is then decanted back into the filter and re-circulated for
a few hours to allow a new Schmutzdecke to develop. The filter is then filled to full depth and
brought back into service.[2] The second method, sometimes called wet harrowing, involves
lowering the water level to just above the Schmutzdecke, stirring the sand and thereby
suspending any solids held in that layer and then running the water to waste. The filter is then
filled to full depth and brought back into service. Wet harrowing can allow the filter to be
brought back into service more quickly. [1]

Ion exchange

Ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution
and a complex. In most cases the term is used to denote the processes of purification, separation,
and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions with solid polymeric or
mineralic 'ion exchangers'.

Ion exchange resin beads.

Typical ion exchangers are ion exchange resins (functionalized porous or gel polymer), zeolites,
montmorillonite, clay, and soil humus. Ion exchangers are either cation exchangers that
exchange positively charged ions (cations) or anion exchangers that exchange negatively
charged ions (anions). There are also amphoteric exchangers that are able to exchange both
cations and anions simultaneously. However, the simultaneous exchange of cations and anions
can be more efficiently performed in mixed beds that contain a mixture of anion and cation
exchange resins, or passing the treated solution through several different ion exchange materials.

Ion exchangers can be unselective or have binding preferences for certain ions or classes of ions,
depending on their chemical structure. This can be dependent on the size of the ions, their
charge, or their structure. Typical examples of ions that can bind to ion exchangers are:

 H+ (proton) and OH− (hydroxide)

 Single charged monoatomic ions like Na+, K+, or Cl−
 Double charged monoatomic ions like Ca2+ or Mg2+
 Polyatomic inorganic ions like SO42− or PO43−
 Organic bases, usually molecules containing the amino functional group -NR2H+
 Organic acids, often molecules containing -COO− (carboxylic acid) functional groups
 Biomolecules which can be ionized: amino acids, peptides, proteins, etc.

Ion exchange is a reversible process and the ion exchanger can be regenerated or loaded with
desirable ions by washing with an excess of these ions.

Applications

Ion exchange column, used for protein purification.

Ion exchange is widely used in the food & beverage, hydrometallurgical, metals finishing,
chemical & petrochemical, pharmaceutical, sugar & sweeteners, ground & potable water,
nuclear, softening & industrial water, semiconductor, power, and a host of other industries.

Most typical example of application is preparation of high purity water for power engineering,
electronic and nuclear industries; i.e. polymeric or mineralic insoluble ion exchangers are
widely used for water softening, water purification, water decontamination, etc.

Ion exchange is a method widely used in household (laundry detergents and water filters) to
produce soft water. This is accomplished by exchanging calcium Ca2+ and magnesium Mg2+
cations against Na+ or H+ cations (see water softening).

Industrial and analytical ion exchange chromatography is another area to be mentioned. Ion
exchange chromatography is a chromatographical method that is widely used for chemical
analysis and separation of ions. For example, in biochemistry it is widely used to separate
charged molecules such as proteins. An important area of the application is extraction and
purification of biologically produced substances such as amino acids and proteins.

Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including separating uranium
from plutonium and other actinides, including thorium, and lanthanum,neodymium, ytterbium,
samarium, lutetium, from each other and the other lanthanides. There are two series of rare earth
metals, the lanthanides and the actinides, both of which families all have very similar chemical
and physical properties. Ion-exchange used to be the only practical way to separate them in large
quantities, until the advent of solvent extraction techniques which can be scaled up enormously.

A very important case is the PUREX process (plutonium-uranium extraction process) which is
used to separate the plutonium and the uranium from the spent fuel products from a nuclear
reactor, and to be able to dispose of the waste products. Then, the plutonium and uranium are
available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor fuel and nuclear weapons.

The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements,
such as zirconium and hafnium, which incidentally is also very important for the nuclear
industry. Zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons, used in building reactors, but
hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods.

Ion exchangers are used in nuclear reprocessing and the treatment of radioactive waste.

Ion exchange resins in the form of thin membranes are used in chloralkali process, fuel cells and
vanadium redox batteries.

Others
In soil science, cation exchange capacity is the ion exchange capacity of soil for positively
charged ions. Soils can be considered as natural weak cation exchangers.

In planar waveguide manufacturing ion exchange is used to create the guiding layer with higher
index of refraction.