Topographic mapping

and curve fitting

Mahesh Shrivastava
What is the elevation of point A and C ?
What is the slope between points A and C?
 points of 105
points of 100 100

98 102

100 105
D

101 108

105
Questions 1:
Make the contour of the map 0.5unit
1.5 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.5

1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0

2.0 0.0 -1.0 0.0

3.0 2.0

1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Questions 2:
Make the contour of the map 0.5unit
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

1.0 -2.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0

-2.0 -3.0 -2.0 0.0 -1.0 0.0

1.0 -2.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Curve Fitting
 Data distribution

x
 Data distribution

x
 Data distribution and straight line fit

x
 Least Squares Method

If our fit is a straight line f (x ) = ax + b

2 2 2 2
Error = ∑ d i2 = [y1 − f (x1 )] + [y2 − f (x2 )] + [y3 − f (x3 )] + [y4 − f (x4 )]

N N
2 2
Error = ∑ [yi − f (xi )] = ∑ [yi − (axi + b )]
i =1 i =1
 •The ‘best’ line has minimum error between line and data points
•This is called the least squares approach, since square of the error
is minimized.
N
⎧ 2⎫
Minimize⎨ Error = ∑ [yi − (axi + b )] ⎬
⎩ i =1 ⎭
Take the derivative of the error with respect to a and b, set each to zero

⎛ N 2⎞
∂⎜ ∑ [yi − (axi + b )] ⎟
∂ (Error )
= ⎝ i =1 ⎠ =0
∂a ∂a

⎛ N 2⎞
∂⎜ ∑ [yi − (axi + b )] ⎟
∂ (Error )
= ⎝ i =1 ⎠ =0
∂b ∂b
 ∂ (Error ) N
= −2∑ xi [yi − (axi + b )] = 0
∂a i =1

∂ (Error ) N
= −2∑ [yi − (axi + b )] = 0
∂b i =1

Solve for the a and b so that the previous two equations both = 0
 N N N
2
a ∑ x + b∑ xi = ∑ xi yi
i
i =1 i =1 i =1

N N
a ∑ xi + bN = ∑ yi
i =1 i =1

put these into matrix form

N
⎡ ⎤ ⎡N ⎤
⎢N ∑ xi ⎥
b ⎢ ∑ yi ⎥
⎢ i =1
⎥ ⎡⎢ ⎤⎥ = ⎢ i =1 ⎥
⎢N N
⎥
2 ⎣ ⎦ a ⎢ N
⎥
⎢∑ xi ∑ xi ⎥ ⎢∑ xi yi ⎥
⎣ i =1 i =1 ⎦ ⎣ i =1 ⎦
 N N N
N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi
i =1 i =1 i =1
a= 2
N N
⎡ ⎤
2
N ∑ x − ⎢∑ xi ⎥i
i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦

N N N N
2
∑ y ∑x −∑x ∑x
i =1
i
i =1
i
i =1
i
i =1
i yi
b= 2
N N
⎡ ⎤
2
N ∑ x − ⎢∑ xi ⎥i
i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦
 Linear Regression Analysis

• Linear curve fitting

• Polynomial curve fitting
• Power Law curve fitting: y=axb
• ln(y) = ln(a)+bln(x)
• Exponential curve fitting: y=aebx
• ln(y)=ln(a)+bx
 Goodness of fit and the correlation coefficient

• A measure of how good the regression line as a

representation of the data.
• It is possible to fit two lines to data by
• (a) treating x as the independent variable : y=ax+b, y as
the dependent variable or by
• (b) treating y as the independent variable and x as the
dependent variable.
• This is described by a relation of the form x= a'y +b'.
• The procedure followed earlier can be followed again to
find best values of a’ and b’.
 N N N
' 2 '
a ∑ y + b ∑ yi = ∑ xi yi
i
i =1 i =1 i =1

N N
' '
a ∑ yi + b N = ∑ xi
i =1 i =1

put these into matrix form

N
⎡ ⎤ ⎡N ⎤
⎢N ∑ yi ⎥ '
⎡b ⎤ ⎢ ∑ xi ⎥
i =1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ i =1 ⎥
⎢N N
⎥ ⎢
2 ⎣ ⎦ a '
⎥ ⎢ N
⎥
⎢ ∑ yi ∑ yi ⎥ ⎢∑ xi yi ⎥
⎣ i =1 i =1 ⎦ ⎣ i =1 ⎦
 N N N
N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi
' ' ' i =1 i =1 i =1
x = a y+b ⇒ a = 2
N N
⎡ 2 ⎤
N ∑ y − ⎢ ∑ yi ⎥
i
i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦
Recast the second fit line as:

1 b'
y = ' x− '
a a
1 is the slope of this second line, which not same as
a' the first line
•The ratio of the slopes of the two lines is a measure of
how good the form of the fit is to the data.
•In view of this the correlation coefficient ρ defined
through the relation

2 slope of first Regression line '

ρ = = aa
Slope of second Regression line
 N N N
N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi
i =1 i =1 i =1
y = ax + b ⇒ a = 2
N N
⎡ ⎤2
N ∑ x − ⎢∑ xi ⎥ i
i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦
N N N
N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi
' ' ' i =1 i =1 i =1
x = a y+b ⇒ a = 2
N N
⎡ ⎤ 2
N ∑ y − ⎢ ∑ yi ⎥ i
i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦
 N N N 2
⎧ ⎫
⎨ N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi ⎬
ρ2 = ⎩ i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎭
⎧⎪ N 2 ⎡ N ⎤ 2 ⎫⎪⎧⎪ N 2 ⎡ N ⎤ 2 ⎫⎪
⎨ N ∑ xi − ⎢∑ xi ⎥ ⎬⎨ N ∑ yi − ⎢∑ yi ⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦ ⎪⎭⎪⎩ i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦ ⎪⎭

⎧ N N N
⎫
⎨ N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi ⎬
ρ =± ⎩ i =1 i =1 i =1 ⎭
⎧⎪ N 2 ⎡ N ⎤ 2 ⎫⎪⎧⎪ N 2 ⎡ N ⎤ 2 ⎫⎪
⎨ N ∑ xi − ⎢∑ xi ⎥ ⎬⎨ N ∑ yi − ⎢∑ yi ⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦ ⎪⎭⎪⎩ i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦ ⎪⎭
ρ2=1.000 ρ2=0.991 ρ2=0.904

ρ2=0.821 ρ2=0.493 ρ2=0.0526

 (a) (b)
linear fitting with (a) small and (b) large residual errors
 Correlation Coefficient
• The sign of the correlation coefficient is determined by the sign
of the covariance.
• If the regression line has a negative slope the correlation
coefficient is negative
• while it is positive if the regression line has a positive slope.
• The correlation is said to be perfect if ρ = ± 1.
• The correlation is poor if ρ ≈ 0.
• Absolute value of the correlation coefficient should be greater
than 0.5 to indicate that y and x are related!
• In the case of a non-linear fit a quantity known as the index of
correlation is defined to determine the goodness of the fit.
• The fit is termed good if the variance of the deviates is much
less than the variance of the y’s.
• It is required that the index of correlation defined below to be
close to ±1 for the fit to be considered good.
 N
2
∑ {y
i =1
i − f (xi )}
ρ = ± 1− 2
N
⎧ ⎫
N ⎪ ∑ yi ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎨ yi −
i =1
∑
i =1 ⎪ N ⎪
⎬
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
Example

N N N N N N N
2
N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi ∑ y ∑x −∑x ∑x
i =1
i
i =1
i
i =1
i
i =1
i yi
a= i =1 i =1 i =1 b= 2
2 N
N
⎡ N
⎤ ⎡N ⎤
2
N ∑ xi2 − ⎢∑ xi ⎥ N ∑ x − ⎢∑ xi ⎥
i
i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦ i =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦
Find out the curve model and correlation of following data sets.

(i)
x 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
y 2 3 6 4 5 7 9 9 10 11

(ii)
x 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
y 11 10 9 8 6 5 5 5 4 2