PNEUMATIC CONTROL
TRAINING FOR PROFESSIONAL PERFORMANCE
This manual is one of a series for your use
in learning more about equipment that you
work with in the petroleum industry. Its pur-
pose is to assist in developing your knowl-
edge and skills to the point that you can
perform your work in a more professional
manner.
The manual was prepared so that you can
learn its contents on your own time, without
the assistance of an instructor or classroom
discussion. Educators refer to learning by
self-study as Programmed Learning. It is a
method widely used in all industries as a
means of training employees to do their job
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rated jobs.
You can demonstrate your desire to be a
professional by taking a positive attitude to-
ward learning the contents of this manual and
others that are applicable to your job.
The author of this manual has years of
experience in operating petroleum equipment.
He also has the technical knowledge of how
and why petroleum equipment functions.
The text was written for use by personnel with
little or no previous experience with petro-
leum equipment. Consequently, some of the
material may be familiar to you if you have
experience with oilfield equipment. From such
experience, you have observed the effect of
making operating changes. The manual will
help explain why the changes occurred that
you observed. It will also teach you how and
why equipment functions.
© 2003 Petroleum Learning Programs Ltd. No part of this manual may be reproduced in any form. Its use as a
reference in training courses is specifically reserved for Petroleum Learning Programs Ltd. All translation rights are
likewise reserved.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
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lowest cost. Your sacrifice will have been
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error approach.
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING THIS MANUAL
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If you are working in English units, you
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PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 ABBREVIATIONS USED UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
IN THIS MANUAL
SI UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
SI UNIT ABBREVIATIONS
Most of the SI units of measurement used in the
oilfield are traditional metric units. The exceptions we
s, min second, minute, time
are concerned with are pressure and heat units. The
h, d hours, day time
SI pressure unit is kilopascal; the heat units are joule
mm millimeter length and watt. A watt equals 1 joule per second. Coversions
cm centimeter length from traditional metric units to SI units are as follows:
m meter length
m2 square meter area METRIC SI
CONVERSION
m3 cubic meter volume UNIT UNIT
m3/d cubic meters per day volume rate Pressure bar kilopascal, kPa kPa = bar x 100
l liter volume joule, J or J = cal x 4.2
Heat calorie
g, kg gram, kilogram weight watt, W W = J ÷ time, sec.
Pa, kPa pascal, kilopascal pressure
kPa(a) kilopascal absolute pressure
MPa megapascal pressure
bar bar (1 bar = 100 kPa) pressure
STANDARD CONDITIONS
J, kJ joule, kilojoule heat, work FOR GAS
MJ megajoule (J x 106) heat, work
W,kW watt, kilowatt power Measurement units for gas volume are cubic meters
per day (m3) or thousands of cubic feet per day (Mcf/
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATIONS d). The letters st or s are sometimes used with the
units to designate volume at standard temperature
s, min second, minute time and pressure: m3d (st) or Mscf/d. In this manual,
h, d hour, day time standard volumes are corrected to a temperature of
in, ft inch, foot length 15°C and a pressure of 101.325 kPa(a), or 60°F and
sq in square inch area 14.7 psia.
sq ft square foot area
cu ft cubic foot volume To simplify the text, the letters st and s are omitted.
gal gallon volume However, all gas volumes shown are at standard
bbl barrel (42 US gal) volume conditions unless specifically stated otherwise.
BPD barrels per day volume rate
lb pound weight
psi lbs per square inch pressure
psia lbs per sq in absolute pressure HEAT CAPACITY AND
Btu British thermal unit heat RELATIVE DENSITY
MBtu thousand Btu heat
MMBtu million Btu heat
Specific heat and specific gravity are traditional
W, kW watt, kilowatt electric power terms that have been used in both Metric and English
hp horsepower mechanical power units for many years. These names are being re-
cf/d cubic feet per day gas flow rate placed with the terms: heat capacity and relative
Mcf/d thousand cf/d gas flow rate density. The new names are used in this manual.
MMcf/d million cf/d gas flow rate When you see the term heat capacity (Ht Cap), it will
M thousand have the same meaning as specific heat, and relative
MM million density (Rel Dens) means specific gravity.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1

II. CONTROL VALVES ..............................................................................................2

A. Types of Control Valves ...................................................................................2

B. Actuators ..........................................................................................................4
C. Description of Control Valves ...........................................................................5
1. Trim ............................................................................................................5
2. Packing .......................................................................................................6
3. Handwheel ..................................................................................................7
4. Special Bonnets ..........................................................................................7
5. Valve Positioner ..........................................................................................7
D. Flow in Control Valves .....................................................................................8
1. Forces Acting in Control Valves .................................................................8
a. Diaphragm Force ................................................................................10
b. Spring Force ........................................................................................11
c. Unbalance Force .................................................................................11
2. Stroke or Travel ........................................................................................15
3. Flow Direction ...........................................................................................17
4. Flow Pattern .............................................................................................17
5. Flow Rate .................................................................................................18
E. Control Valve Selection ..................................................................................22
1. Position on Air Failure ..............................................................................22
2. Type ..........................................................................................................22
3. Actuator Type ...........................................................................................22
4. Trim ..........................................................................................................22
5. Body .........................................................................................................22

III. CONTROLLERS .................................................................................................25

A. Pressure Control ............................................................................................25

B. Temperature Control ......................................................................................29
C. Flow Controller ...............................................................................................30
D. Level Controller ..............................................................................................31
E. Process Transmitter .......................................................................................33

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

F. Modes of Control ............................................................................................35

1. Set Point ...................................................................................................35
2. Proportional Band .....................................................................................36
3. Offset ........................................................................................................42
4. Reset ........................................................................................................42
5. Rate or Derivative .....................................................................................44
6. Direct or Reverse Acting ...........................................................................46
7. Cascade Control .......................................................................................51
8. Split Range Control ..................................................................................52

IV. OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS ......................................53

A. Supply Air Pressure Adjustment ....................................................................53

B. Set Point Adjustment .....................................................................................53
C. Proportional Band Setting ..............................................................................54
D. Reset Setting .................................................................................................54
E. Rate or Derivative Setting ..............................................................................55

V. TROUBLESHOOTING ........................................................................................57

A. Process Sensing Device ................................................................................57

B. Instrument Air Source ....................................................................................59
C. Controller .......................................................................................................59
D. Air Lines .........................................................................................................60
E. Control Valves ................................................................................................60

VI. SELF CONTAINED CONTROL DEVICES ..........................................................62

A. Pressure Regulators ......................................................................................62

B. Relief Valves ..................................................................................................64

VII. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS ..........................................................................65

Validation ............................................................................................................67
Solutions to Problems .........................................................................................68

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 1
I. INTRODUCTION
Facilities for producing and processing that is being controlled.
oil and gas are usually very expensive. 3. A controller that is the brain of the
However, the quantity and quality of oil and control system. It converts supply air
gas produced depends upon the proper pressure to a control air pressure
operation of a few simple inexpensive con- necessary to move a control valve.
trol instruments — level controllers, pres- 4. A control valve that regulates flow in
sure controllers, flow controllers, etc. the process stream being controlled.
Oilfield control systems can operate us-
We will discuss each element of the
ing electric power, air pressure, hydraulic
above system beginning with the control
pressure, or combinations of the three. In
valve. Cage and globe type valves will be
this manual, we will discuss only those sys-
used as examples, but most of the prin-
tems that use air pressure. These are called
ciples will apply to butterfly valves, ball
pneumatic control systems.
valves, or other types of control valves.
Air pressure is normally used in pneu-
matic systems. However, any clean gas can
be used — nitrogen, air, natural gas, etc.
Whatever gas is used, it must be free of dirt
and liquid to prevent it from plugging up the
control system. We will use the word air for
instrument gas even though any non-corro- AIR
sive clean gas can be used. SUPPLY
The purpose of a control system to aid the PRESSURE
operator in controlling a process condition of REGULATOR
flow, pressure, temperature, level, etc. The
words control loop are often used to describe
the equipment in a control system. CONTROLLER
The control system functions as follows:
1. The sensing element signals the con-
troller what the process condition is;
2. The controller compares this signal
with the desired control point;
3. The controller signals the control
valve to open or close to bring the
process condition to the desired con-
trol point. PROCESS
SENSING
A pneumatic control system consists of DEVICE
4 principal parts:
CONTROL
1. A dependable supply of clean, dry air VALVE
at a pressure above 140 kPa [20 psi].
2. A process sensing device that mea-
sures the temperature, pressure, etc., CONTROL LOOP
/ 1 of 1-28

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
2 II. CONTROL VALVES
In a control system, the master (controller) We normally call a control valve in a level
must measure the quantity being controlled, and control system a level control valve. This is its
then transmit a signal to its servant (control functional name. However, it is a flow control
valve) telling it what to do to maintain the desired valve. Regardless of the process — pressure,
process condition (level, pressure, etc.) In a flow, temperature, — a control valve regulates
pneumatic control system, the signal is a change flow.
in air pressure. In an electrical system, electrical A. Types of Control Valves
current is the signal. We will discuss the control
system in reverse order. First let us examine the The most common types of control valves
valve itself, and then the controller. are shown on the opposite page. Typical applica-
tion is tabulated below. The globe type valve is by
Example far the most common because it is usually the
In a level control system, a level con- least expensive. It is suitable for control of gas,
troller mounted on a vessel sends an air liquid or mixtures over a wide range of pressure,
signal to a control valve to open or close, temperature and flow.
as necessary, to hold a constant level in The cage type has the same versatility as the
the vessel. The control valve opens to let globe type. Its main advantage is that it is more
more liquid flow, or closes to restrict the stable when the valve has a high pressure drop
flow of liquid upon signal from the level across it. Its cost is slightly more than that of the
controller. The control valve is actually plug. Another advantage is that the plug is con-
controlling flow through the valve and not structed so that the control valve outlet pressure
the level in the vessel. (low pressure) is imposed on the packing.
APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES
TYPE APPLICATION
Plug Most common general purpose control valve used for process control.
Cage General purpose valve used when there is a high pressure drop across the valve.
Ball Straight-through flow prevents plugging from solids, and has much higher
flow capacity than plug type.
Butterfly Used in water or gas service in large piping and where there is a low pressure drop
across valve.
3-Way Splits incoming stream into 2 outlet streams. Used to control flow of by-pass
Diverting fluid around heat exchangers or other equipment.
3-Way Controls flow of 2 inlet streams in proper ratio. Used for blending
Mixing gasoline, chemicals, etc.
Problem 1
a. The four elements of a control loop are:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

b. List 3 types of control valves:

__________________ _________________ __________________

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 CONTROL VALVES 3

BALL TYPE CAGE TYPE PLUG TYPE

CONTROL VALVE CONTROL VALVE CONTROL VALVE

BUTTERFLY 3-WAY 3-WAY

CONTROL VALVE DIVERTING VALVE MIXING VALVE

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
4 CONTROL VALVES
Another method of classifying the type of
control valves is that of the position the valve
takes — open or closed — on loss of air
pressure to the diaphragm. If the valve moves
to the open position on loss of air pressure,
it is designated as fail open. Conversely a
valve that closes on loss of air pressure is a
fail closed type. Some control valve manu-
facturers use the terms normal open or
closed. Selection of fail open or closed is
covered on page 22.
B. Actuators
The actuator is attached to the valve
body. Varying air pressure to the actuator
will open or close the valve. The diameter of
the diaphragm can vary from 19 to 600 mm
[7 !/2 to 24 inches]. Typical air pressure to
the actuator is 140 kPa [20 psi] maximum.
However, almost all actuators will safely
withstand 280 kPa [40 psi], and heavy duty
housings are available for a pressure rating
up to 790 kPa [115 psi]. The largest diam-
eter housing operating at maximum pres-
sure can exert a force of 200 160 Newtons
[45,000 lbs] on the valve stem.
Normal air pressure from a controller to
the actuator is 20 - 100 kPa [3 - 15 psi].
However, in applications requiring a high
force to open or close a control valve, an

AIR
DIAPHRAGM
CASINGS
DIAPHRAGM
DIAPHRAGM
AIR PLATE
ACTUATOR
SPRING
ACTUATOR
STEM
SPRING
SEAT
SPRING
AIR ADJUSTER
STEM
CONNECTOR
YOKE
TRAVEL
INDICATOR
INDICATOR
SCALE

REVERSE ACTING REVERSE ACTING DIRECT ACTING

ACTUATOR
Valve stem and spring
are attached to diaphragm.
With no pressure on the dia-
phragm, the compressed
spring pushes the dia-
phragm and stem down. Air
pressure below diaphragm
compresses the spring and
moves the stem up.
ACTUATOR
Valve stem is attached
to the diaphragm and is
screwed into the spring ad-
juster that changes tension
of the spring. With no pres-
sure on diaphragm, the
spring moves the diaphragm
and stem down. Air pres-
sure below diaphragm ex-
pands the spring and moves
the spring and stem up.
ACTUATOR
Valve stem and spring
are attached to diaphragm.
With no pressure on dia-
phragm, the compressed
spring pushes the dia-
phragm and stem up. Air
pressure above diaphragm
compresses the spring and
moves the stem down.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 CONTROL VALVES 5

actuator having a pressure control range The valve body, bonnet and packing are
up to 6 times that of normal may be used to selected according to the pressure require-
reduce the size (and cost) of the actuator. ments. Flange or screwed end connections
will be supplied as specified.
C. Control Valve Description
Parts of a cage and globe type
control valve are shown below. The
parts of the actuator were covered
in the previous section. The valve
stem is attached to the plug on one
end, and to the diaphragm or spring
on the other end. GUIDE BUSHING
The position indicator also PLUG
serves as a coupling to connect the CAGE
valve stem on the lower end to the
SEAT
actuator stem on the upper end. A
scale on the actuator yoke is cali-
CAGE TYPE
brated to indicate the amount the GLOBE TYPE
CONTROL
valve is open. CONTROL
VALVE TRIM
VALVE TRIM

1. Valve Trim
DIAPHRAGM The internal parts of a control
ACTUATOR
valve are called the trim. It in-
cludes the plug and seat in a
globe valve; and the plug and
POSITION
INDICATOR cage in a cage valve. Several
sizes of trim are available for
most valve bodies.
STEM PACKING The trim for a new valve is the
BONNET
average size of trim available.
For example, the trim for a 60.325
STEM
mm [2 inch] valve is available in
GLOBE BUSHING sizes from 6.4 to 50.8 mm [!/4 to
CAGE PLUG
2 inches]. A new valve would
BODY
probably have 25.4 mm [1 inch]
trim. If the flow rate to the valve
SEAT
significantly changes — up or
down, the trim can be changed
CAGE TYPE GLOBE TYPE rather than change out the entire
CONTROL VALVE CONTROL VALVE valve.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
6 CONTROL VALVE PACKING
2. Packing
Packing is used on the valve
stem to keep fluid inside the valve
from leaking out. The most com-
mon packing material is carbon
filled teflon. It is usually supplied in
V rings. In order for the V ring to
seal, it must be able to flex so that
pressure under it will push it out-
ward against the valve stem and
the wall of the packing cage.
If the packing is so tight that the
V ring will not flex, it will leak. It is
not compression type packing that
seals by squeezing the packing
against the stem and cage wall.
Thus, when replacing V ring
type packing, the tightening nuts
should be snug and not tight. It
may be necessary to loosen the tightening proper tension on the V rings.
nut if leakage occurs so that the V rings can The number of packing rings or number
flex and seal from internal pressure. The of packing sections will obviously depend
packing arrangements on the right and left on the pressure inside the valve.
below include springs which maintain the
TIGHTENING
NUT

SPRING

PACKING
PACKING RINGS
RINGS
LANTERN RING

GRAPHITE
PACKING RING

SPRING

LOW PRESSURE MODERATE PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE

SPRING LOADED HAND TIGHTENED SPRING LOADED
2000 kPa [300 psi] 5200 kPa [750 psi] 7500 kPa [1500 psi]
TYPES OF PACKING

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 VALVE POSITIONER 7

3. Handwheel OUTPUT
PRESSURE
In some applications, it may be desirable LINE TO ACTUATOR
to override the control system and manually
operate a control valve. In such cases a
handwheel is provided to move the valve. OUTPUT AIR
The handwheel may also be used as a PRESSURE FROM
PROCESS
means of preventing the valve from fully LINKAGE CONTROLLER
closing or opening. BETWEEN 20 - 100 KPA [3 - 15 PSI]
POSTIONER
& VALVE STEM
SUPPLY AIR
140 KPA
[20 PSI]

CONTROL VALVE WITH

CONTROL VALVE WITH HANDWHEEL
4. Special Bonnets
The valve bonnet contains the packing
VALVE POSITIONER
which prevents fluid inside the valve from
leaking out the stem. In unusual or extreme
applications, it is modified as shown below.
5. Valve Positioner
Control valves are often equipped with a
valve positioner. A valve positioner is a
controller. It has an air supply, and outlet air
signal to the control valve actuator. It controls
the position of the control valve between 0-
100% open from a 20 - 100 kPa [3 - 15 psi] air
signal from a process controller.

BELLOWS BONNET
FINNED BONNET EXTENSION BONNET (Seals valve
(For high temperature) (For cryogenic temperature) in toxic service)

TYPES OF CONTROL VALVE BONNETS

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
8 VALVE POSITIONER
When the input pressure from the process
controller increases 7 kPa [1 psi], the output
pressure from the positioner to the actuator
increases 7 kPa [1 psi]. The control valve
should move !/12th of its stroke. The positioner
is mechanically linked to the stem on the
control valve, so it senses the movement of
the control valve. If it does not move !/12th of its
stroke, the positioner output pressure to the
actuator will rise until the control valve moves
!/12th of its stroke. The positioner acts as a
power assist to make sure the control valve
moves the proper amount when the process
controller output pressure changes.
The positioner may also serve as a signal
multiplier. If the control valve actuator has a 40
- 200 kPa [6 - 30 psi] control pressure range (2
times the normal range of 20 - 100 kPa [3 - 15
psi]), the positioner will double the input pres-
sure from the process controller to the output
pressure to the actuator.
Supply air to the positioner must obvi-
ously be above 200 kPa [30 psi].
The size of the 40 - 200 kPa [6 - 30 psi]
actuator is only half that of 20 - 100 kPa [3 -
5 psi] unit. It is used when actuator size
limitations or cost favor the higher pressure
range device.

Problem 2
a. A Reverse acting actuator moves up/down on loss of air pressure.
b. The trim for a globe type control valve includes __________ __________
___________.
c. V type valve stem packing:
__________ 1. Prevents fluid in valve from leaking.
__________ 2. Should be tightened as much as possible.
__________ 3. More packing rings are required for high pressure service.
d. A valve positioner:
__________ 1. A process controller.
__________ 2. Serves as power assist to move control valve.
__________ 3. Is mechanically linked to valve stem.

D. Flow in Control Valves

1. Forces acting in Control Valve
Hand valves come in many sizes and
shapes. The opposite figure shows the most
common types of manual valves. Most of
these shapes can be automated, so that the
valve can be opened or closed by an actua-
tor rather than a handle. Most control valves
are generally equivalent to the globe valve
shown in the lower right hand corner.
The check valve is automatic by nature
since its movement is controlled by the fluid
flowing. It merely prevents back-flow of
fluid in the line.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 HAND VALVE TYPES 9
Handwheel Lubricant
fitting
Stem
Stop collar
Packing nut
Packing gland Gland
Packing Sealing
Bonnet diaphragm
Sealant
check valve
Plug
Sealant
Union nut grooves
Disk nut Body
Disk Disk
Sealant
Holder chamber Plug valve
Seat ring Lubricated, single-port

Solid wedge
disk Handle
Inclined seat
Body
Angle valve Gate valve
Inside screw, rising stem, Gland
Plug-type disk, union
union bonnet, wedge disk Packing
bonnet, rising stem
Cap Shaft Bearing
Handle
Cap gasket
Stem Disk
Spring washer
Stem seal Compression
ring
Hanger pin Body
Ball
Bearing
Body Hanger
Seat Disk nut
Body seat
ring Disk Butterfly valve
Ball valve
Fullport flow
Body

Lever Check valve

linkage Swing check, straight
Lever Handwheel
through

Stem Stem
Lever
clevis Packing nut
Yoke Packing gland
Packing
Bonnet
Gate

Stuffing box
Packing Union nut
Gland Disk holder
bolts
Disk nut
Body Disk
Seat ring

Body Globe valve

Slide valve Y valve
Plug type, rising stem Plug-type disk, union bonnet,
rising stem

EXAMPLES OF COMMON MANUAL CONTROL VALVES

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
10 CONTROL VALVE FORCES
Regardless of how it is applied, it takes a. Diaphragm Actuator Force
force to open or close a valve. The amount
The downward force exerted by the ac-
of force depends on the valve type, the net
tuator equals the air pressure on the dia-
pressure resisting the change in the valve
phragm times the diaphragm area. The equa-
opening, and the area exposed to that pres-
tion is:
sure.
Diaphragm Force
The handle on manual valves, is sized
= (Air Pressure) x (Diaphragm Area)
so that the valve openings may be changed
by a reasonable amount of hand force. The Most control valve manufacturers have
designer calculates these forces. We are standard size diaphragm actuators that are
concerned only with how the forces behave used for several valve sizes. Larger actua-
and affect valve usage. tors are required for larger valves, and vice-
The drawing on the right shows the basic versa.
features of a globe type control valve. The The air pressure on the diaphragm ac-
actuator, in this case, is called direct acting tuator comes from a controller. The output
(air enters the top and forces the stem
AIR
downward.) The valve body contains a fail
open single ported plug (opens on loss of
air pressure to the actuator). This configura-
tion will be used to explain basic control
valve performance.
If we ignore friction between the stem SPRING
DIAPHRAGM FORCE
and stem packing in the bonnet (which is FORCE
small), the plug and stem are free to move
between the fully open and fully closed
position. What causes it to move? The net
amount of force applied. If the upward forces
are more than the downward forces, the
plug will move to its upper limit. If the UNBALANCE
downward forces exceed the upward forces FORCE
the plug will move to its lower limit.
There are three basic forces involved
which cause this movement: FORCES ACTING IN CONTROL VALVE
1. The force resulting from air pressure
on the diaphragm in the actuator. pressure from the Controller to the dia-
phragm is usually in the range of 20 to 100
2. The force imposed by the spring.
kPa [3 to 15 psi]. The valve shown above
This force is in the opposite direction
would be in the full open position at the lower
from air pressure.
pressure on the diaphragm — 20 kPa [3
3. The unbalance force caused by the psi]; and it would be in the closed position at
difference in pressure on the top and the higher pressure on the diaphragm —
bottom of the plug. We will discuss 100 kPa [15 psi]. Air pressure to the actua-
the effect of each. tor is often called loading pressure.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 UNBALANCE FORCE
b. Spring Force
In the standard actuator, the spring pro-
vides a force opposing that of the air on the
diaphragm. The plug is connected to the
stem, which in turn is connected to the
diaphragm. If the plug is to be in balance
somewhere between full open and full
closed, the diaphragm must also be in bal-
ance. The air pressure necessary to obtain
this balance depends on spring stiffness
(how easy it is to compress the spring).
The term spring rate is used to define
spring stiffness. Spring rate is the force
necessary to compress the spring a given
distance. In English units, a 600 lb spring
requires a 600 lb force to compress it 1 inch.
The SI equivalent is 1050 newtons to
compress 1 cm.
Spring rate is used to mate the spring
with the actuator, so they perform properly
as a team.
Note: The spring compression is ad-
justed in the factory by a nut at the bottom of
the actuator. It is set to obtain the proper
match between spring and diaphragm forces.
Do not turn this nut (adjust spring) on the
job. It is seldom necessary. In that rare case
where it is, it should be done by a qualified
instrument man.
c. Unbalance Force
This is the force exerted by the plug in a
globe type of control valve. It may be large
or small — depending on the plug size and
the pressure difference on the top and bot-
tom of the plug.
In the previous figure, there is a force
upward on the plug caused by high inlet
pressure acting on the bottom plug area.
There is a downward force on the plug
caused by low outlet pressure, acting on the
area on the top side of the plug. The net
unbalance force is the difference between
11
these forces.
Unbalance Force = (Inlet Pres) x (Bot-
tom Plug Area) - (Outlet Pres) x (Top Plug
Area)
This equation applies for any globe
type valve with inlet pressure on the bot-
tom of the plug.
The unbalance force affects control valve
operation when the pressure drop changes
from its design point, due to changes in oper-
ating pressure of equipment in the system.
Example
A level control valve is installed on a
separator having a pressure drop across
the control valve of 200 kPa [29 psi]. The
diaphragm actuator and spring are selected
to match the unbalance force resulting from
200 kPa [29 psi] of pressure drop.
After operating the separator for some
time, pressures in the system are changed
to improve performance of the system, and
the pressure drop across the level control
valve is now 600 kPa [87 psi]. The new
unbalance force is now approximately three
times the original. This may require more air
pressure on the diaphragm or a larger spring,
depending upon the direction of the unbal-
ance force. If the diaphragm cannot take
more pressure, the control valve will not
operate properly.
The direction of the unbalance force will
depend upon whether the inlet fluid pres-
sure is on the top or bottom of the plug.
The position of the actuator spring —
above or below the diaphragm — has no
effect on the direction of the unbalance
force.
The drawings on the next page, show
the unbalance forces which result from vari-
ous combinations of plug movement to close,
and inlet pressure above or below the plug.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
12 UNBALANCE FORCE
In order for a control valve to function
properly, the downward force must equal
the upward force. If the downward force is
more than the upward force, the valve will
move to its down position, and vice versa.
The main forces acting in a control valve
are the diaphragm and the spring. The two
are opposed in almost all control valves.
Furthermore, each can be up or down, de-
pending upon whether the actuator is direct
acting (air pressure on top of the diaphragm)
or reverse (air pressure below diaphragm). Inlet pressure above plug.
The size of the diaphragm and spring Unbalance force DOWN.
are selected so that when the unbalance
force is applied, the plug moves from full
open to full close (or vice versa) when air
pressure on the diaphragm varies from 20 to
100 kPa [3 to 15 psi].
The unbalance force is a plus (+) when it is
in an upward direction, and a minus (-) when
it is downward. In most control valves it repre-
sents less than 25% of the total forces acting
in the valve. It is usually only a fraction of the
spring force or the diaphragm force.
The unbalance force becomes impor-
tant if a control valve is installed backwards
in the flow line. Most control valves have an Inlet pressure below plug.
arrow on the valve body indicating the direc- Unbalance force UP.
tion of flow. However, it is not unusual in new
facilities for valves to be installed back-
wards. When this occurs, the unbalance
force is in the opposite direction from that for
which the valve was designed.
Refer to the two lower drawings to the
right. They show the effect on the direction
of the unbalance force by turning the valve
around. Suppose the valve is supposed to
be installed with the unbalance force down
(bottom drawing), but is put in backwards so
that the unbalance force is upwards. It may
require 69 kPa [10 psi] of pressure on the
diaphragm instead of 20 kPa [3 psi] to start Inlet pressure above plug.
opening the valve. At maximum diaphragm Unbalance force DOWN.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 CONTROL VALVE FORCES
pressure — 100 kPa [15 psi] the valve
may be only 40% open.
The flow direction through a control valve
should always be checked on new facilities
and when it has been replaced after repair.
Assume that the fail open valve such as
that shown on page 10 will not close prop-
erly. What is wrong? The downward force is
not enough to overcome the upward forces.
The alternatives available are:
1. Increase downward force
a. Use same air pressure and install
larger actuator.
b. Increase air pressure if actuator
will take it.
Problem 3
List parts of control valve
Valve is fail open / closed.
Actuator is direct / reverse.
Unbalance force is up / down.
13
2. Decrease upward force
a. Use lighter spring.
b. Use a smaller trim to reduce the
unbalance force.
Sometimes a slight increase in air pressure
will do the job without taking the valve out of
service so long as you do not exceed the working
pressure of the actuator and controller.
If the unbalance force is as much as the
spring force, the valve will move from the open
position to the closed position (or vice versa)
with a slight amount of air pressure on the
diaphragm. In this situation, the valve will
remain open or closed practically all of the
time, and there will be no control through it.
AIR PRESSURE
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
14 CONTROL VALVE FORCES
Example of Force Calculations
OPERATING CONDITONS SI UNITS ENGLISH UNITS
AIR Diaphragm Area 0.071 m2 110 sq in
Spring Force 2100 N/cm 1200 lbs/in
Control Valve Inlet Pres 2.8 MPa 400 psi
Control Valve Outlet Pres 1.4 MPa 200 psi
Btm Plug Area 0.000975 m2 1 sq in
Top Plug Area 0.00065 m2 1.5 sq in
Calculate diaphragm pressure required to move the valve 1 cm [0.4 in]; Inlet
pressure is below plug so unbalance force is up. Total upward force = Spring
Force + Unbalance Force.

Downward Force = Diaphragm Force = Pressure x Area

Diaphragm Pressure = Spring Force + Unbalance Force
Diaphragm Area
Spring Force for Movement 2100 x 1 = 2100 N 1200 x 0.4 = 480 lbs
of 1 cm [0.4 inch]
Unbalance Force (2.8 x 106)(0.000975) - 1.5 x 400 - 1 x 200
(1.4 x 106)(0.00065) = 600 - 200
= 2730 - 910 = 1820 N =400 psi
Total upward Force 2100 + 1820 = 3920 N 480 + 400 = 880 psi
Diaphragm Area 0.0710 m2 110 sq in
3920 880
Diaphragm Pressure
0.0710 = 55211 Pa 110 = 8 psi
or 55.211 kPa
Suppose the valve is removed for repair and installed backwards. Inlet pressure is on
top of the plug. Unbalance force is downward.
AIR
Unbalance Force (2.8 x 106)(0.00065) - 400 x 1 - 200 x 1.5
(1.4 x 106)(0.000975)
= 1820 - 1365 = 455 N = 400 - 300 + 100 lbs
Spring Force 2100 N 480 lbs
Net Upward Force 2100 - 455 = 1645 N 480 - 100 = 380 lbs
1645 380
Diaphragm Pressure 0.071 = 23169 Pa 110 = 3.45 psi
or 23.169 KPa

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 PLUG STROKE OR TRAVEL
Diaphragm pressure is about 1/2 when
the valve is installed backwards. Or, we
could go through another calculation and
find that if the diaphragm pressure stays the
same, the plug will move 1.6 cm [0.63 in]
instead of 1 cm [0.4 in] when the valve is
installed backwards.
From the previous example you can see
that reversing the flow direction reduces the
air pressure by over 50% to position the
valve at the same point that it was with
normal flow.
Problem 4
a. Forces acting in a globe type control valve are ___________ __________
___________.
b. If inlet fluid pressure is below the plug, unbalance force will be up/down.
2. Plug Stroke or Travel
The distance the plug moves from full
closed to full open is called the stroke or
travel. This distance usually depends on
the plug size; larger plugs have more travel.
From an operating standpoint, the length of
the stroke is usually not particularly impor-
tant. What is of concern is: how much travel
is available for control?
Most control valves have a pointer and
scale that indicates the position of the valve:
% it is open. It should be in the 40 to 60%
range for proper control. If it is less than 20%
or more than 80%, the valve is beyond its
best control range, and control may be
sloppy.
If the valve position indicator continually
operates below 20% open, the plug and
seat are too big. They should be replaced
with smaller trim. If the valve continually
operates above 80% open, larger trim is
15
The calculations in the previous example
are similar to those made by a control valve
manufacturer in sizing the diaphragm and
spring. Each control valve is designed for a
specific application. A different diaphragm
and/or spring may be required if the valve is
used in a different service.
The effect of unbalance force applies to
globe type control valves. Most of the cage
type valves have a pressure equalizing sys-
tem which reduces the unbalance force to a
negligible number.
probably needed.
The plug moves up or down in response
to an air pressure signal from a process
controller. The pressure control range to
stroke a control valve is 20 - 100 kPa [3 - 15
psi] for most valves.
This concept can be illustrated with a
level controller that is set to maintain control
over the entire length of the float. When the
level is at the bottom of the float, the control-
ler output pressure is 20 kPa [3 psi]. When
the level reaches the top of the float, the
output pressure from the controller is 100
kPa [15 psi]. The actual control pressure
range of the pilot is 100 - 20 = 80 kPa {15 -
3 = 12 psi].
The control valve is designed to move
from full open to full closed position with a
pressure change on the diaphragm of 80
kPa [12 psi]. A fail open control valve, such
as used as a pressure control valve, is fully
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
16 PLUG STROKE OR TRAVEL

When the level is at the

When the level is at the bottom top of the float, control-
of the float, controller output ler output pressure is
pressure is 20 kPa [3 psi] and 100 kPa [15 psi] and
the level control valve is closed. the level control valve
is wide open.

FAIL F.C.
CLOSED
LEVEL OUTPUT PRESSURE CONTROL RANGE

open when its diaphragm pressure is 20
kPa [3 psi]. It moves to the full closed
position when the pressure increases to 100
kPa [15 psi].
As we will see later, control valves are
selected to move to full open or full closed
position on loss of air pressure to the dia-
phragm. Thus, the type of valve — fail open
or fail closed — must be known in order to
determine how much a valve is open at
different air pressures to the valve. The
following table indicates valve positions for
various air pressures.

VALVE POSITIONS AT VARIOUS DIAPHRAGM PRESSURES

SI UNITS ENGLISH UNITS
Diaphragm Control Valve Position, % Open Diaphragm Control Valve Position, %Open
Pressure, kPa Fail Open Valve Fail Closed Valve Pressure, psi Fail Open Valve Fail Closed Valve

20 100% Open Closed 3 100% Open Closed

40 75% Open 25% Open 6 75% Open 25% Open
60 50% Open 50% Open 9 50% Open 50% Open
80 25% Open 75% Open 12 25% Open 75% Open
100 Closed 100% Open 15 Closed 100% Open

Problem 5
Level controller output pressure in the above drawing is 80 kPa [12 psi]. The control
valve is ___________% open.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 FLOW IN CONTROL VALVES 17

3. Flow Direction
PACKING
Flow through a control valve
can be from below the plug,
through the seat (or cage) and
out; or from above the plug,
through the seat and out. The
opposite drawings indicate the two
flow patterns. Selection is based HIGH LOW
on whether or not the stream con- PRESSURE PRESSURE
INLET OUTLET
tains solid particles which could
settle out in the bottom of the
valve and prevent it from fully
opening or closing. FLOW DIRECTION WHEN FLUID DOES NOT
If solids are present, flow CONTAIN SOLID MATERIALS
Preferred flow because pressure at packing is outlet pressure.
should be as shown in the lower
drawing. With this pattern, the
maximum velocity occurs as the
fluid flows out the seat, which will
sweep out solids that could fall
out. The disadvantage of this ar-
rangement is that the packing
must seal against inlet pressure.
The preferred flow is that
shown in the upper drawing be-
cause outlet pressure is imposed
on the packing, so it is less likely
to leak. FLOW DIRECTION WHEN FLUID
CONTAINS SOLID MATERIALS
4. Flow Pattern in Control Valve Solid material will be swept out and
not accumulate below the plug.
Different shapes of plugs or cages can High inlet pressure is imposed on packing.
result in different flow patterns in a control
valve. Linear shaped trim for example has a low liquid flow rate most of the time. How-
flow rate of 50% of the valve capacity when ever, slugs of liquid could enter the separa-
the valve is 50% open. Flow patterns for tor occasionally. If equal percentage trim is
various trim shapes are shown on the next used, the valve will be 20% open when flow
page, and typical applications are tabu- is only 5% of valve capacity. The level
lated. The expected flow pattern is used to control system will be able to maintain rea-
select the type of trim. One of the main sonably good control with the control valve
considerations is that of assuring that the 20% open. If linear trim was used, the con-
valve operates in the 20-80% open range. trol valve would be almost closed most of
For example, a separator in the inlet gas the time, and level control would be sloppy
line to a gasoline plant would have a very at best.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
18 FLOW IN CONTROL VALVES

PLUG TYPE APPLICATION

Quick Opening Valve is either full open or full closed during operation. Used for
pressure relief.
Linear Flow rate is proportional to plug travel. Used for liquid level
control.
Throttle Plug Where there is a high pressure drop across the plug.
Equal Percentage Pressure or flow control, or where there is a low pressure drop
across the plug.

DIAPHRAGM
ACTUATOR

LINEAR % Flow POSITION

EQUAL QUICK THROTTLE INDICATOR

PERCENTAGE OPENING
STEM PACKING
PLUG SHAPES BONNET

STEM

GLOBE BUSHING
CAGE PLUG
BODY

LINEAR EQUAL QUICK SEAT

PERCENTAGE OPENING

CAGE SHAPES
% Valve Is Open

5. Flow rate through control valves expected during normal operation.

Flow through a control valve is primarily
affected by 3 obvious factors:
1. Size of the trim
2. Percent the valve is open
3. Pressure drop through the valve.
Each will be discussed separately.
a. Size of trim
b. Percent Valve is open
Flow rate through a valve is obviously
directly affected by the amount the valve is
open. the magnitude of change in flow when
a valve opens or closes depends upon the
flow pattern previously discussed. Flow will
always increase when a valve opens, but
not necessarily by the same proportion.

As previously mentioned, the control c. Pressure drop

valve supplier selects the trim size that will
result in the valve operating half open when
flow is at design flow rate and pressure drop.
Design flow is not the maximum flow the
facilities will handle; it is the average flow
In order to have flow through a control
valve, there must be a pressure drop across
the valve: outlet pressure must be less than
inlet pressure. Its not unusual in production
or process facilities for liquids from high

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 FLOW IN CONTROL VALVES
pressure vessels to flow through a level
control valve to equipment that operates
several thousand kPa [several hundred psi]
lower. The pressure difference is almost
totally taken across the control valve. Thus,
one of the design features of control valves
is that of withstanding the pressure dorp
required by the application.
d. Other Factors Affecting Flow
1. Critical Flow
The pressure drop through a control
valve can be so large that plug movement
does not effectively control flow rate. If the
downstream pressure is a fraction of the
upstream pressure, critical flow can occur.
At this condition, the velocity approaches
the speed of sound. When sonic velocity
occurs, plug movement does not affect flow
rate. Special control valves, such as chokes,
are used when sonic velocity may occur.
So… pressure drop across a control valve
must be held below the critical flow rate to
obtain proper control.
2. Cavitation and Pre-Flash
If liquid hydrocarbon from a pressure
vessel enters a control valve, some of the
liquid will vaporize or flash as its pressure is
reduced. Control valves in which a high
pressure drop occurs are usually smaller
than the piping. Thus the velocity will be
higher because of the reduced size of the
control valve. An increase in liquid velocity
in the inlet piping to a control valve lowers it
pressure, and causes pre-flash. Flashing
is gas formation in the control valve caused
by the pressure drop in the valve. This
introduces two problems – unstable control
and possible valve damage.
Cavitation is a two-step process. In the
first step, gas bubbles form from a pressure
decrease. In the second step, these bubbles
19
collapse back into liquid on the downstream
side of the valve. Cavitation causes de-
creased valve flow, noise, vibration, and
physical damage. You can usually recog-
nize cavitation, because it produces a rat-
tling sound as if hard solids were passing
through the valve. The action that produces
sound can also produce sever vibration that
will damage the valve.
Cavitation causes extensive damage to
the valve trim and body. In the photos below,
the stellite plug was exposed to cavitation
for only a few hours. The right photo shows
a new aluminum plug compared to one
exposed to cavitation for only 10 minutes. It
is hard to control anything with a plug that is
seriously worn.
What can be done about cavitation?
First of all, the causes and cures for this are
rather well known. So… get some qualified
assistance. The solution starts by minimiz-
ing the flashing which causes this problem
by installing larger inlet piping and flanges,
and lowering the valve to obtain more liquid
head. Cavitation in valves is like cavitation
in pumps.
Stellite plug Aluminum plug before
after a few hours of and after 10 minutes
exposure to cavitaion. exposure to cavitation.
EFFECT OF CAVITATION ON PLUGS
Anything that lowers pressure drop
across the control valve will help. A valve or
orifice upstream or downstream will take a
portion of the pressure drop. Maybe a double
port valve can replace a single port valve to
reduce velocity in the valve. As a rule of
thumb, severe cavitation seldom occurs in
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
20 FLOW IN CONTROL VALVES
small valves up to 60.325 mm [2 in] when
the inlet pressure is below 2800 kPa [400
psi]. If cavitation cannot be eliminated by
simple mechanical means, it maybe pos-
sible to use a valve that is specially de-
signed for cavitation service. For this you
must contact your control valve supplier.
3. Dynamic Instability
In addition to the instability caused by
cavitation, the turbulent flow of fluid can
affect control valve performance. This is
particularly important in globe-type valves
with high pressure drops. Vertical jumping
or extreme wear can occur, due to horizon-
tal movement. Vibration and noise resulting
from instability can cause fatigue failure in
both the control valve and adjacent piping.
The damaging effects of instability is mini-
mized by selecting a valve with bushings or
guides that prevent the plug from vibrating
or moving horizontally in the valve. The
figure below shows some common guides.
Top guided single port valves and top-
and-bottom guided double ported globe
valves may be unsatisfactory when instabil-
ity exits.
Top Guiding
Top and Bottom
Guiding
StemGuiding
CONTROL VALVE PLUG GUIDES
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
Where this is a problem and the plug
closes in the down position, the first thing to
try is reverse the valve action; have the plug
close in the up position. This way, the inlet
flow does not hit the plug directly. Some-
times it helps to use higher diaphragm pres-
sures or a higher spring tension.
The best solution is to lower the pres-
sure drop across the valve by installing a
choke or restrictive orifice in the piping to
take some of the pressure drop.
Most of the problems associated with
instability can be overcome by using a cage
type of valve trim.
4. Valve Noise
Valve noise is sometimes a symptom of
cavitation as noted above. But, noise is a
problem of its own that affects environment
and safety. Most pure valve noise results
from stresses and shear forces in a very
turbulent gas stream. Most of this turbu-
lence occurs just downstream of the seat of
the valve as a result of rapid deceleration or
expansion of the gas.
The technology of the cause of noise
and its characteristics is beyond the scope
Port Guiding
Top and
Port Guiding
 FLOW IN CONTROL VALVES 21

of this manual. Noise abatement is a on a wellhead separator.

specialty area. We will merely outline the
general situation. The main source of noise
is pressure drop and not mere velocity. So,
once again, limiting pressure drop is impor-
tant. The source of noise can be minimized
by reducing turbulence. Manufacturers use
a series of restrictions, parallel slots, down-
stream diffusers, etc. Once the noise is
generated, silencers may be used. For lo-
calized areas, acoustical insulation may be
effective. You should remember that the
effect of a heavy pipe or acoustical insula-
tion may be effective. You should remember
that the effect of a heavy pipe or acoustical
insulation is limited to the area covered.
Noise can be carried by the fluid for a long
distance. From an operating viewpoint, keep
the pressure drop and turbulence as low as
possible.
5. Emulsions and Foams
Quite frequently, the liquid stream leav-
ing a wellhead separator is a mixture of
water and oil. If the level control valve on the
separator has a high pressure drop across
it, the two liquids will intimately mix and the
resulting stream will likely be a tight emul-
sion. One solution to this situation is to
install a second control valve or choke to
take some of the pressure drop. Another
solution is to install a double-port valve to
reduce the velocity. The disadvantage of
this solution is that a double-port valve does
not close tight, which is often a requirement
Problem 6
6. Corrosion-Erosion
These are included together for the net
effect is the same — disappearance of the
valve metal. Corrosion is the chemical at-
tack of the metal surfaces. Erosion is the
physical wearing away of the metal sur-
face. They occur together.
Sulfur compounds are the most com-
mon corrosion culprit, although any acid
liquid will cause it. If liquid water is present,
even trace quantities of sulfur compounds
will cause corrosion.
There are two basic solutions to this
problem — choice of materials and limita-
tion of velocity in the valve body. With met-
als in a sour system, embrittlement oc-
curs. The metals become more brittle and
can crack, causing failure. This sulfur stress
cracking is a problem in all metals. In valves
it is helped by using soft seats. If salt water
is present, one can also get chloride crack-
ing. The best answer to this is choice of
metallurgy. If you have sulfur compounds
and salt water together, the most severe
corrosive conditions exist.
Velocity control is important. Once again,
a double port valve may help. If solids are
present, the primary damage may be im-
pingement. Change of plug shape may
help. Careful consideration should be given
to using a straight through valve rather than
a globe-type that requires several changes
in direction of the fluid.

Primary factors affecting flow through a control valve are:

a. _______________________________________________________

b. _______________________________________________________

c. _______________________________________________________

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
22 CONTROL VALVE SELECTION
E. CONTROL VALVE SELECTION
1. Position on Air Failure
The first consideration in selecting a
control valve is that of determining the saf-
est position for the valve to take on loss of air
pressure. For example, if a fire occurs near
a vessel, should control valves open or
close? Pressure control valves should open,
and level control valves should close in
order to keep liquid inside the vessel. If
liquid drains, the vessel could melt and
result in major damage. Control valves in
fuel lines should obviously fail closed.
5. Valve Body
The valve body size is usually about
twice that of the trim. This will allow replace-
ment of larger sized trim in order to increase
the capacity of the valve. The end connec-
tions — flanged, threaded or welded are
chosen, and the pressure rating must be
safely above the maximum pressure ex-
pected.
Another consideration in selecting the
valve body is whether or not the fluid con-
tains solid particles that could settle out and
obstruct movement of the plug.

2. Valve Type
After selecting the fail safe valve posi-
tion, the type of valve — plug, cage, ball,
butterfly — is selected. The principle con-
siderations are cost and process control.
The table on page 2 is used to select the
valve type. In most process control sys-
tems, the globe type valve is selected. A HIGH LOW
PRESSURE PRESSURE
cage type is preferred if the pressure drop OUTLET
INLET
across the valve is more than 3500 kPa
[500 psi].
3. Actuator Type FLOW DIRECTION WHEN FLUID
DOES NOT
The third step is to select the type of CONTAIN SOLID MATERIALS
actuator, i.e. direct or reverse acting which
will move the valve to the fail safe position.
Some of the more common control valve
configurations are shown opposite.
4. Trim
The control valve supplier will determine
the size of the trim that will provide design
flow rate when the valve is half open. He will
also select the type of trim — linear, throttle,
etc. — based on expected process flow
conditions. Special materials will be pro-
vided if corrosion or erosion are expected. A
FLOW DIRECTION WHEN FLUID
double port valve may be selected if a high CONTAINS SOLID MATERIALS
flow rate is required.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES 23

CAGE TYPE GLOBE TYPE GLOBE TYPE

DIRECT ACTUATOR DIRECT ACTUATOR DIRECT ACTUATOR
FAIL OPEN DOUBLE PORT FAIL CLOSED
FAIL OPEN
AIR PRESSURE

AIR PRESSURE

GLOBE TYPE GLOBE OR CAGE GLOBE OR CAGE

REVERSE ACTUATOR REVERSE ACTUATOR DIRECT ACTUATOR
FAIL CLOSED FAIL OPEN FAIL CLOSED

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
24 SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES

Problem 7

a. The control valve controlling fuel to a heater should move to the ____________
position on loss of air pressure.

b. A level control valve has a pressure drop across it of 3500 kPa [500 psi], what type
of valve should be used? _______________

c. The valve body is usually smaller / the same / larger than the trim.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 III. PNEUMATIC CONTROLLERS
A. Pressure Control
The function of a controller is to maintain
a process condition. A process condition is
a temperature, pressure, flow, level, etc. at
the point the operator wants to control.
Each controller — whether it be tem-
perature, pressure, flow, level, etc. — has a
set point. It can be changed by twisting a dial
or turning a knob. Each controller also re-
ceives a signal from the process that it is
controlling telling it the process condition.
The controller then compares what the ac-
tual process condition is with the set point
condition, and if they are not the same, it
sends a signal to a control valve to move in
a position that will return the process to set
point condition.
Example
The pressure controller in a separator is
set at 1000 kPa [150 psi]. If a change in
pressure occurs, the controller signals a
control valve to open or close as required, to
maintain set point pressure.
Suppose the pressure rises to 1050 kPa
[160 psi]. The controller will sense the pres-
sure rise and signal the control valve to open
until the pressure drops to set point pres-
sure. If the pressure falls below the set point,
the controller will signal the control valve to
close to reduce the flow of gas out of the
vessel.
We will discuss pressure control first.
Later on, we will discuss control of tempera-
ture, level, and flow. The figure on the next
page shows a simple pneumatic controller
for pressure control. The Bourdon tube is
connected to the separator whose pressure
is being controlled. It is the device that tells
the controller what the pressure is inside the
25
vessel. The shape of the Bourdon tubes
depends upon the pressure in it. As the
pressure increases, the Bourdon tube
straightens out; as the pressure drops, the
tube relaxes and becomes more circular.
One end of the Bourdon tube is con-
nected to a flapper. As the Bourdon tube
changes shape, the flapper is lifted from or
lowered onto the vent nozzle. The flapper is
the device used to tell the control valve to
open or close in order to maintain set point
pressure. When pressure in the Bourdon
tube rises, the tube straightens out and lifts
the flapper away from the vent nozzle.
Look at the vent nozzle. It is connected
to the supply air pressure line that also flows
out to the diaphragm actuator on the pres-
sure control valve. The supply air pressure
line has an orifice that restricts the flow of air
into the control line. As the flapper is lifted off
the vent nozzle, pressure in the control line
vents out the vent nozzle. Pressure on the
diaphragm of the control valve is reduced
and the control valve opens. This allows
more gas to flow through the control valve,
which in turn lowers the pressure in the
separator.
As pressure in the separator drops, the
Bourdon tube relaxes and lowers the flap-
per onto the vent nozzle. Less air flows out
the vent nozzle and the pressure in the
control line builds. Pressure on the dia-
phragm of the control valve increases and
the control valve closes.
With a fail open control valve, the valve
is fully open when the vent nozzle is fully
open; it is fully closed when the vent nozzle
is fully closed. In a fail closed valve, the
valve is fully closed when the vent nozzle
is fully open; it is fully open when the vent
nozzle is fully closed. Fail open and fail
closed valves are shown on page 23.
Another type of pressure controller uses
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
26 PRESSURE CONTROLLER

OPERATION OF PRESSURE CONTROLLER

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 PRESSURE CONTROLLERS 27

index establishes the desired value

of the set point.
All pneumatic controllers of the
types shown, contain a restrictive
orifice in the air line which is smaller
in size than the fully open vent
nozzle. The air takes the path of
least resistance. When the vent
nozzle is fully open, all air that can
pass through the orifice flows out
the vent; the air pressure to the
actuator is zero. When the vent
nozzle is closed, full supply pres-
sure is on the actuator.
Let's look at the vent nozzle and
SNAP ACTING PRESSURE CONTROLLER flapper on the previous page a little
closer. No air vents at the nozzle
a flapper in a slightly different arrange- when the flapper rests on the nozzle. When
ment to cover the vent nozzle. One end of the flapper is slightly above the nozzle, all
this flapper is connected to a Bourdon tube. air pressure vents out the nozzle. The flap-
The flapper rotates around a fixed pivot per does not have to move very far in order
point. The position of the other end is af- to vent all air pressure out of the nozzle.
fected by a permanent magnet.
The drawing above shows the flapper
covering the vent nozzle. This is caused by
the Bourdon tube expanding to the right at
high pressure which then allows the magnet
to pull the flapper against the nozzle. If the
controlled pressure decreases, the Bourdon
tube contracts and Point A moves to the left.
This bends the flapper around the fixed
pivot until eventually the force overcomes
the attraction of the magnet and the vent
nozzle becomes fully open.
With this type of controller, the vent is
either full-open or full-closed, causing corre-
sponding movement of the valve. This is
called snap acting. Each brand of instru-
ment uses a different arrangement to close
or open the vent nozzle but the principle is
the same. The figure to the right shows a
controller where movement of a recording RECORDING TYPE
pen opens and closes the vent nozzle. The CONTROLLER

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
28 PRESSURE CONTROLLERS

VENT NOZZLE FLAPPER

VENT NOZZLE VENT NOZZLE VENT NOZZLE
CLOSED OPEN PARTIALLY OPEN

BOURDON PRESSURE
Pressure to the diaphragm will go from TUBE
FLAPPER
CONTROLLER

zero to maximum with a slight movement of

the flapper. In other words, there will be very VENT
BELLOWS

NOZZLE
little control valve throttling. The control valve
will be fully closed or open. PILOT OUTPUT
We usually want the control valve to Supply
PRESSURE

throttle, that is, to be partially open. An easy Air

RESTRICTIVE
way to accomplish this is to rotate the flap- ORIFICE

per around the nozzle rather than lift it. The

right drawing above indicates this type of
control. It may be accomplished by anchor-
ing one end of the flapper, and moving the
vent nozzle so that the flapper rotates around
the vent nozzle or it can be accomplished by
adding a bellows to the free end of the
flapper, as shown to the right. The output air
pressure is connected to the inside of the
bellows. When the flapper closes the vent
nozzle, output pressure to the diaphragm
increases. This increases the pressure in
the bellows and causes it to expand. This
has the effect of rotating the flapper in a
counter-clock-direction and producing a
partially open vent nozzle.
As the flapper is lifted from the vent
nozzle, air pressure vents out, and pressure
to the diaphragm and the bellows drops.
The bellows collapses and moves the flap-
per in a clockwise direction. The effect of the
bellows is to increase the rotation of the
flapper around the vent nozzle, so that the
bar does not merely lift away from the nozzle,
but instead pivots around the nozzle.
You may ask yourself what difference
Pressure line
from equipment PRESSURE CONTROLL
being controlled VALVE
PRESSURE CONTROLLER WITH
BELLOWS CONNECTED TO FLAPPER
does it make if the control system is snap-
acting (either full open or full closed) or
throttling, so long as it is satisfactorily con-
trolling the process condition (pressure, level,
flow, etc.)? The answer to this is that the
controlled fluid often flows to some other
piece of process equipment. If the system is
snap-acting, flow will be in slugs. This often
results in erratic operation of downstream
equipment. It is far better to have a constant
flow rate rather than have it fully open part of
the time and fully closed the remainder of
the time.
If a separator is dumping to a pit or a
storage tank, a snap-acting type level con-
troller will not cause any upsets, and is often
used in this service. In fact, in such services,
a direct-connected float-type controller is

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 TEMPERATURE CONTROLLERS 29

often used. A control-

ler is generally used when
throttling acting is desired.
This is the basic be-
havior of a pneumatic
control system. There is
no magic or anything
complicated. Air pressure
to the actuator diaphragm
is controlled by bleeding
off some of the supply air
pressure. The process is
purely mechanical. THERMOSTAT CONTROL
The principle of op-
eration is the same for control of tempera- valve is open, the burner is on; when closed,
ture, level, flow, etc. as it is for pressure. For the burner is off. A pilot light is required to
these applications, the controller receives light the burner.
its instructions in a different manner. The control valve shown above has no
spring. The unbalance force of fuel gas
B. Temperature Control forces the plug open. Diaphragm pressure
There are two basic types of tempera- closes the valve. For relatively small heat-
ture controls — a thermostat and a control- ers, this is satisfactory — large heaters use
ler using a gas or liquid filled bulb. a different control system.

1. Thermostat Temperature Control 2. Fluid Filled Bulb Type Temperature

Controller
The drawing above shows a common
type of thermostat used in the oilfield for The other commonly used temperature
controlling fuel gas to gas-fired heaters. controller has a bulb filled with liquid or gas
With this control, the flame is either on or off that is inserted into the equipment whose
(snap-acting). temperature is being controlled. The fluid in
The temperature sensing elements is an the bulb will expand or contract with tem
invar rod inside a stainless steel
SPIRAL
tube. As the temperature TUBE
changes, the invar and stainless CAPILLARY
expand or contract by a different
amount. This relative movement
of the rod and tube is the instruc-
tion to a snap-acting pilot. Based BULB
on this movement, the pilot ad-
justs air pressure to the control
valve diaphragm, so that it opens
or closes the control valve in the
fuel gas line. When the control BULB TYPE TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
30 FLOW CONTROLLER
perature change, just as mercury rises that is installed in the equipment whose
or falls in a thermometer as its temperature temperature is being controlled. This allows
changes. removal and replacement of the bulb with-
A capillary tube, which is simply a very out shutting down the equipment.
small diameter tube, connects the bulb to a The bulb, tubing and spiral tubing are a
spiral tube similar to the one used in pres- single closed system. Should a leak de-
sure controllers. velop, the entire unit must be replaced.
As the temperature around the bulb
changes, the pressure inside the bulb BELLOWS
changes proportionately with it. In fact, the
fluid inside the bulb is selected so that its
pressure changes in some proportion with
the temperature change. As the tempera-
ture rises, pressure inside the bulb rises,
and the controller action is the same as that
of a pressure controller. The spiral tube
rotates and lifts the flapper from the vent
nozzle and lowers the signal to the control
valve.
Conversely, if the temperature surround-
FLOW CONTROLLER
ing the bulb drops, pressure inside the bulb
falls, the spiral relaxes, and the flapper
moves downward and closes the vent nozzle.
C. Flow Controller
As far as the controller is concerned, it is
the same for a bulb-type temperature con- Control of flow requires a flow measure-
troller as that for a pressure controller. ment device. In most control systems, flow
The temperature bulb is normally in- measurement is made by measuring the
serted inside a stainless steel thermowell pressure differential across an orifice plate.
Supply Pilot output pressure
Air to control valve
VENT
NOZZLE As vent nozzle closes, controller output pres-
FLAPPER sure rises.
PIVOT
As pressure outside low pressure bellows goes
down, the low pressure bellows expands, and
FLOW the high pressure bellows contracts. The flap-
CONTROL per moves counter-clockwise and closes the
PILOT vent nozzle.

HIGH PRESSURE As flow through orifice plate increases, pres-

LOW PRESSURE sure drop across orifice plate increases. Pres-
BELLOWS BELLOWS sure at the inlet of the orifice plate remains
constant. Pressure at the outlet of the orifice
plate goes down.

ORIFICE PLATE
FLOW CONTROLLER

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 LEVEL CONTROLLER
The orifice plate has a pressure drop as
fluid flows through it. Pressure on the up-
stream or inlet side of the plate is higher than
pressure on the downstream or outlet side.
The inlet side pressure is connected to a
high pressure bellows chamber, and the
outlet side pressure surrounds a low pres-
sure bellows. As flow increases through the
orifice, the pressure drop also increases.
Upstream pressure remains the same, but
downstream pressure is lower. The bellows
contains a fluid, and as the pressure drop
increases, the high pressure bellows com-
presses and the low pressure bellows ex-
pands.
The high pressure bellows is linked to
the flapper, so that as the bellows com-
presses, the flapper moves toward the vent
nozzle and vice versa. Here again, the con-
troller action is similar to that for a pressure
controller. The principal difference is that
the bellows is used to receive instructions
instead of a Bourdon tube.
D. Level Controller
1. Displacement Float Type
Level control involves a different kind of
signal to the controller. You are familiar with
a ball or "float" used in a toilet, which goes up
and down with the liquid level. The float is
linked directly to a water valve. This type of
float is often used on low pressure separa-
tion vessels. It is purely mechanical and
does not use a controller.
When a controller is used to control
level, a displacement type float is generally
used. A displacement type float does not
really "float" on the liquid. It is heavier than
the liquid, and will sink like a rock in the
liquid. This type of float uses what is called
buoyancy. Buoyancy is the upward force
from an object that is suspended in liquid,
even though it is heavier than liquid.
31
FLOAT ROD
TORQUE
TUBE
SHAFT TO
PILOT
FLOAT
FLOAT
CAGE
DISPLACEMENT FLOAT ASSEMBLY
You might have difficulty lifting a 100 kg
[220 lb] weight on land, but you could prob-
ably lift it under water. If its bouyancy force
was half its weight, you would only be lifting
50 kg [110 lb] under water.
Suppose that you lifted the weight out of
the water. As long as it is completely sub-
merged, it weighs only 50 kg [110 lb]. How-
ever, as soon as part of it is lifted out of the
water, its weight becomes greater.
Thus, even though the float is heavier
than the liquid, the varying buoyancy force
allows it to be used for level control.
The buoyancy force will depend upon
the amount the float is submerged. Of course,
no buoyancy force will occur when the liquid
is below the float. As liquid moves up the
float, more buoyancy force is exerted. In
other words, the float will weigh less. This
change in weight, with change in level, is the
principal by which the displacement type
float works.
For this reason, the float can only control
a level within its length. A level change
above or below the float cannot be detected.
Up or down movement of a displace-
ment float is not necessary to the operation
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
32 LEVEL CONTROLLER
of the level control system. The change
in weight of the float as the level changes is
the driving force.
A standard float is a cylinder 75 mm [3 in]
in diameter and 356 mm [14 in] long. It
weighs 2.2 kg [4.8 lb] in air. When half
immersed in water, its weight is reduced by
its buoyancy to about 1.4 kg [3 lb]. Different
lengths and/or diameters are used for spe-
cial applications.
The float is mounted in a vertical posi-
tion. Consequently, its weight is propor-
CONTROLLER
Air
Supply
FLOAT
CAGE CONTROL
VALVE
EXTERNAL CAGE LEVEL CONTROLLER
MOUNTED ON SEPARATOR
tional to the amount of submersion of the
float. Minimum weight occurs when the float
is totally submerged; and maximum wight
occurs when the float is out of the liquid.
The change in amount of submersion,
which results in a change in weight, is the
input signal to the controller. In other words,
it is the instruction to the controller as to
what the liquid level is doing around the
float. The controller must then respond to a
change in level by instructing a control valve
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
to open or close, as required, to bring the
level back to the desired point.
The figure on the previous page shows
how this is done. The float hangs on the end
of a float rod connected at right angles to a
hollow torque tube. The other end of the
torque tube is held firmly by a flange.
The weight of the float times the length of
the float rod places a twisting force (torque) on
the free end of the torque tube. The amount of
this force varies proportionally with the weight
of the float. When the liquid level is below the
float, the maximum weight and twisting action
is on the torque tube. As the liquid rises up the
float, it weighs less, and torque tube untwists.
A shaft at the end of the torque tube
extends into the controller. It is linked to the
flapper, which in turn affects the amount of air
bleeding off the vent nozzle. As the level
changes, the shaft on the end of the torque
tube rotates and raises or lowers the flapper.
One other important point: the change
in buoyancy force, as the level changes
1 cm [3/8 in] near the bottom of the tube
is the same when the level changes the
same amount at the top of the tube. Con-
sequently, the controller always receives
a proportional signal from a change in
buoyancy. It does not have to compensate
for a different buoyant force when the
level is near the top of the tube than when
the level is at the bottom of the tube.
The size and weight of floats are se-
lected based on the difference in density
between the 2 fluids in the level control
system. A float selected to maintain an
interface level of water in a water-oil service
would not be suitable for level control in a oil-
gas service.
2. Liquid Head Type Level Controller
Another type of liquid level controller
uses the weight of a column of liquid as the
 PROCESS TRANSMITTER 33

input signal to the pilot. This SEPARATOR GAS PRESSURE

ADJUSTING
type of control is called a liq- MOTOR VALVE DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE SCREW
TO SEPARATOR
SEPARATOR FLUID PRESSURE
uid head controller. (GAS PRES. PLUSLIQUID HEAD)
GAS SPACE

The pressure at the base MOTOR VALVE DIAPHRAGM CONTROLLER

SPRING
of a column of liquid will de-
pend upon the height of liquid
and its relative density. A
change in the height of liquid
results in a change in pressure
at the bottom of the column. In
TO SEPARATOR
order to accurately measure the LIQUID SPACE CONTROL KNOB PILOT PLUG

effect of liquid height on pres- LEVEL CONTROL VALVE LEVEL CONTROLLER

sure at the bottom, we use a LIQUID HEAD TYPE LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM
differential pressure device,
which measures the pressure at the top and stalled near the point of process measure-
the pressure at the bottom, and takes the ment (temperature, pressure, etc.), and the
difference of the two to get the pressure due to transmitter sends a signal to the remote con-
the height or head of liquid. troller.
The figure above shows a liquid head A transmitter, often called a d/p cell,
level control system for low pressure sepa- simply converts the process condition to an
ration vessels. As liquid level increases, it air pressure signal. Suppose the pressure
overcomes the pilot spring forces, and moves signal from a separator was sent to the
the pilot assembly upward. This lifts the pilot controller with a transmitter. The transmitter
plug, which vents gas pressure from the top would be calibrated for the pressure control
of the diaphragm on the control valve. Sepa- range that is desired. Let us assume that we
rator liquid pressure then opens the control want to control the pressure within a range
valve. The 3-way action of the pilot plug of 1750 to 2000 kPa [250 to 300 psi]. The
allows the valve to throttle. transmitter is calibrated so that it sends an
The same liquid head force can be used air signal of 20 kPa [3 psi] when the pressure
to move a flapper in a controller similar to in the separator is 1750 kPa [250 psi]; and
those discussed previously. Once again, it its output pressure rises to 100 kPa [15 psi]
is merely a matter of converting some force when pressure in the separator rises to
to a flapper movement inside the pilot. 2000 kPa [300 psi].
E. Process Transmitter The transmitter is simply converting the
operating pressure inside the separator to a
Quite frequently, the controller is located low pressure air signal to the controller.
in a control room some distance from the The controller receives the signal from the
point of control. If pressure in a vessel is transmitter in a modified Bourdon tube. It is
being controlled, a line must be installed usually a spiral tube rather than a half-loop type
form the vessel to the control room. Further- tube. Since the pressure is low, an ordinary
more, the line will contain gas which might Bourdon tube is not sensitive enough. The spiral
be a hazard in the control room. allows greater movement for a small change in
In such cases, a transmitter is often in- air pressure from the transmitter.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
34 PROCESS TRANSMITTER
Gas
The spiral tube that is con- Outlet
nected to a transmitter is often PRESSURE
called a receiver. It is linked di- CONTROL
VALVE
rectly to the flapper and serves the
same function as a bourdon tube.
20 - 100 kPa
It mechanically lifts the flapper from [3 - 15 psi]
PRESSURE PRESSURE
the vent nozzle or lowers it onto the TRANSMITTER CONTROLLER
nozzle — depending upon the sig-
nal it receives from the transmitter. Liquid
A transmitter can be used for Outlet

any type of process measurement: SEPARATOR CONTROL ROOM

pressure, temperature, flow, level,

etc. It converts the process condi- PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM
tion to air pressure, which is sent to USING A PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
the controller.

Problem 8
Match the items in the column on the right with those that most clearly describe the items
in the columnm on the left.

______ 1. Pressure Controller a. Bulb and Capilary Tube

______ 2. Temperature Controller b. Float
______ 3. Flow Controller c. Bourdon Tube
______ 4. Transmitter d. High and Low Pressure Bellows
______ 5. Level Controller e. Controller located in Remote Control Room

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 SET POINT
F. Modes of Control
1. Set Point Adjustment
The set point is the process condition —
temperature, pressure, level, etc. — that the
controller is attempting to hold. If a pressure
controller on a separator is supposed to
hold 1000 kPa [150 psi], the set point is
1000 kPa [150 psi]. The controller will then
signal a control valve to move in the direc-
35
tion required to maintain pressure at its set
point. The set point is adjusted by dialing a
knob or positioning an indicating arrow, as
shown below.
Once the set point is set, it is usually not
necessary to change the setting unless there
has been a change in flow, temperature, or
other condition. When it is necessary to change,
it should be done in small increments to pre-
vent major upset in the facilities.
SET POINT
ADJUSTMENT
ON VARIOUS
CONTROLLERS
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
36 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
2. Proportional Control
The term proportional, as applied to in-
struments, refers to the per cent of the range
of a process controller that is used for actual
control. At 100% proportional setting, the
process must vary over the entire range of
the controller in order to stroke the control
valve in the system.
The proportional relationship between
controller output pressure and the value of
the process control variable can be illus-
trated with a level controller. Remember
that the controller output control range is
between 20 to 100 kPa, or 80 kPa [between
3 to 15 psi or 12 psi]. Assume that the float
on the level controller is 80 cm long. When
the level changes 1 cm, the pilot output
pressure will change 1 kPa. [Assume the
float is 12 inches long. A change in level of
1 inch will result in 1 psi change in output
pressure]. Furthermore, if the level on the
float is at the 50% point, the controller output
pressure will be at 50% of its control range.
The controller output pressure is propor-
tional to the level on the float. This same
relationship applies to any type of control —
temperature, pressure, flow, etc.
Suppose we want the level control sys-
tem to react faster when a change in level
occurs. In other words, we want the control-
ler output pressure to change more than 1
kPa when the level changes 1 cm [change
more than 1 psi when the level changes 1
in]. This is achieved with a proportional
band, which is a device in the controller
which can be manually adjusted. The pro-
portional band is often calibrated from 0 to
200 %. Refer to the 80 cm [12 in] float we just
discussed. When the proportional band is
set at 100%, the pilot output pressure will
change 1 kPa [1 psi] when the level changes
1 cm [1 in]. If the proportional band is set at
50%, the effect is to cut off half of the float
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
(the top 1/4th and the bottom 1/4th). Now, a
1 cm [1 in] change in level will cause a 2 kPa
[2 psi] change in controller output pressure.
If the proportional band is set at 25%, the
control range on the float is the middle 25%;
a 1 cm [1 in] change in level will cause a 4
kPa [4 psi] change in controller output pres-
sure.
When the proportional band is set near
0%, the control system is snap-acting, that
is, a slight change in level will result in
controller output pressure changing over its
full control range.
We have discussed the proportional rela-
tionship between change in process variable
and controller output pressure. The controller
output pressure goes to the actuator on a
control valve, which moves the valve from
open to closed over the control range of
controller output pressure. It may help you to
consider the controller and the control valve
as an integrated system. The effect of a change
in level is to change the position of the control
valve. At 100% proportional band setting a
10% change in process (level, etc.) will result
in a 10% change in the control valve position.
At 50% proportional setting, a 10% process
change will move the control valve 20%.
From an operating standpoint, the pro-
portional band should be set at the point that
fits the process characteristics. Remember
that the control system is attempting to hold
a process condition — temperature, pres-
sure, level, etc. — at a constant point by
varying the flow through a control valve.
Let's consider a level control system on
a separator in illustrating how to set the
proportional band to fit process characteris-
tics. Assume that liquid enters the vessel at
varying flow rates. We have three choices in
setting the proportional band:
1. A low setting, say, 10-20%, which
will hold the level range within a few
 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL 37

20 kPa 60 kPa 100 kPa

[3 psi] [9 psi] [15 psi]

Controller Controller Controller

Output Output Output
Pressure Pressure Pressure

CONTROLLER OUTPUT PRESSURE WITH 50% PROPORTIONAL BAND

Controller output pressure changes from 0 to 100% of control
range with level change of 50% float length.
20 kPa 60 kPa 100 kPa
[3 psi] [9 psi] [15 psi]
Controller Controller Controller
Output Output Output
Pressure Pressure Pressure

CONTROLLER OUTPUT PRESSURE WITH 100% PROPORTIONAL BAND

Controller output pressure changes from 0 to 100% of control
range with level change of 100% float length.
40 kPa 60 kPa 80 kPa
[6 psi] [9 psi] [12 psi]
Controller Controller Controller
Output Output Output
Pressure Pressure Pressure

CONTROLLER OUTPUT PRESSURE WITH 200% PROPORTIONAL BAND

Controller output pressure changes from 25 to 75% of control range with level change of
100% float length. Control valve never closes more than 25% or opens more than 75%.

CONTROLLER RANGE AT 50, 100, AND 200% PROPORTIONAL BAND

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
38 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
cm [in] in the separator, but will result in
frequent opening or closing of the
level control valve, so that there is a
wide variation in flow through the
control valve.
2. A high setting, say 80-90%, which
will result in the level varying over
most of the length of the float, but
flow through the level control valve
will be fairly constant.
3. An intermediate setting, say 40-60%,
which will result in moderate level
changes and moderate flow rate
changes through the level control
valve.
You must consider the entire process
system, and not just the separator, in decid-
ing where to set the proportional band. If
liquid from the separator flows to another
piece of equipment which will operate better
at a constant flow rate, then the level control
system should be set so that liquid flow is
fairly constant, which requires a high pro-
portional setting.

PROPORTIONAL BAND SETTING FOR VARIOUS PROCESS SITUATIONS

PROPORTIONAL EFFECT ON PROCESS AND FLOW TYPICAL

BAND SETTING THROUGH CONTROL VALVE APPLICATIONS
High (80-100%) Constant flow, variable process Level or other process
control when flow enters
another process vessel.
Low (10-20%) Constant process, variable flow Level control on vessel that
dumps to drain or pit.
Pressure or temperature
controller where control
range is several hundred
degrees or kPa [psi].

Examples:

1. The level controller on a Flash Tank in a glycol dehydration plant regulates flow of
rich glycol to a reconcentrator. A constant flow rate is desired in order to stabilize
operation of the reconcentrator. A high proportional band is required.

2. The heat source to a glycol reconcentrator is regulated with a temperature controller

with a range of 0 - 250°C [0 - 500°F]. With a 100% proportional band, the temperature
must change over the full range in order to stroke the control valve. This is obviously
too much of a control range. If the proportional band is set at 5%, the control range
that will stroke the control valve is 5% of 250 = 12.5°C [5% of 500 = 25°F]. The control
range is actually !/2 of this above the set point, and !/2 below the set point.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
On some controllers, the proportional
band has a range of 1-200%. You may
wonder how it can be more than 100%. Let's
recall the level control system with an 80 cm
[12 in] float. If the proportional band is set at
200%, it is attempting to control over a float
length of 2 x 80 = 160 cm [2 x 12 = 24 in] and
a 1 cm [1 in] change in level will result in !/2
kPa [!/2 psi] change in output pressure. When
the level is at the middle of the float, pilot
output pressure will be at mid-pressure
range, or 60 kPa [9 psi]. The bottom of the
float is 40 cm [6 in] below the middle. When
the level drops to this point, output pressure
will decrease 0.5 kPa per cm [0.5 psi per in]
or 60 -0.5 x 40 = 40 kPa [ 9 -0.5 x 6 = 6 psi].
At this pressure, the level control valve is
25% open. If the level rises to the top of the
float, pilot output pressure will rise to 75%,
and not go above that point.
So…when the proportional band is set
above 100%, the control valve will not fully
open or close. This setting is seldom used in
oil production or gas processing facilities un-
less an operator is present at all times to reset
controllers, or manually open or close valves
as required to protect equipment during a
shutdown or other operational upset situation.
The mechanical action that occurs in the
controller when the proportional band is
changed is one of adjusting the relative
movement of the flapper from the vent nozzle.
Suppose the flapper moves 1.6 mm [!/16th in]
over the control range of the controller. In a
level control system, set at 100% propor-
tional band, the flapper moves 1.6 mm [!/16th
in] when the level changes from the bottom
to the top of the float. when the proportional
band is set at 50%, the pilot is mechanically
adjusted so that the flapper will move 1.6
mm [!/16th in] when the level changes !/2 of
the length of the float.
Different controller manufacturers have
39
different means of mechanically adjusting
the flapper movement relative to the vent
nozzle. One way of achieving proportional
control is with a valve in the pressure line to
the bellows, as shown below. When the
valve is closed, the bellows is out of service
BOURDON PRESSURE
FLAPPER
VENT
BELLOWS
Vent PROPORTIONAL
CONTROL
Supply
RESTRICTIVE
ORIFICE
Pressure line
from equipment PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
PRESSURE CONTROLLER
and the controller is snap-acting (0% pro-
portional band). When the valve is fully
open, the bellows provides maximum rota-
tion of the flapper, which is maximum pro-
portional band setting. The valve in the
bellows pressure line has a calibrated scale
on the handle, which is shaped like a pointer.
The figures on the page following illustrates
proportional band on various brands of pilots.
We have described the proportional band
setting as it applies to a level controller, but the
same principle applies to whatever process
sensing device is used. If a Bourdon tube used
with a pressure controller has a pressure
range of 1 to 1000 kPa [0 to 150 psi] and the
proportional band is set at 100%, the pressure
at the control point must change the entire
range of the Bourdon tube in order to fully
stroke the control valve. If you want to hold the
pressure within a range of 20 kPa [3 psi] the
proportional band setting would be about 2%.
This is almost snap-acting.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
40 PROPORTIONAL ADJUSTMENT

PROPORTIONAL ADJUSTMENT

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 CONTROL WITH CHANGE IN FLOW RATE 41
60 kPa
[9 psi]

PC

50% of GAS
Control Range 100 Units
F.O.
0 100 50% Open

LC
INLET LEVEL IN MIDDLE
FLUID
100% OF FLOAT 60 kPa
[9 psi]

LIQUID
100 Units
F.C.
50% Open
LEVEL & PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEMS AT NORMAL FLOW CONDITIONS
40 kPa Output pressure
[6 psi] C
drops

PC

B Pressure increases
by 50% of
Control Range GAS E Outlet gas
150 Units flow increases
(From 50 to 75%] Control valve F.O. to 150
D opens to 75%
0 100 75% Open

3 Output pressure
LC rises
INLET
FLUID Rises to Level 75%
OF FLOAT 80 kPa
150%
[12 psi]
1.A Inlet flow
increases 50%

2 Level rises
50% (From 50%
to 75%) LIQUID
150 Units
F.C. Outlet flow
75% Open 5 increase 50%
4 Control valve to 150 units
opens 50% more
(From 50 to 75%)

LEVEL & PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEMS AT 150% OF FLOW CONDITIONS

At 150% flow rate, the pressure control point will rise from 50% of control range setting to
75% of the setting, and remain at that point as long as the flow remains at 150%. The set point
must be lowered in order to lower the pressure to 50% point. When set point is lowered, the
controller is given a new set of instructions: provide an output pressure of 40 kPa [6 psi] when
pressure is at mid range of control.
The level will rise to 75% and remain at that point as long as flow is 150%. Set point must
be lowered in order to lower level to mid point of float. When this is done, the controller is given
a new set of instructions: provide an output pressure of 80 kPa [12 psi] when the level is in the
middle of the float.
Any control system will hold a constant process only as long as flow through the
control valve is constant.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
42 RESET

One other point that is of critical impor-
tance in any adjustment on a controller:
changing a proportional band setting or con-
trol point setting requires time for the con-
troller to adjust to the new setting. The
amount of time required depends upon the
size of the equipment. If the proportional
band is changed on a level controller on a
small separator, the effect will be felt in a few
minutes. However, if the separator is a large
horizontal unit, it may take 15 to 30 minutes
for the effects of a change in proportional
band setting to stabilize. It is desirable to
make small changes and allow yourself
plenty of time to observe the effect of changes
before making additional ones.
Remember: If the proportional band is
set above 100%, the control valve will never
move to a fully open or fully closed position.
This setting should not be used if there is a
likelihood of an interruption of the stream
entering the vessel. If flow to the vessel
stops, the level controller will not signal the
control valve to fully close, and liquid in the
vessel will drain out the control valve.
3. Offset
condition when the flow rate changes ap-
plies to all control systems.
The amount of offset for a given change
in flow rate depends on valve characteris-
tics. This raises the question about valve
choice. Also, will the amount of offset affect
desired performance of the vessel being
controlled? This is primarily a design ques-
tion but it is pertinent for operations since
conditions change and/or designers make
mistakes.
4. Reset or Integral
One way of automatically adjusting the
controller when there is a change in flow is
with reset. Reset is a device installed in the
controller which has the effect of changing
the set point, within certain time intervals,
when there is a change in flow rate in the
system. The reset scale is usually calibrated
in minutes. A typical scale reads 0.03 to 30
minutes. If is set at 5 minutes, it will adjust
the controller every 5 minutes for a change
in flow rate (if necessary), so that a constant
RESET ADJUSTMENT

PRESSURE
The figures on the previous page show BOURDON
TUBE
CONTROLLER

FLAPPER
the effect on pressure and level when flow Reset
Bellows

rate changes. This change in the control Reset

VENT Control
point is called offset. The variable being NOZZLE

controlled is off the set point. Proportional

Control
When flow through the system increases,
the level in the separator rises and remains Supply
Air
RESTRICTIVE
at a higher level as long as the higher flow ORIFICE

rate continues. In order to lower the level to

mid-point on the float, the set point on the
pilot must be moved to a lower position. If a
constant level is desired, the set point must Pressure line
from equipment PRESSURE
CONTROL
be changed each time there is a change in being controlled
VALVE

flow rate. This same principle of changing PRESSURE CONTROLLER WITH

the set point to hold a constant process PROPORTIONAL AND RESET CONTROL

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 RESET 43

RESET ADJUSTMENT

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
44 DERIVATIVE OR RATE
process condition is obtained. The time
setting is called repeat.
Reset usually is accomplished with a
bellows that opposes the proportional bel-
lows. Pressure in the reset bellows is ad-
justed with a reset valve. The reset valve is
calibrated in minutes. It is the time required
for pressure inside the reset bellows to
equalize through the reset valve with pilot
output pressure.
In the level control situation we looked at
on the previous page, a reset at 5 minutes
would result in the level control point drop-
ping from 75% position on the float to 50%
position in a period of 5 minutes.
So the effect of reset is the same as that
of manually adjusting the set point in the
controller to account for offset.
The reset is a useful device, but it must
be used properly or it will create more prob-
lems than it solves. It is only needed when
flow rate through the control valve changes
significantly. A significant change would
usually be an increase or decrease in ex-
cess of 20% of the normal flow rate. The
reset has the effect of changing the set point
on the pilot according to the pressure output
signal to the control valve.
The figure on page 42 shows the addi-
tion of reset to the proportional control.
Notice that the reset valve in effect connects
the two opposing bellows. The knob of this
valve adjusts the amount of reset. An in-
crease in pressure in the proportional bel-
lows causes the beam to move away from
the vent nozzle. With reset acting, the pres-
sure also increases in the reset bellows
which tends to nullify the action of the pro-
portional bellows which it opposes. This
reset action will cause a definite increase in
controller output pressure until the set point
is restored.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
5. Derivative or Rate
The derivative or rate measures the
rate of change of the process condition
being controlled — temperature, pressure,
etc. —and gives the controller the capability
of quickly responding to a high rate of change.
It sometimes is called pre-set or pre-act by
different instrument manufacturers.
Example
A temperature controller is used to regu-
late fuel gas to a heater. The temperature
controller senses the temperature of the
stream leaving the heater, and signals a fuel
valve to open or close, as required to hold
set point temperature. The temperature of
the stream leaving the heater increases 2
degrees, very rapidly. This small tempera-
ture change is not enough to be concerned
about, but the fact that it increased rapidly,
indicates the need for immediate action.
The derivative will sense the rapid change,
and allow the controller to reduce the flow of
fuel gas faster than normal. In other words,
the controller can pre-act to rapid changes
in a process control system.
The derivative action measures a rate
of change. In the previous heater example,
the derivative would sense the rapid rate of
temperature change. The amount of tem-
perature change might be too small to de-
tect with a thermometer, but the derivative
would immediately sense a fast rate of
change, even though its only 2 degrees, and
allow the controller to compensate for it.
Derivative or Rate should only be used
in fuel control systems on gas fired equip-
ment, such as heaters, boilers, engines or
turbines. It should not be used in typical
process control systems because it will of-
ten cause a stable system to become un-
stable. This is covered in the next chapter.
One way of providing for rate or deriva
RATE ADJUSTMENT 45

DERIVATIVE
OR RATE
ADJUSTMENT

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
46 DERIVATIVE OR RATE
tive action is to install a needle valve in dition with its set point. If the two are not the
the air line to the proportional bellows as same, the controller raises or lowers the out-
shown below. This valve restricts the flow of put pressure to the control valve, so that it will
air to the proportional bellows. Its effect is to open or close in order to bring the process
operate the controller at zero proportional condition back to the set point on the pilot.
action (snap-acting) temporarily when the When the output pressure from a con-
process input signal changes. The change troller to a control valve increases with an
in controller output pressure will gradually increase in process, the controller is direct
flow through the rate valve to the propor- acting. When an increase in process (pres-
tional bellows and return the instrument to sure goes up) results in a decrease in con-
its normal proportional band setting. troller output pressure, the controller is re-
Different manufacturers may use different verse acting. Almost all controllers are ca-
means for adding derivative action. However, pable of operating in either direct or reverse
the effect is the same: to allow the controller to mode. Change from one to the other can be
respond rapidly to a rapid change in process done in a few minutes by a qualified techni-
input signal. cian.
Caution must be used in setting the rate When a control system is designed, selec-
valve when reset is also present. The rate tion of the type of control valve — fail open or
valve must never be closed more than the fail closed — is the first decision to make. The
reset valve. Otherwise, the controller will oper- selection is based solely on safety.
ate at 0% proportional band
continually. BOURDON
The rate or derivative func- TUBE
FLAPPER
tion is primarily a safety device
to prevent the possibility of burn-
ing down gas fired equipment. Reset
VENT Control
Its function is to block in fuel NOZZLE
when there is a rapid increase Rate
in temperature out of a heater Control
or in the process condition that Proportional
controls fuel to an engine or Supply Control
turbine. The undesirable ac- Air RESTRICTIVE
tion of it is that a rapid decrease ORIFICE
in the process condition will
cause the control valve to fully
open.
5. Direct or Reverse
Acting Controller
Pressure line PRESSURE
The process controller re- from equipment CONTROL
ceives a process input signal being controlled VALVE
of temperature, level, pressure, PRESSURE CONTROLLER WITH
etc. It compares this input con- PROPORTIONAL, RESET & RATE CONTROLS

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 DIRECT OR REVERSE ACTION 47

To determine whether the controller is
direct or reverse acting, we determine what
the outlet air pressure must do (increase or
decrease) when the process rises. Look at the
drawing below. When the level rises, the level
control valve must open to drain the excess
liquid. With a fail closed valve, air pressure
must increase to open the valve. Thus, an
increase in process results in an increase in
controller outlet air pressure, so the controller
is direct acting.
Let's look at the pressure control sys-
tem. In case of fire, we want to depressure
the vessel, so the pressure control valve
should be a fail open type. During operation,
if the pressure rises we want the control
valve to open to relieve the excess pres-
sure. With a fail open control valve, air
pressure to the control valve must decrease.
Thus, an increase in process results in a
decrease in controller outlet pressure, so
the controller is reverse acting.
The operating mode is of particular im-
portance at the start-up of new facilities. At
this time, each controller needs to be
checked to see that it is in the proper mode.

Process rises. Output pressure

D falls. Controller is reverse acting. In order to open
C
control valve, output
pressure must fall
with fail open valve.
PC
Reverse
Acting

A Pressure GAS
rises. F.O.
B Control valve must open to
relieve excess pressure
3 In order to open
LC control valve, output
Direct pressure must rise
INLET Acting with fail closed valve.
FLUID

1 Level rises

LIQUID
4 Process rises. Output pressure F.C.
rises. controller is direct acting.
2 Control valve must open
in order to drain excess liquid.

DIRECT & REVERSE ACTING CONTROLLERS

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
48 DIRECT OR REVERSE ACTION

There are four different combinations of direct and reverse acting pilots, and fail open
and fail closed control valves. The effect of an increase in process condition on the controller
output pressure and the position of the control valve is summarized in the following table:

ACTION WHEN PROCESS

TYPE CONDITION INCREASES
CONTROLLER CONTROL CONTROLLER CONTROL
MODE VALVE OUTPUT PRESSURE VALVE TYPICAL APPLICATION
Direct Fail Open Rises Closes
Direct Fail Closed Rises Opens Level Control, Flow Control
Reverse Fail Open Falls Opens Pressure Control System
Reverse Fail Closed Falls Closes Heater Fuel Control

Examples c. With fail open valve, controller

Refer to the following drawing:
1. The pressure control system should
operate as follows:
a. The pressure control valve should
open on shutdown. This requires
a fail open (F.O.) control valve.
b. As the pressure rises, the control
valve should open.
output pressure must drop to open
control valve.
d. When process rises, controller
output pressure falls. Controller
is reverse outing (RA).
2. The oil and water level control sys-
tems should each operate as fol-
lows:
a. The level control valves should

HEATING
CHAMBER PRES
FREE WATER CONTR
KNOCKOUT RA
CHAMBER Fail Gas
Open

Inlet DA

DA
DA
SETTLING
TEMP CHAMBER
FC CONTR Fail Oil
Fail RA Fail Closed
Closed Fuel Closed
Gas

Free Water Water

CONTROLS ON OIL TREATING SEPARATOR

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 DIRECT OR REVERSE ACTION 49

close on shutdown. This takes fail a. The temperature control valve

closed (F.C.) control valves.
b. The control valves should open
as the levels rise.
c. With fail closed control valves,
level controller output pressure
must rise to open control valve.
d. When process rises, controller
output pressure rises. Controller
is in direct (DA) acting mode.
3. The temperature control system
should operate as follows:
should close on shutdown. This
requires a fail closed control valve.
b. The control valve should close as
temperature rises.
c. With fail closed control valve, tem-
perature controller output pres-
sure must fall to close control
valve.
d. When process rises, controller
output falls. Controller is reverse
acting.

Problem 9

TEMP
CONTR

HOT
OIL
OUTLET
FLOW
CONTR

F.O.
STORAGE TANK
OIL
PUMP
FUEL
OIL HEATER GAS
F.C.

a. If flow increases above set point, flow Control valve should open / close; controller
output pressure will rise / fall.

b. Flow Controller is Direct / Reverse acting.

c. If heater outlet temperature falls below set point, control valve should open / close;
controller output pressure will rise / fall.

d. Temperature controller is direct / reverse acting.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
50 CONTROL MODES
The various controller control modes —
proportional band, reset, derivative, direct
or reverse acting — are devices that help
the controller maintain process control at its
set point when the process input changes.
They also stabilize control when an upset
occurs.
The controller is maintaining process
control by adjusting flow through a control
valve. As long as the flow through the con-
trol valve is fairly constant, the control modes
are not required by the controller. In fact, a
globe valve could be positioned by hand
and maintain satisfactory control. The de-
vices come into play when flow through the
control valve must change in order to hold
the process at set point condition.
It is not necessary for an operator to
thoroughly understand the mechanical ac-
tion of proportional, reset or derivative. The
important thing is to know what they do, and
how to use them to obtain the best setting of
a control pilot. The various controller modes
are summarized as follows:

CONTROL MODES

SET POINT
Point of process input that controller is holding
constant.
PROCESS PROPORTIONAL BAND
INPUT → Sets the % of process sensor range that results
(Temperature, in output pressure that strokes control valve.
Pressure, Flow RESET OUTPUT
Level, etc.) Has the effect of changing the set point at PRESSURE
certain time intervals if flow through control
→ TO CONTROL
valve changes. VALVE
RATE OR DERIVATIVE 20 - 100 kPa
SUPPLY Raises or lowers output pressure more than [3 - 15 psi]
AIR → normal when rate of change of process input is
Usually 140 kPa above or below normal.
[20 psi]
DIRECT OR REVERSE ACTING
With direct acting, output pressure increases as
process input rises. In reverse mode, output
pressure drops as process input rises.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 CASCADE CONTROL
7. Cascade Control
Control systems use a process control-
ler to position a flow control valve. A flow
controller regulating a flow control valve is a
matched system, and will maintain con-
stant flow at set point. All other control
systems are mismatched — level, tempera-
ture or pressure controllers regulating flow
control valves. In these control systems, a
constant process will occur only when there
is a constant flow through the control valve.
When flow changes, the control point will
CONTROLS IN FRACTIONATING TOWER
51
change and remain at the changed point
until flow returns to original rate, or the set
point is manually changed or it is changed
by RESET.
In order to stabilize control in some sys-
tems, a flow controller is used for primary
control, and another controller is used as a
secondary control. It changes the set point
in the flow controller as shown below.
The cascade system uses two instru-
ments to control a process, so it obviously
costs twice as much. The added cost can be
justified in equipment having high flow rates,
Flow controller holds constant
flow (and pressure) of top prod-
uct. If pressure changes, pres-
sure controller changes set point
in flow controller to increase or
reduce flow in order to bring pres-
sure to set point.
Flow controller holds constant flow of heating fluid
to reboiler. If temperature changes, temperature
controller changes set point in flow controller to
increase or reduce flow of heating fluid to bring
temperature to set point.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
52 SPLIT-RANGE CONTROL
GAS where a small change in product flow or
quality will pay for the added cost.

8. Split Range Control

Split range control refers to a system in

which the output signal from one controller
operates two control valves. A common
application is that of controlling liquid in a
LC separator in which normal flow is low, but at
times it may be 50 times its normal rate.
The opposite drawing shows an example
of split range control. Normal flow at a low
rate passes through the 60.325 mm [2 inch]
pipe. The control valve in the line moves
20 - 60 KPA from close to full open with a pressure
[3 - 9 PSI] change of 20 to 60 kPa [3 to 9 psi] on its
168.275 mm
[6 inch] pipe diaphragm.
60.325 mm When the level rises faster than the
[2 inch] pipe
smaller line can handle, the level controller
output pressure will rise above 60 kPa [9 psi]
60 - 100 kPa
[9 - 15 psi] and the control valve in the larger line will
start to open and allow the higher flow to exit
the vessel. The larger valve moves from
closed to full open with a diaphragm pres-
LIQUID sure change of 60 - 100 kPa [9 - 15 psi]. It
OUTLET
does not open until the smaller valve is wide
SEPARATOR WITH SPLIT-RANGE
open.
LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM

Problem 10
Match the items in the right column withthe appropriate item on the left.
_______ 1. Set Point a. Changes controller output pressure
faster than normal.
_______ 2. Proportional Band b. Control Point.

_______ 3. Reset c. Controller output pressure rises as

process increases.
_______ 4. Derivative d. Changes controller set point.

_______ 5. Direct Acting e. Range of process input that controller

controls.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 IV. OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
A. Supply Air Pressure Adjustment
Before adjusting a controller, the supply air
line should be open, and the air pressure
regulator set at the proper point. Most pneu-
matic controllers require a supply air pressure
of 140 kPa [20 psi]. The pressure regulator in
the air line to the controller should be adjusted
by tightening or loosening the spring in the
pressure regulator until the proper supply to
air pressure is obtained.
If the supply air line has a liquid knockout
pot, liquid should be drained from it. Filters
in the air line should be checked periodically
and cleaned or the elements replaced.
SUPPLY AIR
PRESSURE
REGULATOR
SUPPLY AIR
PRESSURE
GAUGE
If a drier is installed in the air line, it
should be checked to see that it is removing
moisture from the air. If it is a replaceable
desiccant-type drier, the desiccant should
be changed when it is no longer removing
moisture from the air.
B. Adjusting the Set Point
Set point should never be changed un-
less there is flow in the control valve. For
example, the slug catcher at the outlet of a
gas pipeline normally has no flow. Assume
the proportional band is set at 20%. When
there is no flow, the level will drop 10% of the
length of the band before the level control
valve will fully close. If the operator ob-
53
serves a low level in the sight glass, his first
inclination is to raise the set point in the level
controller. The effect of doing this may result
in the equipment overflowing because of a
high level setting. Flow in a control valve is
confirmed by observing the valve position
indicator or by noting that the output pres-
sure from the controller is between 20-100
kPa [3 - 15 psi]. If it becomes necessary to
move the set point to a new control point, the
change should be made gradually over a
period of time. A sudden change in set point
will upset the instrument, and may require
an hour or more for it to stabilize. Small
changes in set point over a period of time will
not upset stability.
A rule-of-thumb for set point changing
is to divide the amount of change into twelve
equal divisions, and change each division
every five minutes. This will require one
hour to complete the change.
Control systems serve 2 functions:
1. Maintain a constant process condi-
tion — level, flow, etc.
2. Stabilize a control system after an
upset. An upset is an abrupt change
in flow.
Most process controllers have 2 devices
to assist the controller in maintaining the
process at set point: proportional band
and reset. Determining the ideal setting of
each is a matter of trying various settings
and changing flow rates until you find the
point that the controller reacts to an upset in
the minimum time. This usually takes sev-
eral hours for each controller. It is obviously
not feasible to have a plant upset for several
days in order to adjust process controllers.
The function of a controller is to maintain
a constant process. For example, a pres-
sure controller signals a control valve to
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
54 OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
open or close when there is a change in change in the process it is controlling. In
pressure. Suppose pressure rises; the con- setting it, remember this:
troller will signal the control valve to open 1. With a high proportional band, flow
and relieve the higher pressure. The signal through the control valve will be more
from the controller will open the control constant, and process will vary.
valve too much, and the pressure will fall. 2. With a low P.B. setting, process will
The controller will then signal the control be more constant and flow will vary.
valve to close. This cycling will occur several
The ultimate P.B. setting is determined
times until the system stabilizes at a new
by trial and error. A suggested procedure is
controller output and a new control valve
as follows. Take reset out of service before
position.
setting P.B.
Each time there is a process change, the
controller has to search for the output that 1. Pressure and temperature control-
results in a control valve position that will lers with a wide control range.
hold the process at set point at the new flow a. Set P.B. at 5% and observe
rate. The proportional band and reset de- process rate for a week.
vices in controllers are provided to minimize b. If process is almost constant,
the time required to stabilize a control sys- increase setting in 5% steps until
tem when a change occurs. you reach the point that the
process varies more than an
C. Proportional Band Setting
acceptable amount.
The proportional band is the most impor- c. Set P.B. 5% less than the final
tant device in a process controller. It deter- point reached above.
mines how quickly the controller reacts to a 2. Level controllers
20 MA
100 kPa
[15 psi]
PROCESS UPSET
1st Cycle 2nd Cycle 3rd Cycle
CONTROLLER OUTPUT SIGNAL to
CONTROL VALVE, MA, kPa or psi

Amplitude

4 MA
20 kPa
[3 psi] TIME
PROCESS CONTROLLER OUTPUT SIGNAL TO CONTROL VALVE
AFTER PROCESS UPSET IN A STABLE CONTROL SYSTEM.
Controller output signal stabilized in 3 cycles after process upset.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 OPERATION OF PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 55

a. Set P.B. at 50% and observe
level for a week
b. If level change (up or down) is
less than !/4th the length of the
float, increase P.B. in 10% steps
until level changes reach !/4th of
the length of the float.
c. Set P.B. 10% less than the final
point reached above.
D. Reset Setting
In setting reset, it is important to remem-
ber what its function is. When there is a
change in flow in a control system, the
control point will change. For example, if
flow increases in a level control system, the
level will rise and stay up as long as the
higher flow continues. The set point was at
the middle of the float, but the control point
is above the middle at the higher flow rate.
The function of reset is to change the signal
to the control valve so that the level returns
to set point at the new flow rate.
If flow changes occur at a predictable time
for the control valve position for the
new flow rate.
b. The reset is searching for a control
valve position that will bring control
point to set point at the new flow
rate. The following drawing indi-
cates the way a controller can re-
spond to a process upset due to a
change in flow.
The time for one cycle is usually a minute
or two. Stabilization should occur in 3 - 5
cycles. Thus, the process will stabilize in 5 -
10 minutes. If cycling continues after 10
minutes, increase settings of proportional
band in 5% steps. If this doesn't help signifi-
cantly, raise the setting of reset in 5% steps.
20 MA
100 kPa
[15 psi]
UNSTABLE
CONTINUOUS
CYCLING
CONTROLLER OUTPUT SIGNAL to

STABLE
CONTROL VALVE, MA, kPa, psi

cycle, set the reset at that time. In most plants,

flow changes are not at constant time inter-
vals. If flow changes occur over a period of
time, set the reset at that time. For example, if
5 minutes elapses between the time a flow
change starts until it levels off, set the reset a
minute or so above 5 minutes.
Amplitude

If the frequency and elapsed time of flow

changes are erratic, setting reset is pretty
much a guess. Reset ranges are different in
different brands of instruments. A typical range CYCLE
is 30 seconds to 30 minutes. A setting at 10 TIME
minutes is a good point at which to start.
In setting the proportional band and re-
set, you need to keep in mind what each 4 MA
20 kPa
device is attempting to when there is a [3 psi] TIME
change in process with an accompanying
change in flow through the control valve. CONTROLLER OUTPUT SIGNALS
TO CONTROL VALVE
a. The proportional band is searching AFTER PROCESS UPSET

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
56 OPERATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

If the proportional band and/or reset are
not properly set, an unstable controller out-
put signal may result as shown previously.
Within a few cycles of an upset, the control-
ler output is varying from minimum to maxi-
mum, and the control valve is moving from
open to closed. When this occurs, the quick-
est solution is to put the controller in MANUAL
position, and manually change the control-
ler valve position that results in holding
process at set point. When you reach this
point, switch the controller to automatic.
E. Rate, Derivative or Pre-Act Setting
Rate or Pre-Act should be used only on
fuel control systems on gas fired equipment,
such as heaters or boilers. Rate should be
taken out of service on other process con-
trollers, as it often causes instability in them,
and control becomes erratic. A setting of
50% is usually the proper point for rate
control. The setting should always be higher
than the Reset setting. Otherwise, the con-
troller will probably move to the unstable
condition shown on the previous drawing.

Problem 11
List the proper sequence for performing each of the following functions on a controller
that has just been put in service.
_______ 1. Adjust the reset.
_______ 2. Adjust the supply air pressure.
_______ 3. Adjust the rate.
_______ 4. Set point.
_______ 5. Proportional band.

Problem 12

a. Liquid from a vessel in a process plant enters another process vessel. In order to have
a constant flow, the level controller on the first vessel should have a high / low
proportional band setting.

b. A pressure controller has a control range of 1 - 1000. Proportional band setting should
be high / low.

c. A temperature controller has proportional band but no reset. What will happen when
there is an increase in flow through the temperature control valve? ______________
___________________________________________________________________

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 V. TROUBLESHOOTING
The most difficult part of troubleshooting
is that of identifying where the problem is.
Most of the time, the cause of the problem is
obvious once the location is found. The
important thing is to maintain a perspective
of the overall situation, so that the problem
area can be clearly identified.
Suppose the level in a separator varies
throughout the range of the gauge glass on
the separator. Adjusting the proportional
band on the level controller has little affect
on the level. It would appear that something
is wrong with the control system. However,
the problem may be somewhere else. If
there is another separator upstream with a
control valve that is dumping liquid in slugs
into the second separator, the cause of the
varying level in the second separator is
probably due to the level control system on
the first one. Increasing the proportional
band on the first separator will give a more
constant flow to the second one, and allow
better level control in it.
The point is that the entire system should
be examined to be sure that an unstable
condition at the back end of the plant is not
caused by one at the front end. Once you
have zeroed in on the troublesome area,
then you are ready to begin your trouble-
shooting procedures.
At this point, you need to keep in mind
the parts of the control loop, so that each
can be checked out. The parts are:
1. Processing sensing device — the
float, Bourdon tube, temperature
bulb, flow bellows, transmitter, or
other devices that move the flapper
in the controller.
2. Air supply to the controller.
3. The controller itself.
57
4. The air line from the controller to the
control valve.
5. The control valve.
We will discuss each separately.
The troubleshooting procedures that fol-
low are those that an operator can perform
to locate a problem in a control system. In
most cases, it will be necessary for an
instrument technician to perform repairs.
His job can be done more quickly if he
knows in advance what repair is necessary.
Furthermore, when the operator knows
where the problem is, he can often work
around it, and not shut down the equipment
while waiting for its repair.
A. Process Sensing Devices
1. Displacement Float on Level
Controller
The first thing to check is the level of
liquid on the float. If the liquid is above or
below the float, the level controller will have
a constant output. Be sure that the level of
liquid is somewhere between the top and
bottom of the float, preferably about the
middle.
If the float drops from the float arm or the
torque tube breaks, the controller has a
constant output signal that indicates a high
level. One way of checking this is to vary the
liquid level around the float, and watch the
torque tube extension arm in the controller
to see if it rotates. If there is no rotation as
the level changes, either the float has
dropped off, or the torque tube has broken.
If the torque tube has broken, there will be
no resistance to twisting it with a pair of
pliers.
Occasionally, the relative density of liq
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
58 TROUBLESHOOTING
uid around the float changes, which re-
quires a different level set point. Some level
controllers have an adjustment for the rela-
tive density of the liquid. It should be set at
the relative density of liquid around the float.
In extreme cases, it may be necessary to
change the float if the relative density has
changed significantly from that for which the
float was designed.
2. Temperature Sensing system
A temperature sensing device is an inte-
gral unit which includes a bulb, capillary tub-
ing, and a spiral tube mounted in the control-
ler. It is checked by removing the bulb from the
thermowell, and heating or cooling the bulb,
and at the same time, checking movement of
the spiral tube to see that it responds to
change of temperature in the bulb.

3. Flow Sensing Device

A bellows is usually used for sensing
flow through a line. The bellows is usually
mounted on the controller, and a shaft from
the bellows is linked to the flapper.
The bellows is checked by opening a by-
Float Arm pass line in the two connections to the
Hole in
Breaks SHAFT TO
Float bellows from the orifice fitting, and checking
Torque Tube PILOT
Breaks
the movement of the flapper to see that it
Float Weight
Increases. changes when the by-pass valve is open. If
Level Float Drops there is no change in flapper movement
Controller when the by-pass valve is moved from open
Debris Accumulates Under Float
Senses a
Low Level to closed, there is a problem in the bellows
Failures that Result in Level
Controller Sensing a High Level
or in the lines from the bellows to flow meter.
Due to Lower Float Weight Have an instrument man check it out.

FAILURES IN LEVEL SENSING DEVICE

Supply Pilot output pressure

Air to control valve
VENT
NOZZLE
FLAPPER
LIQUID FILL PIVOT

FLOW
CONTROL
PILOT

HIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE

BELLOWS BELLOWS
To check bellows
open by-pass valve.
Flapper should move.
ORIFICE PLATE

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 TROUBLESHOOTING INSTRUMENT AIR SOURCE 59

4. Bourdon Tube in Pressure be dried, if possible, and a liquid collection

Controllers
The Bourdon tube is used in pressure
controllers. It should be inspected for a leak
or crack. Its pressure range is usually
stamped on the mounting bracket, and it
should be checked to see that it is within the
controlled pressure range. The line leading
to the bourdon tube should be checked for
leaking connections, and to be sure that a
valve in the line is not closed. It may be
necessary to adjust the pressure in the
Bourdon tube, to see that the tube expands
on rising pressure and relaxes on falling
pressure.
B. Instrument Air Source
Wet or dirty instrument air is almost
certain to cause problems in controllers. It is
particularly true when natural gas is ex-
panded from high pressure to low pressure
for instrument gas. When the pressure is
reduced, the gas cools and moisture and/or
liquid hydrocarbons form. The gas should
SUPPLY AIR
PRESSURE GAUGE
pot should be installed in gas or air lines as
each instrument to remove dirt or particles
from the stream.
A drop of liquid or a tiny particle of dirt
can plug the vent orifice or some of the tiny
air passages in pneumatic controllers. One
way of checking the system for plugged air
lines, is to push the flapper against the
nozzle and see if the output pressure rises.
If the output pressure does not respond,
there is probably a restriction in the air
system of the controller and it must be
removed.
Check the supply air pressure at the
controller to be sure that it is at the proper
point. Most controllers require a supply of air
pressure of 140 kPa [20 psi]. Adjust the
pressure regulator in the instrument air inlet
line, if necessary. High air pressure can give
as much trouble as low air pressure.
C. Troubleshooting the Controller
The controller has a number of linkages
and other moving parts that should be checked
DEPRESSURING
VALVE
CONTROLLER OUTPUT
AIR PRESSURE GAUGE

VENT
NOZZLE

FLAPPER

Push flapper against vent nozzle. Output pressure should rise.

Pull flapper away from nozzle. Output pressure should fall.

PROCEDURE TO CHECK AIR LINES INSIDE CONTROLLER

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
60 TROUBLESHOOTING CONTROL VALVE
by manually manipulating them to see that D. Air Line from Controller to Control
they move and that they are not broken or Valve
disconnected. Occasionally, some parts are
The air line from the controller to the
so tight that they cannot move, or they have
control valve is usually some kind of tubing.
become corroded and will not move.
Tubing connections can leak or break and
Carefully push the flapper against the
they should be checked. Install a pressure
nozzle and observe the controller output pres-
gauge at the control valve to see that it reads
sure: it should be 100 kPa [15 psi]. Move the
the same pressure as the output from the
flapper away from the nozzle: out put pressure
controller. If the pressure at the control
should be 0. If output pressure does not
valve is lower than that at the controller,
respond when the flapper is moved, check
there is a leak in the line.
tubing lines and bellows inside the controller
for leaks. Fisher controllers have a E. Control Valve
depressuring valve which will often blow out
dirt or other obstructions when it is depressed. One of the most frequent mechanical
Use care when moving the flapper as it is failures on a control valve is that of a dia-
easily bent, which may result in erratic control. phragm rupture. This is determined by feel

Diaphragm ruptures. Air flows out vent.

If spring breaks, stem will move to down position with slight

air pressure on diaphragm.

Air venting around valve stem indicates ruptured dia-

phragm.

Valve stem comes loose from coupling.

If valve stem sticks in packing, add a drop of oil and stroke

valve.

Stem comes loose from plug. Valve appears to stroke, but

flow does not change.

Plug and/or seat is worn. Flow continues when valve is

closed.

Accumulation of dirt under plug will prevent total downward

travel.
COMMON CONTROL VALVE PROBLEMS

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 TROUBLESHOOTING CONTROL VALVE
ing air blowing from the diaphragm hous-
ing. The vent connection is on the half of the
housing that is not under air pressure. If air
pressure is on the bottom of the diaphragm,
the vent connection will be on the top half of
the diaphragm housing. If air pressure is on
the top of the diaphragm, air will blow out a
vent connection on the bottom part of the
housing, or around the valve stem.
Occasionally, the valve stem sticks in
the packing so that the valve does not stroke.
This can often be corrected by applying a
drop or two of oil around the stem and
stroking it. The valve is stroked at the pilot by
depressing the flapper against the vent
nozzle, and then lifting the flapper away
from the nozzle so that pressure is vented
off. Depressing the flapper against the nozzle
raises the pressure of the diaphragm to its
maximum, and moving the flapper away
from the nozzle vents pressure from the
diaphragm. The effect is to stroke the valve.
It may require two people to perform this
operation: one to manipulate the flapper
and the other to observe the control valve.
Problem 13
_________ 1. Float drops off
_________ 2. Temperature bulb rup-
tures
_________ 3. Flow measurement
bellows ruptures
_________ 4. Stroke control valve
_________ 5. Control valve diaphragm
ruptures
_________ 6. Dirt under control valve
plug
61
In stroking a valve, you may find that it
does not travel its full downward stroke. This
is often due to dirt and debris accumulating
under the plug, particularly if the inlet stream
enters below the plug and flows upward
through it. In this case, solid material con-
tained in the inlet stream settle out below the
plug and often prevents it from seating. It
may be necessary to remove the valve and
clean it in order to get it to close.
On rare occasions, the valve spring will
break. When this occurs, the valve will move
to the full open or full closed position with a
slight amount of air pressure on the dia-
phragm. Changing the air pressure will have
no affect on valve position.
If the control valve operates at or near
the closed position most of the time, the trim
is either too large, or it has been cut out or
eroded. In either case, the trim should be
replaced.
If the control valve operates at or near the
full open position most of the time, the trim is
too small, or the valve is plugged with dirt or
corrosion. It should be repaired as necessary.
a. Move flapper against and away from
nozzle.
b. Flapper does not move when by-pass
valve at bellows is opened.
c. Level controller has constant output
pressure.
d. Air blows out around valve stem.
e. Control valve will not move all the
way down.
f. Flapper does not move when tem-
perature bulb is heated or cooled.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
62 VI. SELF CONTAINED CONTROL DEVICES
Our discussion so far has been con-
cerned with control systems that include a
controller that controls flow through a con-
trol valve. However, there are other devices
that are self-contained controllers that have
no controllers.
A. Pressure Regulators
There are two general types of self-
operated pressure regulators:
1. Those controlling pressure on the
inlet or upstream side of the regula-
tor. These are usually called back-
pressure regulators.
WEIGHT LOADED
BACK PRESSURE REGULATOR
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
2. Those controlling pressure on the
outlet or downstream side of the regu-
lator. These are generally called pres-
sure regulators.
The simplest form of a back pressure
regulator is a weight loaded type as shown
below. Fluid pressure inside the valve over-
comes the weight on a lever arm. The amount
and position of the weight determines the
back pressure in the fluid line. This type of
controller is used mostly in liquid service.
A spring loaded valve is often used for
controlling pressure in gas lines from low
pressure separators and emulsion treaters
operating up to 700 kPa [100 psi].
 PRESSURE REGULATORS 63

The regulator shown

to the left is regulating
pressure on the outlet or
downstream side. In this
service pressure beneath
the diaphragm is taken
from the downstream side
of the valve. Pressure
limitation of this regulator
is about 700 kPa [100
psi]. Control pressure is
changed by adjusting
spring tension.

SPRING LOADED
PRESSURE REGULATOR
FOR LOW PRESSURE SERVICE

It is frequently necessary
to withdraw fuel gas or in-
strument gas from high pres-
sure gas in production or pro-
cess facilities. The Big Joe
regulator is frequently used
in this application. It will with-
stand inlet pressure up to
10.5 MPa [1500 psi], and will
control the outlet pressure in
a range of 35 to 1400 kPa [5
to 200 psi]. The pressure
regulator has a spring and a
diaphragm on which down-
stream pressure is imposed. SPRING LOADED
Outlet pressure is controlled PRESSURE REGULATOR
by adjusting spring tension. FOR HIGH PRESSURE SERVICE

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
64 SAFETY RELIEF VALVES
FULL OPEN SAFETY VALVE
B. Safety Relief Valves
Another type of back pressure control
valve is a safety-relief valve. It is often called
a pop valve. It is a related application of the
force-balance principle which we have dis-
cussed. Technically, a safety valve is either
fully open or fully closed: whereas a relief
valve is one which can be partially open.
Both are opened by pressure on the inlet
side of the valve. Two such valves are
shown above.
The valves are each spring loaded. Pres-
sure under the valve seat must overcome
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
PARTIAL OPENING RELIEF VALVE
spring tension to open the valve. They are
designed to exhaust to the atmosphere or to
a vent line.
The full open valve is usually installed on
separators or other pressure vessels to re-
lease pressure if it builds above safe oper-
ating limits. They are not designed to control
pressure at a constant point. The valves are
snap-acting, that is, they are either full open
or closed.
The partial opening valve begins to open
when pressure below the seat is slightly
above spring tension. The valve opens more
as pressure rises.
 VII. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
Electronic instrument operation is al-
most identical to that of pneumatic instru-
ments. The electronic process controller
compares a process condition with set point,
and signals a control valve to move in the
position to bring process condition to set
point. The difference is that process condi-
tions are measured and transmitted to a
remote controller; whereas the process sens-
ing devices are often a physical part of
pneumatic controllers.
The electric current used in incoming
and outgoing circuits from controllers is 4 -
20 thousandths of an ampere. A thousandth
of an ampere is a milliamp, abbreviated MA.
It is such a low level that it is non-shocking
and non-sparking. In fact, it is such a low
level that each line must be encapsulated in
a shielded cable to prevent it from picking up
stray currents from a nearby power line.
One of the big advantages of the elec-
tronic system is the speed at which the
system responds to a change in process
ELECTRONIC CONTROL LOOP
65
condition. In a pneumatic system, several
seconds or even minutes may elapse be-
fore a change in process results in a change
in position of the control valve in the system.
The time elapsed in an electronic system is
less than 1 millionth of a second, regardless
of the distance from the controller to the
control valve.
Another advantage of the electronic in-
strument is its versatility. In addition to vari-
ous control modes of proportion, reset and
derivative, the electronic controllers can be
programmed to do the following:
1. Communicate with a computer to re-
ceive changes in set point instructions,
or transmit unusual operating conditions
or other process information.
2. Store process conditions for a pre-pro-
grammed time in order to retrieve at a
later time to determine causes of operat-
ing upsets.
3. Alarm and/or shut down at program-
mable points.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
66 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
In electronic control loops, the process
sensor measures the level, pressure, etc.,
and converts the measurement into a 4 - 20
MA electric signal that enters a process
controller.
Electronic controllers receive a 4 - 20 MA
signal from a process sensor, and have an
output signal of 4 - 20 MA to a control valve.
Thus all controllers are identical. The face or
dials of controllers may vary, according to
their range. For example, a pressure con-
troller with a range of 0 to 1000 would have
a dial that reads 0 to 1000. The input signal
to the controller from the pressure sensor
would be 4 MA at 0 pressure; and 20 MA
would represent a pressure of 1000.
The equipment common to both elec-
tronic and pneumatic systems is the air
actuated control valve. In the electronic sys-
tem, an electric signal from the controller is
converted to an air pressure by an I/P device
which is often mounted on the control valve.
The letter I is the electric symbol for current
— amperes; P stands for pneumatic — air
pressure. The I/P converts a 4 - 20 MA
electric signal to a 20 - 100 kPa [3 - 15 psi]
air signal that enters the diaphragm actuator
of a control valve.
The electronic instruments have the
PNEUMATIC CONTROL
same tuning devices as pneumatics — pro-
portional band, reset and rate. They func-
tion in the same manner as those in pneu-
matic systems.
Many of the process facilities built since
the mid 90's have computers to which all
process controllers are connected. Each
controller is set by the computer — set point,
proportional band, reset, etc.
There are no individual recording or indi-
cating instruments in a control panel. In-
stead, all adjustments are made at the com-
puter. If a particular process needs to be
monitored, the computer can recall and
record the condition during the past month,
or longer, and continuously record it. Most
computer control systems have several video
screens showing process flow diagrams of
all parts of the process facilities. The dia-
grams indicate process conditions, valve
positions, etc. Color is often used to high-lite
unusual conditions.
The computer can be programmed to
monitor process conditions or to partially or
totally control facilities. Total control would
include changing set points on controllers to
maximize production at varying conditions
of flow rates, ambient temperature, product
analysis, etc.
PNEUMATIC VALIDATION 67
CONTROLS
3rd Edition Name ________________________
PRES 40 kPa [6 psi]
CONT STEAM
DRY
F.O. GAS
40 kPa
80 kPa
[12 psi]
[6 psi]
TEMP
CONTR

INLET CONTACTOR
SEPR F.C.
WET 60 kPa
GAS RECONCENTRATOR
[9 psi]
LEV.
CONT FLOW
LEV. CONTR
CONT 80kPa [12 psi]
FUEL
F.C. F.C. GAS
F.C.
GLYCOL DEHYDRATION PLANT
Fill in the blank spaces using the flow sheet above
PROP CONTR.
BAND CONTROL OUTPUT
CONTR. SETTING VALVE PRES
PROCESS ACTION, % CONTROL LOW/ IF WILL WILL
CONTROL CONTROL DIRECT/ VALVE MED/ PROCESS OPEN/ GO
LOOP RANGE REVERSE OPEN HIGH GOES CLOSE UP/DOWN
Contactor 0-7000 kPa
Pressure [0-1000 psi] Up
Contactor 356 mm Float Down
Level [14 in Float]
Glycol 0-100 l/m
Flow Up
[0-25 gpm]
Reconc. 100-300°C Down
Temp [100-500°F]
1. Flow through a control valve depends on:
_______________________, _____________________, _____________________
2. How is a control valve stroked?___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. The level controller on the Contactor does not have reset. Glycol flow to the vessel
increases. Indicate what will happen to the level. _______________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
4. The proportional band on the level controller is changed from 50% to 100%. If the level rises,
the output pressure will rise more/less than it would if the band had been left at 50%.
5. A high proportional band setting results in a more/less constant flow and a more/less
constant process.
6. The proportional band setting on level controller on the inlet separator is set at 50%. When
there is no liquid flow entering the vessel, the control valve will be ______% open, the level
controller output pressure will be _________________ and the position of the level on the
float will be ___________________________________________________.
7. Output pressure on the above level controller is constant at 100 kPa [15 psi]. What may have
happened?_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
68 SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
1. a. 1. Power Source 3. Process Sensor 2. a. Down
2. Controller 4. Control Valve b. Plug, seat, bushing
c. e 1
b. 1. Globe 4. Butterfly e 3
2. Cage 5. Ball d. e 1
3. 3-Way e 2
e 3
3. a. Diaphragm d. Steam
b. Spring e. Packing
c. Position Indicator f. Plug
Fail open; Direct Actuator; g. Seat
Unbalance force down
4. a. Diaphragm, spring, unbalance
b. Up
5. 75%
6. a. Size b. % Open c. Pressure Drop
7. a. Closed b. Cage e. Larger
8. c 1 9. a. Close/Rise 10. b 1
a 2 b. Direct e 2
d 3 c. Open/Rise d 3
e 4 d. Reverse a 4
b 5 c 5
11. 4 1
1 2
5 3
2 4
3 5
12. a. High
b. Low
c. The Control Point will be different from Set Point.
13. c 1
f 2
b 3
a 4
d 5
e 6

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
 PLP TRAINING MANUALS

NUMBER TITLE

F-1 Basic Units of Measurement

F-2 Measurement of Energy
F-3 Hydrocarbons
F-4 Fluid Flow

E-1A Centrifugal Compressors Part 1

E-1B Centrifugal Compressors Part 2
E-2 Piston Type Compressors
E-3 Centrifugal Pumps
E-4 Reciprocating Pumps
E-5 Gas Engines
E-6 Fractionators
E-7 Heat Exchangers
E-8 Indirect Fired Heaters
E-9 Pneumatic Process Instruments
E-10 LACT Units
E-11 Lean Oil Absorbers
E-12 Separators

P-1 Cryogenic Gas Plants

P-2 Glycol Dehydration Process
P-3 Contactor in Dehydration Plant
P-4 Stripper in Dehydration Plant
P-5 Molecular Sieve Dehydration Process
P-6 Adsorber in Dehydration
P-7 Crude Oil Emulsion Treating
P-8 Hydrate Inhibition
P-9 Mechanical Refrigeration
P-10 Amine Sweetening Process
P-11 Contactor in Sweetening Process
P-12 Stripper in Sweetening Process
P-13 Stabiblizing Crude Oil & Condensate

M-1 Flow Measurement

M-2 The Gas/Oil Well
M-3 Oilfield Safety

305 WELLS FARGO DR., SUITE 4 • HOUSTON, TEXAS 77090 • (281) 444-7632 • FAX: (281) 586-9876
E-MAIL: PetroLearning@aol.com

PNEUMATIC CONTROL