energies

Article
Heating Performance Characteristics of High-Voltage
PTC Heater for an Electric Vehicle
Myeong Hyeon Park ID
and Sung Chul Kim *
School of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, 280 Daehak-ro, Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongbuk 712-749,
Korea; pmh3113@gmail.com
* Correspondence: sungkim@ynu.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-53-810-2572; Fax: +82-53-810-4627

Received: 31 August 2017; Accepted: 25 September 2017; Published: 26 September 2017

Abstract: High-voltage positive temperature coefficient (PTC) heaters have a high heating capacity
and are fast acting; thus, they function as the actual main heating equipment in electric cars,
and considerable research is devoted to improving their heating performance and efficiency.
We evaluated the heating performance of a high-voltage PTC heater for an electric car by building
a closed-loop-type test system including an air channel, environment chamber, DC power supply,
and data acquisition system, and designed an initial prototype with general characteristics. Using
this test system, we analyzed the heating performance characteristics of the heater as a function of
changes in the blower airflow, ambient temperature, and battery voltage. We changed the geometrical
variables of the heater and conducted an analysis to improve the heating performance and output
density of the initial prototype. Based on the heating performance of the initial prototype and its
geometrical variables, we designed an improved prototype and compared its heating performance
and output density with that of the initial prototype. As a result, we achieved a heating capacity
of 5.52 kW, a pressure drop of 48.2 Pa, and an efficiency of 98%, whereas the output density was
3.45 kW/kg, which is a 24% improvement over the initial prototype.

Keywords: performance characteristics; electric vehicle; PTC heater; heating capacity; efficiency;
gravimetric power density

1. Introduction
Carbon dioxide emission regulations due to global warming and the depletion of fossil fuels
are causing a paradigm shift in the automotive industry from conventional internal combustion
engine cars to eco-friendly vehicles such as electric cars. Considering the circumstances, electric cars
in particular are considered as an optimal model for eco-friendly vehicles due to their high energy
efficiency compared to cars powered by a conventional internal combustion engine and the fact that
they emit almost no greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide [1–4]. However, unlike cars with
conventional engines, the energy efficiency of electric cars is such that the small amount of waste heat
produced by their power engines is insufficient for heating purposes. Thus, they require additional
equipment as their main source of heating [5]. A considerable amount of research is being conducted
on the main heating equipment for heating electric cars such as heat pumps and combustion heaters,
but high-voltage positive temperature coefficient (PTC) heaters, capable of achieving the required
heating capacity, efficiency, and reliability, are considered the most realistic alternative [6–9].
Automotive PTC heaters have been studied as auxiliary heating equipment to improve the
efficiency of internal combustion engines and to supplement heat sources by reducing the radiant heat,
and these PTC heaters have a heating performance below 1 kW [10–12]. However, as they became
the main heating equipment in electric cars and their degree of importance was elevated, the need
for PTC heaters with a heating capacity of 5 kW or more has arisen, and recently their voltage has

Energies 2017, 10, 1494; doi:10.3390/en10101494 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1494 2 of 14

increased to over 330 V as the voltage specifications of electric car batteries have increased. In the field
of electric cars, where the distance that can be driven on a single charge is important, some studies
have attempted to improve the efficiency of high-voltage PTC heaters, whereas others focused on
reducing the size and weight of the high-voltage heaters by integrating their control centers [13–15].
Research on the heating performance of high-voltage PTC heaters for electric cars has mainly taken
place under standard conditions with an air volume of 300 kg/h and an ambient temperature of 0 ◦ C,
but in the actual heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system of a car, the heater operates
under a variety of conditions. Therefore, evaluations must take place under multiple conditions
including changes in the inflow ambient temperature and airflow. In addition, it is necessary to study
the weight as one of the important performance indicators of a high-voltage PTC heater for an electric
car by considering the improvement in the driving distance on a single charge.
In this research, we constructed a system for testing the heating performance of a high-voltage
PTC heater for electric cars, and designed a base model with the standard characteristics of high-voltage
PTC heaters for electric cars. We investigated the heating performance of the base model under a
variety of operating conditions including extreme conditions and created an improved design for a
high-voltage PTC heater based on the results of the heating experiments with the base model and the
results of the thermal flow analysis. The heating performance and output density of the improved
heater were compared to those of the base model and their characteristics were analyzed.

2. Experiment Equipment and Methods

2.1. Heater Design Improvement

The high-voltage PTC heaters for electric cars used in this research is the controller integrated
PTC heater with reduced weight and suitable for installation in the HVAC system of a car, as shown
in Figure 1a. They are classified as Heater A and Heater B, where Heater A was designed based on
the general properties of high-voltage PTC heaters used in existing electric cars. The total thermal
resistance in a PTC heater, which determines its thermal transfer performance, can be divided into
the internal thermal resistance of the heat rods of the PTC heater, the thermal resistance of the contact
between the fins and the heat rods, and the thermal resistance of the airside. The airside thermal
resistance is the most dominant factor among all of these, and Heater B used a design in which the
structure of the radiation fins (fin shape, fin pitch, and fin thickness) was improved to reduce the
thermal resistance of the airside. Heater A and Heater B were built with four modularized heat cores,
with each heat core being composed of three heat rods and a radiation fin. Table 1 provides the detailed
specifications of the PTC heaters used in the experiments. The entire size of the heater is determined
by the heat cores, controller, and external housing. The size of the heater module is determined by
excluding the controller and external housing from the entire size. The radiation fin of Heater A is
a plate fin shape as shown in Figure 1b, and was designed to be bent on both ends and have a fixed
2.0 mm fin pitch. The fin thickness was designed to be 0.4 mm, and the heat transfer area is 501.1 mm2 .
As shown in Figure 1c, Heater B uses emboss-shaped radiation fins to ensure connection between
the heat rods and the radiation fins during the construction process while at the same time allowing
the use of the conventional plate fin process. Emboss-shaped radiation fins induce the formation of
turbulence in the spaces between fins and disrupt laminar flow on the radiation fin surfaces to improve
heat transfer performance while at the same time increasing the heat transfer area. The fin pitch
was changed to 1.6 mm to increase the heat transfer area of the radiation fins, and the fin thickness
was changed to 0.3 mm to reduce the pressure drop. The weight of the heater can be reduced by
approximately 13% through this reduction in the fin thickness.
 Energies2017,
Energies 10,1494
2017,10, 1494 33ofof1414

Heat core

Controller

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure
Figure1.1.High
Highvoltage
voltagePTC
PTC heater
heater and radiation fin.
and radiation fin. (a)
(a) High-voltage
High-voltagePTC
PTCheater
heaterDesign;
Design;(b)
(b)Heater
HeaterA:
A: plate fin type; (c) Heater B: emboss fin type.
plate fin type; (c) Heater B: emboss fin type.

Table
Table 1.
1. Specification
Specification of
of PTC
PTC Heater
HeatersAAand
andB.B.
Parameter Heater A (Base Model) Heater B (Enhanced Model)
Parameter 3 Heater A (Base Model)
Heater total size (mm ) 200 (W) × 210Heater
(H) × B28(Enhanced
(D) Model)
3 (W) ×
Heater
Heater moduletotalsize
size (mm
(mm 3)) 200 (W)
182 × 186 (H)×
210 (H) × 28
28 (D)
(D)
Heater module size (mm 3) 182 (W) × 186 (H) × 28 (D)1.6
Weight (kg) 1.8
Weight (kg) 1.8 1.6
Input voltage
Input voltage(V)(V) 330
330
FinFin
typetype Plate
Plate Emboss
Emboss
Fin Fin
pitch (mm)
pitch (mm) 2.0
2.0 1.6
1.6
Fin Fin thickness
thickness (mm)
(mm) 3)
0.4
0.4 0.3
0.3
Heat transfer area (mm 501.1 507.6
Heat transfer area (mm ) 3 501.1 507.6

2.2.Experimental
2.2. ExperimentalEquipment
EquipmentSetup
Setup
The experimental
The experimental high-voltage
high-voltagePTC heater
PTC equipment,
heater whichwhich
equipment, was designed according
was designed to ASHRAE
according to
standards such as 37, 41.2, 51, contained as its main components an air channel
ASHRAE standards such as 37, 41.2, 51, contained as its main components an air channel system, system, environment
chamber, DCchamber,
environment power supply,
DC powerand supply,
data acquisition
and datasystem (DAQ).
acquisition The (DAQ).
system equipmentThe was designed
equipment wasto
replicate the
designed operatingthe
to replicate conditions
operating and to gather and
conditions datato
of gather
the heating
data system in electric
of the heating cars, as
system inshown
electricin
Figure 2 [16]. We measured the heating performance of the heater by installing temperature,
cars, as shown in Figure 2 [16]. We measured the heating performance of the heater by installing humidity,
and pressurehumidity,
temperature, sensors. and
Table 2 lists the
pressure specifications
sensors. of all
Table 2 lists thethe experimental
specifications equipment.
of all The air
the experimental
equipment. The air channel system and the environment chamber are connected to each otherloop.
channel system and the environment chamber are connected to each other to create a closed to
The environment
create a closed loop.chamber creates a section
The environment wherecreates
chamber the flowa is stagnant
section to minimize
where the flowthe temperature
is stagnant to
deviationthe
minimize in the experimental
temperature part ofinthe
deviation thePTC heater. A suction
experimental typePTC
part of the washeater.
applied A to construct
suction typeanwasair
channel system, and a honeycomb-shaped distributor was installed to minimize
applied to construct an air channel system, and a honeycomb-shaped distributor was installed tomaldistribution of the
minimize maldistribution of the flow. The air speed deviation within the air channel is ±1.0% at 1.5
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 4 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 4 of 14

m/s, and
flow. thespeed
The air turbulence
deviation coefficient
within theis air
±1.0% ±1.0%
at 1.5is m/s.
channel The blower,
at 1.5 m/s, and which thesimulates
turbulencethe airflow
coefficient
is ±1.0% atin
conditions 1.5the HVAC
m/s. Thesystem
blower,ofwhichan electric car uses
simulates the aairflow
centrifugal fan with
conditions a maximum
in the HVAC system volumetric
of an
3
flow of car
electric 5 m uses
3 /min and is controlled
a centrifugal fan withby 3700 W, 220
a maximum V inverters.
volumetric flow The
of 5 m airflow
/min was measured
and is controlled bybya
micro-manometer
3700 W, 220 V inverters. connected to a Pitot
The airflow was tube installed
measured byina the internal center connected
micro-manometer of the air channel,
to a Pitotandtube it
was calculated
installed according
in the internal to the
center of CIPM-81/91
the air channel,regulations
and it was of calculated
the CIPM according
(International Committee
to the CIPM-81/91 for
Weights andofMeasures)
regulations the CIPM [17]. The air pressure
(International Committeesensorforfor measuring
Weights the airflow[17].
and Measures) hadThe
a measurement
air pressure
range of
sensor for600–1100
measuring mb thewith a precision
airflow of ±0.25% atrange
had a measurement full scale (FS), and
of 600–1100 mb the a precision of ±0.25%
withtemperature/humidity
sensor
at had a(FS),
full scale temperature precision of ±0.25% at 0–50
and the temperature/humidity sensor °C,had
andaatemperature
humidity measurement
precision ofrange±0.25% of 0–
at
100%◦ with
0–50 C, and a aprecision
humidity ofmeasurement
±1.5% at 5–95% relative
range humidity.
of 0–100% with The temperature
a precision of ±1.5%of the inlet flow
at 5–95% and
relative
outlet flowThe
humidity. passing through
temperature ofthe
the PTC
inlet heater
flow and test section
outlet flowwas measured
passing through withtheaPTC
K-type thermocouple
heater test section
withmeasured
was an error ofwith ±0.1%. The front
a K-type of this testwith
thermocouple section
an error of ±
is fitted with sixThe
0.1%. (array
frontof of
2 ×this
3) thermocouple
test section is
meshes,
fitted whereas
with six (array of 2 ×
the rear contains 54 (array ofmeshes,
3) thermocouple 9 × 6) thermocouple
whereas the rear meshes. The rear
contains of 9 × 6)
thermocouple
54 (array
mesh takes intomeshes.
thermocouple accountThe the rear
radiant heat of the heat
thermocouple meshdissipation
takes into section,
accountand the it is located
radiant heatover 30 heat
of the mm
away from section,
dissipation the heater and surface at the over
it is located output side away
30 mm of thefrom
heat the
dissipation section.atThe
heater surface pressure
the output drop
side of
washeat
the measured
dissipation by recording
section. The the difference
pressure dropin pressure values measured
was measured by recording at the
the four holes in the
difference front
pressure
and back
values of the heater
measured at the testfoursection.
holes inThese holes
the front and were
backconnected to the
of the heater testpressure
section. sensors via tubes,
These holes were
and the pressure
connected was measured
to the pressure sensorsasvia the average
tubes, and ofthethe four holes.
pressure The measurement
was measured range of the
as the average
pressure
four holes.sensor
The was 0–124.42 Pa,
measurement and of
range itsthe
accuracy wassensor
pressure ±0.14%was at full scale (FS).
0–124.42 The its
Pa, and power supply
accuracy wasof
±
the PTCatheater
0.14% full scaleis a (FS).
500 V/30 A high-voltage
The power supply of DC power
the PTC supply,
heater andV/30
is a 500 it is A measured and DC
high-voltage controlled
power
using a and
supply, computer via GPIB
it is measured and communication.
controlled usingAameasurement
computer via GPIB program was created A
communication. such that all of
measurement
the data was
program obtainedcreated as such
results thatinall
the
of experiments
the data obtainedcouldasbe savedininthe
results the computer via
experiments could a data logger
be saved in
andcomputer
the confirmedvia in areal
data time.
logger and confirmed in real time.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram and photo of the PTC heater experimental apparatus.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram and photo of the PTC heater experimental apparatus.
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 5 of 14

Table 2. Specification of PTC heater experimental apparatus.

Component
Thermocouple (K-type)
Diff. pressure gauge (Setra)
Pressure gauge (Setra)
Pitot tube (Samdukeng)
Thermo-hygrometer (Kimo)
Data acquisition system (NI)
Blower (Dongkun)
Specification
±0.1% (−60–200 ◦ C),
inlet 6 points, outlet 54 points
±0.14% (0–0.5” W.C.)
±0.25% (600–1100 mbar/hPa)
Φ3.2 × 150 mm
±0.25% (0–50 ◦ C), 5–95% RH, ±1.5% RH (where 15 ◦ C ≤ T ≤ 25 ◦ C)
60 channels, 9–30 V @ 15 W
Turbo fan, max volume flow rate: 5 m3 /min

2.3. Experiment Conditions and Methods

The experiments to assess the heating performance according to the operating conditions of the
PTC heater can broadly be divided into three categories. We performed experiments on the changes
in airflow according to the HVAC inflow conditions, with the changes in the temperature reflecting
the operating conditions according to changes in the winter temperature, and changes in the rated
voltage of the battery according to the model of electric car. The detailed conditions are provided in
Table 3 [18]. When the PTC heater is started up, an inrush current higher than the normal operating
current flows; hence, it is important to ensure electrical stability. The current that was measured in this
experiment was considered stable if the measurement was below ±0.05 A. During normal operation,
it was considered satisfactory if the mean temperature difference between the data of the previous
minute and the next minute was less than ±0.1 ◦ C and the mean pressure and flow changes were
within ±5%. Generally, it took 30 to 40 min to arrive at the normal operating state. Once this state
was reached, data were gathered at 1-s intervals for more than 10 min and the average values were
calculated and used as the result data.

Table 3. PTC heater experimental conditions.

Experimental Conditions Parameter

Mass flow rate (kg/h) 100, 200, 300 *, 400, 500
Temperature (◦ C) 0 *, 10, 20
Voltage (V) 240, 270, 300, 330 *
* 300 kg/h, 0 ◦ C, 330 V are the standard conditions for high-voltage PTC heater experiments.

We selected the heating capacity, pressure drop, efficiency, and gravimetric heating density as the
indicators by which to evaluate the heating performance of the PTC heater. The heating capacity is a
value by which we can judge whether the interior of the car can be sufficiently heated under the given
operating conditions, and the pressure drop is a measure of power loss in the internal blower of the
HVAC system. We calculated the heating performance by measuring the flow into the PTC heater and
used the mean temperature difference measured at the thermocouple meshes at the front and back
of the PTC heater to perform the calculation in Equation (1). The efficiency is the ratio of the power
required by the PTC heater and its heating capacity, and it is an indicator that shows the extent to
which the heater can demonstrate effective performance in terms of heating the car. The efficiency is
calculated by Equation (2). Weight is an important indicator when considering the limited internal
size and limits of the HVAC system as well as the travel distance with one charge. Thus, we used
the gravimetric power density, which is the quotient of the heating capacity divided by the weight as
shown in Equation (3) [19].
.
Qh = ma · Cp,a · ( To − Ti ) (1)
.
ma · Cp,a · ( To − Ti )
η= (2)
V·I
Energies 2017, 10,
2017, 10, 1494
10, 1494
1494 66 of
of 14
14
Energies 2017, 6 of 14

m ⋅ C ⋅ (T − T )
ρρgp ==. m aa ⋅ Cp,a
p,a ⋅ (To − Ti )
o i
(3)
(3)
gp ma · Cp,aW · ( T − Ti )
ρgp = W o
(3)
W
3.
3. Heating
Heating Performance
Performance Results
Results

3.1.
3.1. Performance
Performance Results
Results According
According to
to Operating
Operating Conditions
Conditions

3.1.1.
3.1.1. Effect
Effect ofof the
the Airflow
Airflow Rate Rate
Experiments were conducted
conducted at 00 °C◦C
Experiments
Experiments were were conducted at at °C and
and 330 330 VV to to assess
assess the the heating
heating performance
performance of of the
the
high-voltage
high-voltage PTC heater by changing
changing the
the airflow
airflow rate
rate from
from
high-voltage PTC heater by changing the airflow rate from 100 kg/h to 500 kg/h in 100 kg/h 100100 kg/h
kg/h to
to 500
500 kg/h
kg/h in
in 100
100 kg/h
kg/h
increments.
increments.
increments. The Theheating
The heatingcapacity
heating capacityand
capacity and
and efficiency
efficiency
efficiency results
results
results areare
are shown
shown
shown in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 3. 3. When
3. When
When the the airflow
the airflow
airflow rate
rate
rate increased
increased from from
100 100
kg/h kg/h
to 200 to 200
kg/h, kg/h,
the the
heating heating
capacity capacity
increased
increased from 100 kg/h to 200 kg/h, the heating capacity increased by 1.27 kW, and from 400 kg/h increased
by 1.27 by
kW, 1.27
and kW,
from and
400 from
kg/h
400
to kg/h
to 500
500 kg/h,to 500
kg/h, it kg/h, it increased
it increased
increased by
by 0.35 by 0.35
0.35 kW.
kW. AskW.
As As expected,
expected,
expected, the the heating
the heating
heating capacity
capacity capacity
tended
tended tended
to to increase
to increase
increase as as
as the
the
the airflow
airflow
airflow raterate
rate increased,
increased,
increased, butbut
but as as the
as the
the airflow
airflow
airflow rate
rate
rate became
became
became higher,the
higher,
higher, thetheincrease
increaseoccurred
increase occurredat
occurred atataaalower
lowerrate.
lower rate.
rate.
We
We attributed
attributed this
this result
result to the
to theshorter
shorter timetimeair remains
air remainsaround the
around radiation
the
We attributed this result to the shorter time air remains around the radiation fins at high airflow fins
radiation at high
fins at airflow
high rates,
airflow
thereby
rates, reducing
rates, thereby
thereby the total
reducing
reducing theamount
the total of heating
total amount
amount of per unit
of heating
heating perofunit
per time.
unit ofThe
of time.
time. efficiency
The was the
The efficiency
efficiency was
waslowest
the under
the lowest
lowest
extreme
under conditions of 100 kg/h at 83.8%, and was the highest for 500
under extreme conditions of 100 kg/h at 83.8%, and was the highest for 500 kg/h at 96.6%. When the
extreme conditions of 100 kg/h at 83.8%, and was the highest kg/h
for at
500 96.6%.
kg/h at When
96.6%. the
Whenairflow
the
increased
airflow increased from 100 kg/h to 200 kg/h, we recorded the largest rate of increase in thea
airflow from
increased 100 kg/h
from to
100200 kg/h,
kg/h towe 200recorded
kg/h, the
we largest
recorded rate of
the increase
largest in
ratethe efficiency,
of increase and
in at
the
high airflow
efficiency,
efficiency, and
andof at
over 300 kg/h,
at aa high
high airflow
airflow theof
ofincrease
over
over 300 in kg/h,
300 heating
kg/h, theefficiency
the increase was
increase in slight. efficiency
in heating
heating The pressure
efficiency wasdrop
was results
slight.
slight. The
The
of the
pressurePTC heater are shown in Figure 4, and showed an increasing
pressure drop results of the PTC heater are shown in Figure 4, and showed an increasing trend as
drop results of the PTC heater are shown in Figure 4, andtrend as
showed the airflow
an rate
increasing increased.
trend as
As
the expected,
airflow the
rate increase
increased. in the
As rate of
expected, pressure
the drops
increase tended
in the to
rate become
of pressure
the airflow rate increased. As expected, the increase in the rate of pressure drops tended to become larger as
dropsthe airflow
tended increased
to become
from
larger100
larger as kg/h
as the
the to 500increased
airflow
airflow kg/h. from
increased from 100100 kg/h
kg/h to to 500
500 kg/h.
kg/h.

Figure
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Variation
3. Variation of
Variation of heating
of heating capacity
heating capacity and
capacity and efficiency.
and efficiency.
efficiency.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Variation
Variation of differential pressure.
pressure.
Variation of differential pressure.
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 7 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 7 of 14

3.1.2. Effect of the Air Inlet Temperature

EnergiesEffect
3.1.2. 2017, 10,
of1494
the Air Inlet Temperature 7 of 14
Experiments on the heating performance of the PTC heater were conducted at 300 kg/h and
300 V byExperiments
3.1.2. Effect of the
changing on the
Airair
the heating
Inlet
inlet performancefrom
Temperature
temperature of the0PTC heater
°C to were
20 °C. conducted
The heatingatcapacity
300 kg/handand efficiency
300 V
by changing the air inlet temperature from 0 ◦ C to 20 ◦ C. The heating capacity and efficiency results
results are shown in on
Experiments Figure 5. The performance
the heating heating capacity
of theshowed
PTC heatera tendency to decrease
were conducted at 300askg/h
the and
air inlet
are shown in Figure 5. The heating capacity showed a tendency to decrease as the air inlet temperature
temperature increased,theand
300 V by changing as the
air inlet temperature
temperature fromincreased
0 °C to 20from
°C. The0 °C to 20capacity
heating °C, theand heating capacity
efficiency
increased, and as the temperature increased from 0 ◦ C to 20 ◦ C, the heating capacity decreased by
decreased
results by
are0.35
shownkW.inThis
Figureeffect is understood
5. The as being
heating capacity caused
showed by the to
a tendency reduction
decrease in as convection
the air inlet heat
0.35 kW. This effect is understood as being caused by the reduction in convection heat transfer due to
temperature
transfer increased,
due to the and as the
reduction difference temperature
in temperature increased
difference from 0
onother°C to 20
the airside. °C, the heating capacity the
the reduction in temperature on the airside. On the hand, theOn the other
efficiency of thehand,
PTC
decreasedthe
efficiency by PTC
0.35 kW. Thisshowed
effect isaunderstood as being caused by the reduction in convection heat
heaterofshowed heater
a tendency to increase tendency to increase
as the temperature as the
increased, temperature increased,
and this is considered to and
be thethis is
transfer
considered due to
to beofthe the reduction
consequence in temperature difference on the airside. On the other hand, the
consequence a reduction in the of a reduction
overall in the overall
thermal resistance of thethermal
heater dueresistance of the
to an increase in heater
the air due
efficiency of the PTC heater showed a tendency to increase as the temperature increased, and this is
to aninlet
increase in the air
temperature, inletdecreased
which temperature, whichpower.
the required decreased the required power.
considered to be the consequence of a reduction in the overall thermal resistance of the heater due
to an increase in the air inlet temperature, which decreased the required power.

Figure 5.5.
Figure
Figure Variation
5. Variationof
Variation of heating
of heating capacityand
heating capacity
capacity andefficiency.
and efficiency.
efficiency.

3.1.3.3.1.3.
Effect of the
Effect Input
of the Voltage
Input Voltage
Voltage
◦
We We conducted
conducted
conducted experiments
experimentsatat000°C
experiments Cand
°C and 300
300 kg/h
and 300 kg/h to
kg/h toassess
assessthe theheating
heatingperformance
performance of the
of PTC
the PTC
heater by
by changing
changing the
the input
inputvoltage
voltage from
from 240
240V to
V 330
to V
330 in
V 30
in V
30increments.
V The
increments.
heater by changing the input voltage from 240 V to 330 V in 30 V increments. The heating capacity heating
The capacity
heating and
capacity
and efficiency
and
efficiency results
efficiency are shown
results
results areare in Figure
shown
shown 6. The heating
ininFigure
Figure 6. The
6. capacity capacity
heating showed
The heating capacity ashowed
tendency
showed to increasetoslightly
a tendency
a tendencyincrease as
to increase
the inputasvoltage
slightly increased.
the input voltageMoreover,
increased.itMoreover,
can be seen it that,
can be as seen
the input
that, voltage changed,
as the input the efficiency
voltage changed,
slightly as the input voltage increased. Moreover, it can be seen that, as the input voltage changed,
of
thethe PTC heater
efficiency of thewas
PTC at heater
the level
wasofat95–96%
the levelin of
all95–96%
voltageinranges. Figure
all voltage 7 shows
ranges. that7 the
Figure current
shows that
the efficiency of the PTC heater was at the level of 95–96% in all voltage ranges. Figure 7 shows that
decreased
the currentmarkedly
decreased as markedly
the input voltage increased,
as the input andincreased,
voltage it can be seen
and that thebepower
it can seen required by the
that the power
the current
PTC decreased
heater
required byincreased
markedly
slightly.
the PTC heater
as the input voltage increased, and it can be seen that the power
increased slightly.
required by the PTC heater increased slightly.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Variation
Variation of heating capacity and efficiency.
efficiency.

Figure 6. Variation of heating capacity and efficiency.

 0, 1494 8 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 8 of 14
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 8 of 14

Figure 7. Variation of current and power consumption.

Figure 7. Variation of current and power consumption.
of Shape Parameters Figure 7. Variation of current and power consumption.
3.2. Analysis of Shape Parameters
al Model
3.2. Analysis of Shape Parameters
3.2.1. Physical Model
er to reduce the weight and improve the heat transfer efficiency of the heater, we
e various shape
3.2.1. parameters,
PhysicalIn orderand
Model we selected
to reduce four types
the weight of physical
and improve models
the heat within
transfer the
efficiency of the heater, we analyzed
ich the existing plate fin construction
the various process can
shape parameters, andbe weused. We four
selected conducted
types ofthe modeling
physical models within the range in which
ased on the designIntheorder
of the to
existing reduce
initial
plate the weight
prototype and
Heaterprocess
fin construction A, and improve
forbeCase
can used. the heat
2 We
and transfer
Case
conducted 3, we theefficiency
modeling ofofCase the1 heater,
based onwe
analyzed
fin pitch and fin the the various
thickness
design by shape
0.4 initial
of the mm and parameters,
0.1 mm,Heater
prototype and we for
respectively.
A, and selected
In Case 24,andfour types
we Case
changed3, weof reduced
physicalthemodels
fin pitchwithin
and finthe
range
pe from a plate type in which
to an by
thickness the existing
embossed
0.4 mm and plate
type.0.1More fin construction
mm, details are provided
respectively. process
In Case 4,inwe can be
Figure
changed used.
8 and We conducted the modeling
the fin shape from a plate type to
of Case
e high-voltage PTC 1embossed
based
anheater on
comprisedtheMore
type. adesign of the
PTCdetails are initial
thermistor, guide,
provided prototype
in FigureHeater
terminal, insulator,
8 and TableA,heatand
4. Theforhigh-voltage
Case 2 andPTC Case 3, we
heater
s as its main components,
reduced comprised and
the fin pitch we
a PTCand ignored
thermistor,design allowances
guide, by
fin thickness terminal, for construction
0.4 mminsulator,
and 0.1 heat
mm,barsuch as
and fins as In
respectively. its Case
main 4,components,
we changed
We simplified the chamfers
we and
ignored fillets,
design which do
allowances not markedly
for affect
construction the
such thermal
the fin shape from a plate type to an embossed type. More details are provided in Figure and
and as tight flow,
fits. We simplified the chamfers 8 and
ropriately modified 4. the
Themicro-gaps,
Table fillets, which do notwhich
high-voltage markedly
PTC make it difficult
affect
heater to create
the thermal
comprised aflow,a grid.
PTC and weIn appropriately
addition,
thermistor, guide,modified
terminal, theinsulator,
micro-gaps,heat
d in Table 5, we which used different material
make it difficult properties
to create a grid.forInthe high-voltage
addition, PTC in
as indicated heater
Table 5, we used different material
bar and fins as its main components, and we ignored design allowances for construction such as
s. properties for the high-voltage PTC heater components.
tight fits. We simplified the chamfers and fillets, which do not markedly affect the thermal flow,
and we appropriately modified the micro-gaps, which make it difficult to create a grid. In addition,
as indicated in Table 5, we used different material properties for the high-voltage PTC heater
components.

Energies 2017, 10, 1494 9 of 14

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8. Physical model8.of

Figure high-voltage
Physical modelPTC heater. (a) Schematic
of high-voltage view(a)
PTC heater. of Schematic
PTC heat core;
view(b)
ofPlate
PTC fin;
heat core; (b) Plate
(c) Emboss fin. fin; (c) Emboss fin.

Table 4. Specification of physical model.

(a)
Case Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Fin type Plate Plate Plate Emboss
Fin pitch (mm) 2.0 1.6 2.0 2.0
Fin thickness (mm) 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 9 of 14

Table 4. Specification of physical model.

Case Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Fin type Plate Plate Plate Emboss
Fin pitch (mm) 2.0 1.6 2.0 2.0
Fin thickness (mm) 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4

Table 5. Thermal properties of respective parts.

Part Density (kg/m3 ) Specific Heat (J/kg·◦ C) Thermal Conductivity (W/m·◦ C)

PTC thermistor 3890 779 36
Guide 1200 1050 0.23
Terminal 8470 380 116
Insulator 1600 840 2
Heat bar 2700 900 218
Fin 2680 880 138

3.2.2. Mathematical Background

For the analysis in this research, we used the commercial program Ansys fluent (ver. 17, ANSYS
Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA) to perform thermal flow analysis, and we used mass conservation,
momentum conservation, and energy conservation as the governing equations [20]. This study
adopted the Realizable κ-ε model with the aim of obtaining accurate data for airflows involving
fin layers. " #

∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂k
(ρk) + (ρκu j ) = µ+ + Gk + Gb − ρε − YM + Sk (4)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j σκ ∂x j
" #
ε2

∂ ∂ ∂ µt ∂ε ε
(ρε) + (ρεu j ) = µ+ + ρC1 Sε − ρC2 √ + C1ε C3ε Gb + Sε (5)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j σε ∂x j k + vε k

where  
η
C1 = max 0.43, (6)
η+5
k
η=S (7)
ε
q
S= 2Sij Sij (8)

In solid regions, the energy transport equation is as follows.

∂ →
(ρh) + ∇ · ( v ρh) = ∇ · (k∇ T ) + Sh (9)
∂t

3.2.3. Boundary Condition

In this study, we performed the analysis under incompressible, normal, and turbulent conditions,
and we ignored both the contact thermal resistance, which occurs between the PTC heat rods,
and the thermal gradient of the PTC thermistor. Further, we used the SIMPLE algorithm and the
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation [21,22]. The directionality and uniformity of the
inlet flow was ensured by setting the upstream region to half the actual air channel length. A backdraft
due to the slipstream was prevented by setting the downstream region equal to the length of the actual
air channel [23]. Considering the external physical characteristics and number of grids of the analysis
model, 1/16th of the full model of the high-voltage PTC heater, in other words, 1/4 of the heat core,
was used as an appropriate analysis region. Figure 9 shows the detailed analysis region and boundary
conditions. The airflow through the inlet and the air temperature were set at 300 kg/h and 0 ◦ C,
 of the inlet flow was ensured by setting the upstream region to half the actual air channel length. A
backdraft due to the slipstream was prevented by setting the downstream region equal to the
length of the actual air channel [23]. Considering the external physical characteristics and number
of grids of the analysis model, 1/16th of the full model of the high-voltage PTC heater, in other
words, 1/4 of the heat core, was used as an appropriate analysis region. Figure 9 shows the detailed
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 10 of 14
analysis region and boundary conditions. The airflow through the inlet and the air temperature
were set at 300 kg/h and 0 °C, which are the standard operating conditions of a PTC heater. The
external
which areand structuraloperating
the standard characteristics of the
conditions of aanalysis model
PTC heater. Thewere taken
external andinto consideration
structural when
characteristics
defining
of the wall
the analysis modelandwere
symmetry boundary
taken into conditions,
consideration when respectively. The and
defining the wall temperature
symmetryofboundary
the PTC
thermistor was
conditions, assumedThe
respectively. to be 160 °C, andofthis
temperature the was
PTC set based onwas
thermistor theassumed
temperature 160 ◦specified
to belimit C, and thisin
the design
was set based standard
on the for the PTC heater
temperature element. in the design standard for the PTC heater element.
limit specified

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Computational
Computational domain.
domain.

3.2.4. Analysis
3.2.4. Analysis Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
To ensure
To ensure the
the reliability
reliability of
of the
the analysis
analysis grid,
grid, approximately
approximately 20 20 million
million grids
grids were
were used,
used, andand if
if
the remainder value fell below 10 −−6, it was considered to be convergent. The PTC heater and airside
6
the remainder value fell below 10 , it was considered to be convergent. The PTC heater and airside
temperature distribution
temperature distribution areare shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10,
10, and
and in
in Figure
Figure 10b,
10b, it
it can
can be
be seen
seen that
that the
the thermal
thermal
conduction
Energies 2017, conduction in the PTC heat rod cross section increases due to the low thermal resistance
10, 1494 in the PTC heat rod cross section increases due to the low thermal resistance of the insulator, of the 11 of 14
insulator, and the airside convection thermal transfer increases more due to
and the airside convection thermal transfer increases more due to the embossed shape. The airside the embossed shape.
The airside
pressure pressure is
distribution distribution
shown in Figureis shown in Figure 11, and inpasses
Figurethe11bfree
it passes the free flow
embossed shape space showed
between therods
heat maximum,
and the but11,this
pressure
and
drop
in Figure
value
becomes
11bin
was it
large.the
In allowed
particular,
flow space
pressure
the
between
pressure drop
drop range for an
heat rods and the pressure drop becomes large. In particular, the pressure drop increases to a greater
HVAC system. increases
extent to apart
at the greater
where extent at theenters
the flow part where the flow enters
and encounters and encounters
the embossed shape. the embossed shape.
The analysis results in Table 6 were obtained by assuming the PTC thermistor to have reached
the limit temperature of 160 °C. A comparison of these results to those in the previous experiment
with similar shape conditions revealed that the heating performance was somewhat high, but the
tendency was the same. The reason for this is that the micro-gaps between each part were not
considered [15]. When the fin pitch was reduced by 0.4 mm (Case 2), the heating capacity increased
by approximately 7.1%, and when the fin thickness was reduced by 0.1 mm (Case 3), the heating
capacity was reduced by approximately 5.1%. When the fin shape was embossed (Case 4), the heating
performance increased by approximately 4.8%. On the other hand, in terms of pressure drop, the

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Temperature

Figure distribution
10. Temperature ofPTC
distribution of PTC heater.
heater. (a)1;Case
(a) Case 1; (b)
(b) Case 4. Case 4.
 (a) (b)
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 11 of 14
Figure 10. Temperature distribution of PTC heater. (a) Case 1; (b) Case 4.

(a) (b)

Figure 11.
Figure 11.Pressure
Pressuredrop of PTC
drop of PTCheater.
heater.(a)(a) Case
Case 1; (b)
1; (b) Case
Case 4. 4.

The analysis results Table

in Table6. 6Analysis results by
were obtained of high voltage
assuming thePTC
PTCHeater.
thermistor to have reached the
◦
limit temperature of 160Description
C. A comparison of these results to those
Case 1 Case 2 inCase
the previous
3 Caseexperiment
4 with
similar shape conditions revealed that the heating performance was somewhat high, but the tendency
Temperature difference (°C) 76.1 81.5 72.2 79.8
was the same. The reason for this is that the micro-gaps between each part were not considered [15].
Heating capacity (kW) 6.37 6.83 6.05 6.68
When the fin pitch was reduced by 0.4 mm (Case 2), the heating capacity increased by approximately
Pressure
7.1%, and when the fin thicknessdrop
was (Pa)
reduced by 0.135.2
mm (Case39.0 29.8 capacity
3), the heating 48.7 was reduced by
approximately 5.1%. When the fin shape was embossed (Case 4), the heating performance increased
3.3. Evaluation of Improved
by approximately 4.8%. OnModel
the other hand, in terms of pressure drop, the embossed shape showed the
maximum, but this value was in the allowed pressure drop range for an HVAC system.
Based on the previous experiments and analysis results for Heater A (base model), we
evaluated the heating performance of Heater
Table 6. Analysis B (enhanced
results model)
of high voltage and compared this to Heater A as
PTC Heater.
shown in Table 7. The evaluation results showed that the airside temperature difference of the
improved prototype increased by 6.1 °C compared
Description Caseto 1 the initial
Case prototype,
2 Case 3 Case and4 the heating capacity
increased by approximately 10%. difference
Temperature ◦
We attribute
( C) these76.1 findings
81.5 to the
72.2changes
79.8 in the fin shape and the
Heating capacity
increase in the thermal transfer area due (kW) 6.37
to the change 6.83
in the fin6.05 6.68
pitch. Furthermore, it can be seen
Pressure drop (Pa) 35.2 39.0 29.8 48.7
that, in the case of the embossed fin shape, the inflow between fins was horizontally blocked, and
because of this, the flow direction was curved, which increased the flow resistance and therefore
3.3. Evaluation of Improved Model
increased the pressure drop. However, this is within the allowed pressure drop range in which
Based onno
there is almost the previous
effect experiments
on the and analysis
HVAC system, and results for Heater A (base
this experimental valuemodel), we evaluated
is similar to that of the
previous analysis [24]. Compared to Heater A, the input current of Heater B increased byshown
the heating performance of Heater B (enhanced model) and compared this to Heater A as 1.2 A, and
in Table 7. The evaluation results showed that the airside temperature difference of the improved
because of this, the power consumption increased by 0.39 kW. However, when we consider the
prototype increased by 6.1 ◦ C compared to the initial prototype, and the heating capacity increased
efficiency of the heater, the heating capacity increased by 2.3% compared to Heater A; hence, it can
by approximately 10%. We attribute these findings to the changes in the fin shape and the increase in
be seen that changing
the thermal the due
transfer area shape of change
to the the embossed
in the finradiation fins is advantageous
pitch. Furthermore, it can be seen for
that,the heating
in the
capacity.
case ofInthe
addition,
embossed thefincalculation of the between
shape, the inflow gravimetric power
fins was density showed
horizontally blocked,thatand it increased
because of by
this, the flow direction was curved, which increased the flow resistance and therefore increased the
pressure drop. However, this is within the allowed pressure drop range in which there is almost no
effect on the HVAC system, and this experimental value is similar to that of the previous analysis [24].
Compared to Heater A, the input current of Heater B increased by 1.2 A, and because of this, the power
consumption increased by 0.39 kW. However, when we consider the efficiency of the heater, the heating
capacity increased by 2.3% compared to Heater A; hence, it can be seen that changing the shape of the
embossed radiation fins is advantageous for the heating capacity. In addition, the calculation of the
gravimetric power density showed that it increased by 3.45 kW/kg or by approximately 24% in the
case of Heater B, which translates into an improvement in terms of the distance an electric car can be
driven on a single charge.
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 12 of 14

Table 7. Comparison of heating performance between PTC Heaters A and B.

Parameter Heater A (Base Model) Heater B (Enhanced Model)

Input current (A) 15.9 17.1
Power consumption (kW) 5.24 5.63
Temperature difference (◦ C) 60.1 66.2
Heating capacity (kW) 5.02 5.52
Pressure drop (Pa) 40.4 48.2
Energy efficiency (%) 95.7 98.0
Gravimetric power density (kW/kg) 2.79 3.45

4. Conclusions
In this study, we constructed an experimental high-voltage PTC heater for electric cars and
analyzed its heating performance according to the airflow of the blower, the ambient temperature,
and battery voltage. We modified the shape variables of the heater and performed an analysis with
the aim of improving the heating performance and power density of conventional heaters. Based on
the experimental and analysis results, we presented a high-voltage PTC heater design with improved
radiation fins, and we compared its properties with those of the conventional model. The results
showed that the proposed model achieved a heating capacity of 5.52 kW, a pressure drop of 48.2 Pa,
an efficiency of 98%, as well as a power density of 3.45 kW/kg, indicating an overall improvement of
approximately 24% over the conventional model.
We expect the results of this study to contribute to the optimization of high-voltage PTC heater
designs for electric cars and the production of testing equipment for heating performance. In the
future, we plan to conduct experiments to assess the heater performance by varying the shapes of
heater components to develop a correlation formula between the thermal transfer and pressure drop
created by a combination of heater design factors and dimensionless numbers.

Acknowledgments: This work was conducted as a part of the Energy Technology Development project sponsored
by the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy and was supported by the 2017 Yeungnam University Research
Grant. This research was also supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2017R1D1A3B03028482). The additional
support received from the Donga High Tech company is greatly appreciated.
Author Contributions: Sung Chul Kim and Myeong Hyeon Park organized the overall evaluation and analyzed
the results. Both authors also reviewed the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviation
Nomenclatures
Cp Specific heat (J/kg·K)
F Fin
I Current (A)
.
m Mass flow rate (kg/s)
T Temperature (◦ C)
V Input voltage (V)
W PTC heater weight (kg)
η Energy efficiency (%)
ρ Density (kW/kg)
Subscripts
a Air
gp Gravimetric power
i Inlet
o Outlet
p Pitch
t Thickness
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 13 of 14

References
1. Li, S.; Wang, S.; Ma, Z.; Jiang, S.; Zhang, T. Using an Air Cycle Heat Pump System with a Turbocharger to
Supply Heating for Full Electric Vehicles. Int. J. Refrig. 2017, 77, 11–19. [CrossRef]
2. Kwon, C.K.; Kim, M.S.; Choi, Y.G.; Kim, M.S. Performance Evaluation of a Vapor Injection Heat Pump
System of Electric Vehicles. Int. J. Refrig. 2017, 74, 138–150. [CrossRef]
3. Kambly, K.R.; Bradley, T.H. Estimating the HVAC Energy Consumption of Plug-in Electric Vehicles.
J. Power Sources 2014, 259, 117–124. [CrossRef]
4. Zahraei, M.S.; Kouzami, A.Z.; Kutter, S.; Baker, B. Intergrated Thermal and Energy Management of Plug-in
Hybrid Electric Vehicles. J. Power Sources 2012, 216, 237–248. [CrossRef]
5. Zhang, G.; Zou, H.; Qin, F.; Xue, Q.; Tian, C. Investigation on an Improved Heat Pump AC System with the
View of Return Air Utilization and Anti-fogging for Electric Vehicles. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2017, 115, 726–735.
[CrossRef]
6. Zhang, G.; Qin, F.; Zou, H.; Tian, C. Experimental Study on a Dual-parallel-evaporator Heat Pump System
for Thermal Management of Electric Vehicles. Energy Procedia 2017, 105, 2390–2395. [CrossRef]
7. Zhang, X.; Xue, Q.; Zou, H.; Liu, J.; Tian, C.; Zhang, X. Influence of Heat Exchanger Tube Layout on
Performance of Heat Pump System for Electric Cars. Energy Procedia 2017, 105, 5085–5090. [CrossRef]
8. Cho, C.P.; Kim, G.C.; Pyo, Y.D.; Lee, W.H. The development of an energy-efficient heating system for electric
vehicles. In Proceedings of the IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo, Asia-Pacific (ITEC),
Busan, Korea, 1–4 June 2016; pp. 883–885.
9. Kim, K.Y.; Kim, S.C.; Kim, M.S. Experimental Studies on the Heating Performance of the PTC Heater and
Heat Pump Combined System in Fuel Cells and Electric Vehicles. Int. J. Automot. Technol. 2012, 13, 971–977.
[CrossRef]
10. Musat, R.; Helerea, E. Characteristics of the PTC Heater Used in Automotive HVAC Systems.
IFIP Adv. Inf. Commun. Technol. 2010, 314, 461–468.
11. Shin, Y.H.; Lim, D.H.; Kim, D.G.; Ahn, S.K.; Kim, K.Y.; Kim, S.C. Development of a PTC Elements and a
Heater as Supplementary Heating for Internal Combustion Engine. In Proceedings of the Fall Conference
KSME 2013, Jeongseon, Korea, 18–20 December 2013; pp. 3400–3403.
12. Gu, J.S.; Oh, K.H.; Jeong, S.H.; Wang, Y.H. A Study on Applying Hybrid PTC Heater to vehicle for Heating
Performance Improvement. In Proceedings of the Spring Conference KSAE 2016, Jeju, Korea, 19–21 May 2016;
pp. 762–767.
13. Lim, D.H.; Shin, Y.H.; Sim, S.K.; Song, J.W.; Ahn, S.K.; Kim, S.C. The Flow Analysis and Heating Performance
Evaluation of PTC Heater for Electric Vehicles. In Proceedings of the Fall Conference KSAE 2016, Jeju, Korea,
19–21 May 2016; pp. 1234–1236.
14. Shin, Y.H.; Ahn, S.K.; Kim, S.C. Performance Characteristics of PTC Elements for an Electric Vehicle Heating
System. Energies 2016, 9, 813. [CrossRef]
15. Shin, Y.H.; Sim, S.K.; Kim, S.C. Performance Characteristics of a Modularized and Integrated PTC Heating
System for an Electric Vehicle. Energies 2016, 9, 18. [CrossRef]
16. American Society of Heating; Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 2009 ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals (SI Edition); ASHRAE: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2009; Chapter 13–15.
17. Picard, A.; Davis, R.S.; Glaser, M.; Fujii, K. Revised Formula for the Density of Moist Air (CIPM-2007).
Metrologia 2008, 45, 149–155. [CrossRef]
18. Marra, F.; Yang, G.Y.; Træholt, C.; Larsen, E.; Rasmussen, C.N.; You, S. Demand Profile Study of Battery
Electric Vehicle under Different Charging Options. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Power & Energy Society
General Meeting, San Diego, CA, USA, 22–26 July 2012. [CrossRef]
19. Paladini, V.; Donateo, T.; Risi, A.D.; Laforgia, D. Super-capacitors Fuel-cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Optimization and Control Strategy Development. Energy Convers. Manag. 2007, 48, 3001–3008. [CrossRef]
20. FLUENT Inc. Fluent 6.3 User’s Guide; Centerra Resource Park 10 Cavendish Court Lebanon: Hanover, NH,
USA, 2006.
21. Welty, R.J.; Wicks, C.E.; Wilson, R.E. Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer, 3rd ed.; John Wiley
and Sons: New York, NY, USA, 1984.
Energies 2017, 10, 1494 14 of 14

22. Versteeg, H.K.; Malalasekera, W. An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics: Finite Volume Method;
Longman Scientific and Technical: Essex, UK, 1995.
23. Boris, D.; Anica, T.; Kristain, L. Numerical Investigation of Heat Transfer Enhancement in a Fin and Tube
Heat Exchanger Using Vortex Generators. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2014, 78, 662–669.
24. Kim, Y.C.; Sung, N.S.; Jin, K.S.; Cho, H.T. Consideration of High Voltage PTC Heater. In Proceedings of the
Spring Conference KSAE 2016, Jeju, Korea, 19–21 May 2016; pp. 560–564.

© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).