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SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS

OF THE CELL
(GROWTH, MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS)
 GROWTH
Growth is defined as an irreversible increase in size
and complexity of an organism brought about by the
synthesis of new cells.
For growth to occur, the rate of synthesis or The Lagoon School,
building of materials (anabolism) must exceed the Lekki
rate of breaking down (catabolism).
Growth in animals is definite and uniform in all
parts of the body while growth in plants is indefinite
and apical
ASPECTS OF GROWTH(Parameters for measuring
growth)
Increase in number of cells as a result of mitosis
Cell enlargement
Increase in size of organism
Cell differentiation
Increase in dry weight of organism
Synthesis of new body material
 Cell division
BASIS OF GROWTH
There are three phases referred
to as the basis of growth that
organisms/cells must pass
through in order to grow.
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These are Lekki

cell division,
cell enlargement and
cell differentiation.
CELL DIVISION
Cell differentiation
This involves cell
multiplication. For cells to
multiply, they undergo certain
divisions. A particular cell
divides in two, two into four,
four into eight and so on. The
types of cells division are
mitosis and meiosis.
 MITOSIS
This is a cell division that takes place in
the somatic cells (body cells that are not
involved in the production of gametes)
such as the skin cells, bone marrow,
lymph nodes, injured tissue and
meristamatic tissues in plants.
Mitosis involves the duplication or
replication of chromosomes
making the daughter cells produced
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to have the same number ofLekki
chromosomes as the parent cells.
Mitosis produces diploid cells i.e.
the number of chromosomes in
each somatic cell of an organism is
called diploid number (2n).
 STAGES OF MITOSIS
There are four stages or phases of mitosis and a
stage that occurs before mitosis(Interphase). The
four stages include; Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase
and Telophase stages.

A mnemonic to remember the order: I Prefer Milk

At Tea-time
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INTERPHASE: (Stage that occurs before mitosis
where the cell prepares itself for cell division)

Two centrioles are formed just outside the nuclear

membrane.

Chromosomes form a network of fine threads

called chromatids that are not so visible.

DNA duplicates itself and chromosomes become

double threads.

Note that the interphase stage is made up of

G1(gap1), S(synthesis ) and G2(gap2) Phases

G1-stage where growth takes place in the cell

S-Stage where DNA is replicated

G2- Stage where the cell stops growing and it is

ready for mitosis/cell division
PROPHASE:

This stage is divided into two; Early and late prophase stage.

a) Early prophase:

Chromosomes become visible, long and thin.

Nucleolus starts shrinking.

Centrioles start moving away from each other, forming spindle The Lagoon School,
fibres(structures made up of strong fibres called micro-tubules). Lekki
B) Late prophase(Prometaphase):

Chromosomes become shorter, thicker and very visible.

Each chromosome forms two distinct chromatids joined by a centromere.

Pads of proteins known as kinetochore are found at the centromere.
Kinetochores mediate spindle–microtubule attachment and control
the movement of chromosomes during cell division

The mitotic spindle grows more and some of the microtubules begin to
capture and organize the chromosomes

Aster Rays (a combination of many microtubules)are formed from the

centrosomes (centrioles) towards the edge of the cell

Nucleolus disappears entirely.

The nuclear membrane breaks down allowing the mixing

up of cytoplasmic and nuclear materials.

 METAPHASE:
The paired chromosomes (chromatids) are
captured by the spindles and arranged along
the equator/middle of the cell.
The chromatids are attached to the spindle by
the centromere(kinetochore).
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ANAPHASE:
The chromatids of each chromosome
separate and each migrate towards the
opposite poles along the spindle
The chromatids eventually reach the
poles.
TELOPHASE:
The cell starts dividing into two by
constricting at the middle.
The chromosomes lose their thick appearance.
The nucleolus and nuclear material reforms, The Lagoon School,
bounded by the nuclear membrane Lekki
The spindle structure degenerates
Constriction of the nucleus( Karyokinesis) and
cytokinesis(division of the cytoplasm) becomes
completed, and two daughter cells are formed
with the eventual restoration of the Interphase
stage.
VIDEO ON MITOSIS

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VIDEO ON MITOSIS

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 PROCESSES INVOLVING MITOSIS

 Formation of new cells in the malpighian layer of the skin

Formation of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow
Germination of seeds and fruits The Lagoon School,
Healing of wounds and regeneration of new parts in animal Lekki

Formation of new cells in the meristem and cambium of plants

IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS

1. Growth/development /specialization take place as a result of

mitosis
2. Repairs of cells are possible through mitosis
3. Mitosis ensures exact copy of DNA or sum total of inherited
factors/ genes are transmitted to the daughter cells.
CELL ENLARGEMENT:
This process follows cell division in
which the daughter cells increase in
mass and in size.

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CELL DIFFERENTIATION: Lekki

This takes place after cell enlargement

in which each cell develops into a
special type of cell by changing its
shape and structure in order to carry
out a particular function. The kind of
cell it becomes depend on its position
in the body of the organism. For
example, in the body of man a cell may
develop into a nerve cell if it is in the
brain.
 REGIONS OF FASTEST GROWTH IN
PLANTS
The regions of fastest growth in plants are the root and
stem apices. Stem apices include the terminal buds and the
lateral or axillary buds. The root tip in the root of a plant is
a region where the cells divide rapidly. The root and stem
apices can be divided into the region of cell division,
followed by the region of cell elongation and the region of The Lagoon School,
cell maturation. The region of cell division is also known as Lekki
apical meristem. It consists of meristematic cells i.e. cells
that are capable of cell division. In the region of cell
elongation, the cells become enlarged to their maximum
size. The cells in the region of maturation attain their
permanent size and become specialized to carry out some
certain functions.
Apical meristems bring about the growth in length
(height) of the plant. In short, they give rise to branches,
leaves and flowers. Apical meristems bring about primary
growth (the first growth) of a plant.
 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH
AVAILABILITY OF NUTRIENTS: All living organisms
require nutrients or food for normal growth and body
development.
LIGHT: This is important for photosynthesis in green The Lagoon School,
plants. It is from this source that they derive energy and food Lekki
so that growth can occur.
TEMPERATURE: Temperature activates the enzymes that
enhance the rate if metabolism that leads to growth in the
body. To low or too high temperature can reduce enzymatic
activities leading to reduced growth.
WATER: Water is directly responsible for the seasonal
growth in plants and in animal populations. It enables the
transportation of absorbed materials like digested food,
hormones, mineral salts in the bodies of plants and animals.
ACCUMULATION OF METABOLIC PRODUCTS: The
accumulation of metabolic products within the bodies of
organisms can affect growth. Excessive accumulation is
harmful to the body system and will eventually affect or
retard growth.
 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH
INFLUENCE OF GROWTH HORMONES:
Hormones are organic chemicals or
biochemical substances produced in minute
or small quantities in one part of an
organism’s body and transported to the site The Lagoon School,
of action where they carry out specific effect Lekki
to control the body metabolism.
Hormones are internal factors, which are
known to affect the growth of plants and
animals. Plant hormones that affect the
growth of plants are auxins, gibberellins and
cytokinins. Auxins promote or inhibit cell
elongation in stem and roots. They also
stimulate cell division.
Gibberellins promote cell elongation and
bring about growth in the stem. They also
affect cell division and cell differentiation.
In animals, hormones are secreted by the
endocrine glands. The pituitary gland,
thyroid gland and the gonads secrete growth
hormones. Abnormal growth in humans like
dwarfism or gigantism is due to errors in the
secretions on one of the growth hormones.
 GROWTH CURVE
A growth curve is a graph, which shows the
pattern of increase in size, or breadth, or length,
or dry weight, or any other aspect of growth, with
time. If the height of a sunflower seedling is
measured each day for thirty days, the data can be
used to plot a growth curve. The growth curves of The Lagoon School,
most organisms show that growth may be first Lekki
slow in very young organisms, fast in middle life
and slow again in old age.
Generally the growth pattern of plants and
animals is a basic sigmoid curve with slight
modifications
Growth in some animals is intercalary (not
localized), organs grow at different rate from the
whole organism. This is called allometric growth.
Certain parts or organ grow at the same rate as
the whole organism. This is called isometric
growth. Here the proportions of the organism stay
relatively the same; the mature organism looks
like a bigger version of the young version of the
organism. The leaf of a plant shows this type of
growth.
Isometric
growth
 MEIOSIS
This cell division takes place in the reproductive organs
(germ cell) during spermatogenesis (sperm formation)
and oogenesis (egg formation). In meiosis, there is a
reduction of chromosomes to half the original number of
chromosomes, i.e. 46 chromosomes in the parent cells are
reduced to 23 chromosomes. The fusion of the sperm and The Lagoon School,
egg gives 46 chromosomes in the zygote of a human. Lekki
Meiosis is reduction division that results in the
production of four daughter cells, which have haploid
number of chromosomes (n)

STAGES OF MEIOSIS

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions; First

meiotic division (When parent cell splits into two) and
Second meiotic division (When products of first meiotic
division divide again to give a total of four daughter
cells)
 First Meiotic Division
Interphase: This is the resting stage of
the cell. At this stage, the chromosomes
are not visible.
Prophase 1: This stage is divided into
three. The Lagoon School,
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Early Prophase 1: Here, the
chromosomes become visible as long
threads.
Mid Prophase 1: Here, homologous
chromosomes (paired chromosomes)
become thicker, shorter and clearly
visible. Spindle fibres are formed.
 First Meiotic Division
Late Prophase 1: Homologous
chromosomes replicates and cross-
links called chiasmata
(singular=chiasma) are formed
between homologous chromosomes. The Lagoon School,
Chiasmata hold two chromosomes Lekki
together, leading to exchange of
genetic materials between
homologous chromosomes. Nuclear
membrane also dissolves completely.
 FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION
Metaphase 1: Bivalent chromosomes are arranged at
the equator (middle of the cell) and attached to
spindle fibres by their centromeres.
Anaphase 1: Each member of the bivalent
chromosomes move apart and migrate towards the The Lagoon School,
poles of the cell Lekki

Telophase 1: Bivalent chromosomes arrive at the

poles; a new nuclear membrane is formed around
each group of chromosomes. This stage produces two
daughter cells that have half the number of
chromosomes as in the parent cells.
Summary of Meiosis I

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 Second Meiotic Division
Prophase II: Chromosomes in the two
daughter cells become distinct while
the Centrioles separate and move to
opposite poles of the cells. Spindles are
also formed.
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Metaphase II: Nuclear membranes Lekki
dissolve in the cytoplasm,
chromosomes are attached to the
spindle by their centromeres at the
equator.
Anaphase II: Each chromosome splits
into two with the eventual movement
of the chromosomes to the opposite
poles of the cells.
Telophase II: The chromatids arrive at
the poles of the cells, nuclear
membranes and nucleolus are formed,
spindles disappear and the cytoplasm
divides. Four haploid (n) cells are
formed at the end of the division.
The Lagoon School,
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VIDEO ON MEIOSIS

The Lagoon School,

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VIDEO ON MEIOSIS

The Lagoon School,

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