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OnlyIAS - Udaan - Modern History
OnlyIAS - Udaan - Modern History
ONE
STOP
SOLUTION
INDEX
Sr. CHAPTER Pg. No
1 INDIA DURING ADVENT OF EUROPEANS 1
2 CONSOLIDATION AND EXPANSION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA 7
3 PEOPLE’S RESISTANCE AGAINST BRITISH BEFORE 1857 13
4 THE REVOLT OF 1857 16
5 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS 20
6 THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 26
7 INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS: FOUNDATION AND THE MODERATE PHASE 28
(1885- 1905)
8 ERA OF MILITANT NATIONALISM (1905-1918) 33
9 REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES (1907-17) 37
10 FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1919) AND NATIONALIST RESPONSE 40
11 NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT AND KHILAFAT AANDOLAN 44
12 CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-31) AND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES 46
13 EMERGENCE OF SWARAJISTS, SOCIALIST IDEAS, REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES 51
AND OTHER NEW FORCES
14 NATIONAL MOVEMENT: TOWARDS FREEDOM & PARTITION (1939-47) 56
15 SURVEY OF BRITISH POLICIES IN INDIA 66
16 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF THE BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 68
17 THE MOVEMENT OF THE WORKING CLASS 70
18 CONSTITUTIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND JUDICIAL DEVELOPMENTS 72
19 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESS 80
20 DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION 84
21 IMPORTANT BRITISH COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS 88
22 PERSONALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC MOVEMENTS 89
23 GOVERNORS-GENERAL AND VICEROYS OF INDIA: CONTRIBUTIONS AND 96
IMPORTANCE
DUTCH (NETHERLANDS)
• Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach Sumatra and Bantam in 1596.
• United East India Company of the Netherlands, formed in March 1605 by the Charter of Dutch Parliament,
had the powers to wage wars, make treaty and build forts.
• Founded their first factory in Masaulipatam in Andhra in 1605.
• Subsequently they won over Portuguese & emerged as most dominant European trade power.
• Pulicat was their main center in India, later replaced by Nagapattinam.
• Dutch carried indigo manufactured in the Yamuna valley and Central India, textiles and silk from Bengal,
Gujarat and the Coromandel, saltpetre from Bihar and opium and rice from the Ganga valley.
• In 1623, a treaty between British and Dutch → Dutch withdrew their claim from India and British from
Indonesia
• 1650 (17th century), English began to emerge as big colonial power in India.
• Anglo Dutch rivalry lasted for 70 years, during which Dutch lost their settlements to British one by one.
• The Dutch were not much interested in empire building in India; their concerns were trade. In any case,
their main commercial interest lay in the Spice Islands of Indonesia from where they earned a huge profit
through business.
• Decline in India- The defeat of the Dutch in the Anglo-Dutch rivalry and the shifting of Dutch attention
towards the Malay Archipelago. In Battle of Bedara (1759), the English defeated the Dutch.
• After prolonged warfare, both the parties compromised by which the British agreed to withdraw all their
claims on Indonesia, and the Dutch retired from India.
Prelims Mains
First Anglo Maratha War • Treaty of Surat: between Raghunath Rao and the English à Gave up
(1775-1782) Salsette and Bassein in return of English army.
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• Treaty of Purandhar: above treaty was cancelled by Calcutta Council.
The Regency renounced Raghunath Rao à kept him under Pension. Nana
Phadnavis defied this treaty. The British retaliated. Treaty of Wadgaon
was signed.
• Treaty of Salbai: Treaty of Wadgaon rejected by Warren Hastings. He
defeated Sindhias. Peace was signed for 20 years.
• Jaswant Rao Holkar defeated forces of Bajirao II (Peshwa) and the Scindia
• Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed between the British and the
Second Anglo Maratha War Peshwa in return of Poona’s throne.
(1803-1805) • Peshwa accepted Subsidiary Alliance.
• Scindia and Bhosle tried to save Maratha independence.
• They were defeated by Arthur Wellesley and signed Subsidiary treaty.
• Jaswant Rao Holkar was defeated in 1804.
• Treaty of Bassein surrendered Maratha’s independence.
• In 1817, Peshwa attacked British Residency at Poona.
Third Anglo Maratha War • It was the last bid to save Maratha kingdom. He rallied all Maratha chiefs
(1817-1819) against the British. They were defeated.
• Treaty of Poona: with Peshwa
• Treaty of Gwalior: Sindhias
CONQUEST OF SINDH AND PUNJAB
From 1818-1857 all territories except Punjab and Sindh came under British control. These both territories were
conquered.
• SINDH: Anglo Russian rivalry and fear of conquest made British sign treaties with Chiefs of Sindh;
Amirs.
Subsidiary Treaty signed in 1839 à Sindh annexed in 1843
• PUNJAB: The British had Treaty of Perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh: Treaty of Amritsar (1809).
• Treaty of Lahore signed after Sikhs loss at war.
• War indemnity of a crore à Jalandhar Doab annexed à resident under
First Anglo Sikh War Henry Lawrence established in Lahore.
(1845-46) • On failure of paying war indemnity, Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh.
• Treaty of Bhairowal: Rani Jindan removed as Regent.
• The council of 8 Sikh sardars formed à presided by British resident.
• Mulraj (Governor of Multan) revolted à Sher Singh sent to suppress
revolt joined Mulraj.
Second Anglo Sikh War • This was the pretext of annexation of Punjab by Lord Dalhousie.
(1848-49) • Sher Shah lost. Sikh army and Sher shah surrendered in 1849.
• Punjab came under Chief Commander. John Lawrence became the first
Chief Commander.
RELATIONS OF BRITISH INDIA WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES
Anglo Bhutanese Relations:
• In 1816, British occupied Assam from Bhutanese. There were frequent raids in adjoining territories and bad
treatment was meted out to Elgin’s envoy in 1863-64. British were forced to surrender passes leading to
Assam. In 1865 Bhutanese were forced to surrender.
Anglo Nepal Relation:
• Gorkhas were in control of Nepal. In 1801, the British annexed Gorakhpur bringing the Gorkha and the British
boundary closer. War started with capture of Butwal and Sheoraj by the Gorkhas. It ended with Treaty of
Sagauli.
Anglo-Burma Relations:
• The disastrous famine of 1770 and the harsh economic order of the British
compelled a group of sanyasis in Eastern India to fight the British yoke.
• Originally peasants, even some evicted from land, these sanyasis were joined
by a large number of dispossessed small zamindars, disbanded soldiers and
rural poor.
• It was only after a prolonged action that Warren Hastings could subdue the
Sanyasi Revolt sanyasis.
(1763-1800) • Equal participation of Hindus and Muslims characterised the uprisings,
sometimes referred to as the Fakir Rebellion.
• Leaders: Majnum Shah (or Majnu Shah), Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani
Pathak and Debi Chaudhurani.
• Debi Chaudhurani’s participation recognises the women’s role in early
resistances against the British.
• Anandamath, a semi-historical novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay,
is based on the Sanyasi Revolt.
• Area – Bengal
• Reason - Famine, enhanced land revenue demands and economic distress
goaded the Chuar aboriginal tribesmen of the Jungle Mahal of Midnapore
Chuar Uprising district and also of the Bankura district (in Bengal) to take up arms.
• These tribes’ people were basically farmers and hunters.
• The most significant uprising was under Durjan (or Durjol) Singh in 1798.
• The term ‘Chuar’ is considered derogatory by some historians who call this
the Revolt of the Jungle Mahal, instead.)
• Area – Bengal
• Leaders- Mir Nathar Ali and Titu Mir
Titu Mir’s Movement • Reason - Against Hindu land lords who imposed beard tax on farizis.
(1782-1831) • Syed Mir Nisar Ali, or Titu Mir is a peasant leader who led the Narkelberia
Uprising in 1831 against zamindars and British colonial authorities.
• The Narkelberia uprising is often considered as the first armed peasant
uprising against the British. The movement protected the rights of tenants.
• The Kols, alongwith other tribes, are inhabitants of Chhotanagpur. This
covered Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau and the western parts of
Kol Mutiny Manbhum.
(1831) • The trouble in 1831 started with large-scale transfers of land from Kol
headmen to outsiders like Hindu, Sikh and Muslim farmers and money-
lenders who were oppressive and demanded heavy taxes.
• Besides, the British judicial and revenue policies badly affected the traditional
social conditions of the Kols.
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• The Kols resented this and in 1831, under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat,
the Kol rebels killed or burnt about a thousand outsiders. Only after large-
scale military operations could order be restored.
• The Paiks of Odisha were the traditional landed militia (‘foot soldiers’)
and enjoyed rent free land tenures for their military service and policing
functions on a hereditary basis.
• The English Company’s conquest of Odisha in 1803, and the dethronement
of the Raja of Khurda had greatly reduced the power and prestige of the
Paiks.
• The extortionist land revenue policy of the Company caused resentment
among zamindars and peasants alike. Common masses were affected by the
rise in prices of salt due to taxes imposed on it, abolition of cowrie currency
Paika Rebellion and the requirement of payment of taxes in silver, etc.
(1817) • Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar had been the military chief of the forces of
the Raja of Khurda.
• With active support of Mukunda Deva, the last Raja of Khurda, and other
zamindars of the region, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar led a sundry army of
Paikas forcing the East India Company forces to retreat for a time.
• The rebellion came to be known as the Paika Bidroh (rebellion).
• By mid-1817, the Paika rebels resorted to guerilla tactics. The rebellion was
brutally repressed by 1818.
• The Paik Rebellion succeeded in getting large remissions of arrears,
reductions in assessments, suspension of the sale of the estates of
defaulters at discretion, a new settlement on fixed tenures and other
adjuncts of a liberal governance.
• The Gadkaris were a hereditary military class which was garrisoned in the
Maratha forts. These garrisons were disbanded during administrative
reorganisation in Kolhapur state after 1844.
• Facing the spectre of unemployment, the Gadkaris rose in revolt and
Kolhapur and occupied the Samangarh and Bhudargarh forts.
Savantvadi Revolts • Similarly, the simmering discontent caused a revolt in Savantvadi areas. The
people here had already revolted against the British in 1830, 1836 and 1838,
the last because the British had deposed their ruler.
• The British authorities introduced many laws to bring the region under
control.
• The Wahabi Movement was essentially an Islamic revivalist movement
founded by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly who was inspired by the teachings
of Abdul Wahab (1703-87) of Saudi Arabia and Shah Waliullah of Delhi.
• Syed Ahmed condemned the western influence on Islam and advocated a
return to pure Islam and society as it was in the Arabia of the Prophet’s time.
• Syed Ahmed was acclaimed as the desired leader (Imam).
• A countrywide organisation with an elaborate secret code for its working
under spiritual vice-regents (Khalifas) was set up, and Sithana in the north-
Wahabi Movement western tribal belt was chosen as a base for operations.
• In India, its important centre was at Patna though it had its missions in
Hyderabad, Madras, Bengal, United Provinces and Bombay.
• Since Dar-ul-Harb (territory of War or Chaos) was to be converted into
Dar- ul-Islam (the land of Islam), a jihad was declared against the Sikh
kingdom of Punjab.
• After the defeat of the Sikh ruler and incorporation of Punjab into the East
India Company’s dominion in 1849, the English dominion in India became
the sole target of the Wahabis’ attacks.
Ho and Munda • The Raja of Parahat organised his Ho tribals to revolt against the
Uprisings occupation of Singhbhum (now in Jharkhand).
(1820-1837) • The revolt continued till 1827 when the Ho tribals were forced to submit.
However, later in 1831, they again organised a rebellion, joined by the Mundas
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of Chotanagpur, to protest against the newly introduced farming revenue
policy and the entry of Bengalis into their region.
• In 1899-1900, the Mundas in the region south of Ranchi rose under Birsa
Munda.
• The Ulgulan was one of the most significant tribal uprisings in the period
1860-1920. The rebellion which began as a religious movement gathered
political force to fight against introduction of feudal, zamindari tenures, and
exploitation by money-lenders and forest contractors.
• The Mundas claimed Chhotanagpur as their area in 1879.
• Area - Garo and Jaintia Hills
• Leader - Tirath Singh
• Reason - the East India Company wanted to build a road linking the
Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet. For this, a large number of outsiders
Khasi Uprising including Englishmen, Bengalis and the labourers from the plains were
brought to these regions.
• The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and the Singphos organised themselves under
Tirath Singh to drive away the strangers from the plains.
• The uprising developed into a popular revolt against British rule in the area.
By 1833, the superior English military force had suppressed the revolt.
• The rebellion of the Singphos in Assam in early 1830 was immediately
quelled but they continued to organise revolts.
• An uprising in 1839 saw the death of the British political agent. Chief Nirang
Singphos Rebellion Phidu led an uprising in 1843, which involved an attack on the British
garrison and the death of many soldiers.
• Some of the smaller movements were those of the Mishmis (in 1836); the
Khampti rebellion in Assam between 1839 and 1842; the Lushais’ revolt in
1842 and 1844, when they attacked villages in Manipur.
• Area –Bengal
• Leaders- Karam Shah and Tipu Shah
Pagal Panthis • Reason –hike in rent
(1825-1835) • Karam shah and his son Tipu shah led these people to uphold their religious
right and peasant right. He captured Sherpur in 1825, after standing up
against oppressive taxes and laws imposed by the Zamindars and the
British, this movement was violently suppressed.
• The Faraizis were the followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariat-
Allah of Faridpur in Eastern Bengal.
• They advocated radical religious, social and political changes. Shariat-
Faraizi Revolt Allah son of Dadu Mian (1819-60) organised his followers with an aim to
expel the English intruders from Bengal.
• The sect also supported the cause of the tenants against the zamindars. The
Faraizi disturbances continued from 1838 to 1857. Most of the Faraizis joined
the Wahabi ranks.
• The Kuka Movement was founded in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal (also
called Sian Saheb) in western Punjab.
• A major leader of the movement after him was Baba Ram Singh. (He founded
the Namdhari Sikh sect.)
• After the British took Punjab, the movement got transformed from a religious
Kuka Movement purification campaign to a political campaign.
• Its basic tenets were abolition of caste and similar discriminations among
Sikhs, discouraging the consumption of meat and alcohol and drugs,
permission for intermarriages, widow remarriage, and encouraging women to
step out of seclusion.
• On the political side, the Kukas wanted to remove the British and restore
Sikh rule over Punjab; they advocated wearing hand-woven clothes and
boycott of English laws and education and products.
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Reformism vs Revivalism
• Social reform
• Help of British colonial state
Reformism • Influenced by western enlightenment
• Not critical of colonial state
• Moderates
• Against social reform
• Brought against colonial state
Revivalism • Ancient Indian religion revival, Indian spirituality superior
• Self-confidence to Indian by declaration
• Extremist
IMPORTANT REFORM MOVEMENTS
HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS:
NAME FOUNDER AIM
• Favored: Human reason and conscience; Political upliftment of the
Brahmo Samaj Raja Ram Mohan masses, widow remarriage.
(1828) Roy in Bengal. • Against: Polytheism; Idol worship; Incarnations; Scriptural
authority; Caste system, Purdah system, Untouchability, Sati, child
marriage.
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• No definite view on Karma and transmigration of the soul.
• Punjab: Dayal Singh College at Lahore (1910) started by Dayal
Singh Trust, popularized the ideas of the Samaj.
Government’s Response
• It was hostile to the INC from the beginning. The official attitude stiffened after 1887 when INC became overly
critical of colonial rule.
• The government now openly condemned INC calling them “seditious brahmins”, “disloyal babus” etc.
• The government later adopted “divide and rule” policy where reactionary elements like Sir Syed Ahmed khan
and Raja Shiv Prasad of Benares were encouraged to form “United Indian Patriotic Association” to counter
congress propaganda.
EVALUATION:
National awakening + Political ideas were popularized + Strong base created + Most progressive forces of the
time + Political work based on ground realities + India to be ruled by Indian’s idea propagated +Failed to widen
their democratic base and scope of demands.
STUDENT NOTES:
• In 1915, Gandhi returned to India. During his initial days, he spent his time at the Sabarmati Ashram in
Ahmedabad, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale became his political guru.
GANDHI IN INDIA
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CHAMPARAN • Rajkumar Shukla invited Gandhi to look into the problems of Indigo planters in
SATYAGRAHA Champaran, Bihar.
(1917)- • Peasants were forced to grow indigo on 3/ 20th part of the land. (Tinkathia System).
First Civil • European planters demanded high rents and illegal dues to maximize their profits.
Disobedience • After Gandhi intervention, only 25 percent of the money was given to farmers.
• Leaders associated-Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh, J.B.
Kripalani etc.
AHMEDABAD • Discontinuation of plague bonus led to disputes between cotton mill owners and
MILL STRIKE workers.
(1918)- • Workers demanded for a rise of 50 percent in wages.
First Hunger • Gandhi demanded for a 35 percent hike and took a fast unto death.
Strike • Anusuya Sarabhai was a social worker who invited Gandhi to fight for workers. She was
the president of the Ahmedabad Mill Owners Association- founded in 1891.
KHEDA • Crops failed in Kheda district of Gujarat because of drought.
SATYAGRAHA • The yield is less than 1/4th of normal produce so farmers were entitled to remission
(1918)- First according to revenue code
Non- • Government demanded taxes and ordered seizure of property, if not paid.
cooperation • Gandhi asked the farmers not to pay the taxes.
• Leaders: Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Narhari Parekh, Mohanlal Pandya etc.
• Government finally agreed to return all confiscated property, reduce the increase in tax,
suspend the tax for the year.
• Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act/ Rowlatt act - imprisonment of activists
ROWLATT without trial for two years, even possession of seditious newspapers is adequate
ACT,1919- evidence of guilt.
First All India • The law of Habeas Corpus was sought to be suspended.
Mass Strike • Gandhi called for a mass protest at all India level by organizing Satyagraha Sabhas.
• All the elected Indian members of the imperial legislative council – Jinnah, Madan Mohan
Malviya and Mazhar Ul Haq resigned in protest.
JALLIANWALAH BAGH MASSACRE (APRIL 13, 1919)
What? • British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians in an open space known as the
Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in Punjab.
Why? • Gandhi called for a one-day Rowlatt Satyagraha throughout the country.
• In Amritsar leaders - Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew had been arrested.
• Brig. Gen. Reginald Edward Harry Dyer was given the task of restoring order. Among the
measures taken was a ban on public gatherings.
Consequence • Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore renounced the knighthood.
• Gandhi began organizing his first large-scale and sustained nonviolent protest
(satyagraha) campaign, the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22).
Committee • Hunter committee of inquiry/Disorders Inquiry Committee.
• 3 Indians were in the committee.
• The report condemned Dyer’s actions. However, didn’t impose any disciplinary actions
on him.
Congress View • INC appointed its own committee- Motilal Nehru, C. R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M. R. Jayakar,
and Gandhi.
• Criticized Dyer’s action.
Recent • 13th April, 2020 marks the 101 years of the incident.
• Jallianwala Bagh site in Amritsar is now a national monument.
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Government/ Commission.
Unionists (Punjab) Supported the Commission.
Justice Party Supported the Commission.
On behalf of the Bahishkrita Hitakarini Sabha, he submitted a
Ambedkar memorandum on the rights and safeguards he felt were required for the
depressed classes. He argued for ‘universal adult franchise’ for both
male.
Simon Commission (1927):
• The Indian Statutory Commission, commonly referred to as the Simon Commission, was a group of seven
British Members of Parliament under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon. The commission arrived in British
India in 1928
• Objective: the British government appointed the Simon Commission to report on India's constitutional
progress for introducing constitutional reforms.
• The Commission was strongly opposed by many in India for a number of reasons. The commission was seen
as racist and colonialist as it had seven British members of the British Parliament and no Indian members.
• Recommendations of Simon Commission:
Ø It proposed the abolition of dyarchy and the establishment of representative government in the
provinces.
Ø It rejected parliamentary responsibility at the centre.
Ø The governor-general was to have complete power to appoint the members of the cabinet.
Ø It recommended that separate communal electorates be retained.
Ø It accepted the idea of federalism but not in the near future.
Ø It suggested that a Consultative Council of Greater India should be established which should include
representatives of both the British provinces as well as princely states.
Ø It also suggested that the Indian army should be Indianized though British forces must be retained.
Nehru Report (1928):
An answer to Lord Birkenhead’s challenge, prepared by a committee headed by Motilal Nehru, the committee
included Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Ali Imam, Shuab Qureshi and G.R. Pradhan
as its members
Recommendations:
• Dominion status on lines of self-governing dominions.
• Rejection of separate electorates. Joint electorates with reservation of seats for Muslims at the Centre and in
provinces where they were in minority.
• Linguistic provinces.
• Nineteen fundamental rights including equal rights for women, right to form unions, and universal adult
suffrage.
• Responsible government at the Centre and in provinces.
• Full protection to cultural and religious interests of Muslims.
• Complete dissociation of State from religion.
• The Nehru Report, along with that of the Simon Commission was available to participants in the three Indian
Round Table Conferences (1930–1932)
• Nehru and Subash bose rejected the congress goal and set up Independence for India league.
Muslim’s league reaction to the Report
In 1927, 4 proposals of Muslim league which was accepted by madras congress:
1. Joint electorate.
2. 1/3 rd representation to Muslims in central legislative assembly.
3. Formation of three Muslim majority provinces.
4. Representation to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their population.
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points-1929:
Federal constitution with residual powers to provinces, provincial autonomy, no constitutional amendment
without state concurrence, adequate representation in assembly and services, 1/3rd representation in central
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legislative assembly, 1/3rd representation in cabinet, separate electorates, no bills without 3/4th minority
consideration, territorial distribution not to affect Muslim majority, full religious freedom, protection of Muslim
rights etc.
Calcutta Session of Congress (1928):
• Nehru report was approved at this session.
• Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Satya Murthy expresses dissatisfaction at
the goal of dominion status
• The government was given one year period to accept this goal.
• If the government did not accept a constitution based on dominion status by the end of the year, the
Congress would not only demand complete independence but would also launch a civil disobedience
movement to attain its goal.
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT- THE SALT SATYAGRAHA AND OTHER UPSURGES
• Salt Satyagraha began with the Dandi March on March 12, 1930 and was the
part of the first phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Dandi March (March 12- • Gandhi led the Dandi march from Sabarmati Ashram to the sea coast near
April 6, 1930): the village of Dandi.
• He reached Dandi on April 6, 1930, and broke the salt law by collecting salt
from the beach.
• Tamil Nadu- C Rajagopalachari organised march from thiruchinapalli to
Vedaranniyam on Tanjore coast.
• Malabar- K. Kelappan known for Vailkom Satyagraha organized salt
marches.
Satyagraha at Different • Orissa- Gopal Bandhu Chaudhuri organized in Balasore, Cuttack etc.
Places: • Bihar- Non chowkidari tax was imposed.
• Peshawar- Badshah khan/ khan Abdulgaffar khan who organized
Khudaikhidmatgars (red shirts) organized powerful march.
• Dharasana- Sarojini naidu led the campaign.
• Manipur and Nagaland- Rani Gaidinliu at age of 13 years raised the banner
against British. Rani Gaidinliu was associated with Heraka Cult (1930s;
Manipur). Nehru gave her the title of "Rani" ("Queen"), and she gained
local popularity as Rani Gaidinliu.
• Muslim participation was very less as compared to the 1920-22 level.
Extent of Participation: • Women and students participated, active participation of tribals, workers
and peasants.
• In August 1930 Motilal and Jawaharlal Nehru were taken to Yeravada Jail to meet Gandhi and discuss the
possibility of a settlement. Their demands were-
Ø Right of secession from Britain.
Ø Complete national government with control over defence and finance.
Ø Independent tribunal to settle Britain’s financial claims.
GANDHI IRWIN PACT/ DELHI PACT- 1931
• Signed by Gandhi and the British Indian Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin on 5 March 1931.
• The pact was signed before the start of second round table conference in London.
• Irwin declined two of Gandhi’s demands:
1. Public inquiry into police excesses,
2. Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrade’s death sentence to life sentence.
• Gandhi Agreed- To suspend the civil disobedience movement and to participate in the next Round Table
Conference
COMPARISION OF NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT WITH CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT –
BASIS NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
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Objective Vaguely worded Swaraj Complete independence
Methods Non-cooperation with foreign rule. Violation of laws
Muslim There was large scale participation of Less participation from the Muslim community
Participation Muslim working class in the Non- due to the policy of divide and rule by the British
Cooperation movement and the communal propaganda of the Muslim
League and the Hindu Mahasabha
Coverage Confined to certain parts of India Widespread geographical coverage and mass
participation
Reason for Called off in 1922 due to the Chauri-Chaura Withdrawn after the signing of the Gandhi-
ending incident. Irwin pact.
KARACHI CONGRESS SESSION-1931
• President- Vallabhbhai Patel
• Resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme
• Goal of “Purna Swaraj” was reiterated.
• Endorsement of Gandhi-Irwin pact
• Gandhi nominated to represent INC in the Second Round Table Conference to be held in London.
ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES
• Held in London between November, 1930 to January, 1931.
• The Indian National Congress decided not to participate in the conference.
• Muslim League sent Aga Khan III, Maulana Mohammad Jinnah, etc.
• Some Indian princely states were also represented along with Hindu Mahasabha,
FIRST RTC Sikhs, Parsis.
• Depressed classes represented by B. R. Ambedkar etc.
• Women were represented by Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, Radhabhai Subbaranyan.
• Lord Irwin was the viceroy of India
• No major outcome
• In London between September 7, 1931 to December 1, 1931.
• Result of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
• Gandhi was the sole representor of the INC.
• Madan Mohan Malviya and A. Rangaswami Iyengar also there.
SECOND RTC • Muslim league represented by Aga Khan III, Maulana Mohammad Jinnah.
• Depressed classes by B. R. Ambedkar, Rettamalai Srinivasan, Sardar Sampuran Singh
etc.
• Sarojini Naidu participated to represent women.
• Lord Willingdon was the viceroy of India.
• A Communal Award for representing minorities in India by providing for separate
electorates for minority communities. Gandhi was against this.
• Government refused to Indian demands and talks failed.
• Between November, 1932 to December, 1932
• Was not attended by Indian National Congress and Gandhi.
THIRD RTC • In Britain, Labour Party decided not to attend it.
• Only 46 delegates in total took part in this conference.
• Lord Willingdon was the viceroy of India.
• Not much was achieved in this conference also.
Civil Disobedience was resumed after the failure of the Round Table Conferences. On January, 1932, Gandhi
was arrested.
• A series of repressive ordinances were issued like ‘Civil Martial Law’.
• Congress organisations at all levels were banned.
• Repression was particularly harsh on women.
• Press was gagged and nationalist literature, banned.
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April 1934, Gandhi decided to withdraw the civil disobedience movement as:
• Gandhi and other leaders had no time to build up the tempo.
• The masses were not prepared.
COMMUNAL AWARD (1932)
• In 1932, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, announced the Communal Award-separate
electorates for the ‘Depressed Classes’, the Muslims, the Europeans, the Sikhs, the Anglo-Indians and
the Indian-based Christians.
• Congress decided neither to accept it nor reject it. But Ambedkar was in favour of the award, as according
to him political solutions like separate electorate would work for upliftment of depressed classes.
• Mahatma Gandhi was opposed to the communal award, as the award would divide Indians. He went on an
indefinite fast.
POONA PACT (1932)
• Was signed by B. R. Ambedkar on behalf of depressed classes and Madan Mohan Malviya signed it on
behalf of Gandhi.
• Abandoned the idea of separates electorate for depressed classes.
• But the seats reserved for them were increased to 147 in provincial legislatures and to 18% of the total in
Central Legislature.
• The Communal Award was based on the findings of the Indian Franchise Committee, called the Lothian
Committee.
To undo the divisive intentions of divide and rule of policy Gandhi started a campaign against untouchability in
September, 1932- All India Anti-Untouchability League/ Harijan Sevak Sangh was started. In January, 1933-
started weekly Harijan.
STUDENT NOTES:
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WORK UNDER CONGRESS MINISTRIES
• Laws concerning Emergency powers removed.
• lifted ban on illegal organizations like Hindustan Seva Dal and Youth Leagues.
• lifting of Press restriction.
• Newspapers out of blacklist.
Civil Reforms • Confiscated arms and arms licenses revoked.
• Police and CID powers restricted.
• Release of political prisoners.
• Restoration of lands confiscated during CDM in Bombay.
• Pensions of officials associated with CDM restored.
• Lack of power and financial resources + Time constraints + War clouds
• Class conflicts to be resolved.
Agrarian • Complex agrarian structure
Reforms • Reactionary second chamber dominated by landlords, capitalists, etc.
• Affected mostly statutory tenets.
• Enacted laws on land relief, debt relief, forest grazing fees, arrears of rent, land tenures.
Labor Reforms • Promote workers interest and industrial peace.
• Proper arbitration and reconciliation machinery.
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• Improved conditions of work and proper wages.
• Reduce strikes in industries.
• Welfare of Harijans.
• Primary, technical, and higher education, public health, and sanitation.
• Prison reforms.
Social Welfare • Encouragement to Khadi and indigenous enterprises.
Reforms • National Planning Committee (1938, Under Congress President Subhash Chandra
Bose).
• Literacy mass campaigns.
• Congress police stations and panchayats.
• Congress Grievance Committee.
CHANGES INTRODUCED BY THE CONGRESS MINISTRIES
PROVINCE CHANGES
United • Release of Prisoners involved in Kakori and other conspiracies.
Provinces • U. P. Tenancy Act, 1939 gave the hereditary rights to all statutory tenants in Agra and
Oudh.
• Labor Enquiry Committee headed by Rajendra Prasad formed to investigate the major
strike held in 1938, Kanpur.
• Abolition of illegal exactions: Nazrana (forced gifts) and Begar (forced unpaid labor).
Central • Tenancy reforms extending the security of tenure in landlord areas.
Provinces • Debtor’s relief and regulation of the Moneylending business.
Orissa • Tenancy Bill passed in 1938 allowing free transfer of holding, removal of illegal levies
and reduction in interest arrears.
• Debtor’s relief and regulation of the Moneylending business.
Madras • Debtor’s relief and regulation of the Moneylending business.
• Reduction of accumulated interests.
• Reduction of Grazing fees.
• Internal Settlement of Labor disputes.
Bombay • Land confiscated during CDM restored.
• Tenancy reforms providing secure of tenure.
• Reduction of accumulated interests.
• Abolition of Grazing fees.
• Textile Enquiry Committee recommending the increase in wages.
Bihar • Release of political prisoners.
• Tenancy legislations in 1937 and 1938.
NWFP • Tenancy reforms providing the secure of tenure.
STUDENT NOTES:
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World War II was fought between the Fascist forces of Nazi Germany and Axis Power. Britain needed support
from India in fighting the War. But the Congress had two demands:
1. To Form Constituent Assembly after War for deciding Political Structure of Free India.
2. Some form of Responsible Government to be established
Linlithgow was the Viceroy from 1936-1944. He out rightly rejected Congress’s above demands.
CWC RESOLUTION:
• India was denied freedom itself. Hence it could not be part of a war for Democratic Freedom
• Britain should end Imperialism and establish democracy in its own colonies
• Government should declare the method of applying principle of Democracy to India.
• Linlithgow tried to use Muslim League and the Princes against the
Congress.
• He declared that the Government aimed to resist aggression at present.
Government Response • Government will set up Consultative committee to seek advice whenever
required.
• A Promise was made to have consultations with representatives of several
communities, Princes for modification of Government of India Act 1935.
• It rejected the Viceregal's statement stating it as a repetition of Old
Imperialist Policy.
Reaction of Congress: • It decided not to support the war and called for congress Ministers to
resign
• Congress leadership was against Immediate and Anti Imperialistic mass
struggle.
Hidden agenda of the Government: to suppress any voices which rose against the Government and gain
support in war.
• Even before declaration of war emergency powers were acquired for centre by amending Government of
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India Act 1935. This was done with respect to Provincial subjects.
• Defense of India Ordinance was enforced to restrict Civil Liberties.
• Draft Revolutionary Movement Ordinance was prepared to prevent Congress’s Movement.
• The Government could call Allied troops from India to support in War.
DEBATE ON MASS STRUGGLE
After Linlithgow’s statement, there was a discussion on immediate mass struggle.
Congress’s Resolution: It would resort to Mass struggle once Congress would
be organizationally fit or if the Circumstances be as such.
Ramgarh Session of Left Wing Group: Subhash Bose and Forward Bloc, CPI, CSP, the Royalists.
Congress- March 1940 They urged the Congress to take immediate measures for a mass movement.
Nehru’s Stand: He could see the Imperialist character of the Government. But
he would not contribute to Nazi Germany’s win. He went by Congress’s
majority opinion.
PAKISTAN RESOLUTION (23rd March 1940)
• On 23rd March 1940, All India Muslim League passed a Resolution for the Partition of the Country in Minto
Park. It Proposed Two Nation Theory. The Resolution did not have the name Pakistan.
• It was rejected by the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru calling it a ‘Mad idea’ and Gandhiji rejecting the ‘Two
Nation theory.’
AUGUST OFFER (1940)
After Hitler’s success and Fall of Belgium; Britain came into conciliatory mode. They wanted support of India in
the war. Hence August Offer was proposed in 1940.
The Offer: • Dominion Status as an Objective for India. It was discussed for the first time.
• Expansion of Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• Setting up of a Constituent Assembly after War in which mainly Indians would
decide the constitution based on Socio, Economic, and Political Situations.
• But Defense, minority Rights, Treaties with states, All India Services were to be
under Government’s Rule.
• No future Constitution to be adopted without consent of minorities.
Stand of Congress • Congress rejected the Dominion Status
Stand of Muslim • Muslim League welcomed the Veto assurance. It reiterated that Partition was the
League only solution.
Importance: • It was the first time the demand of Congress for Constituent Assembly was
admitted in-principle and Rights of Indians to Frame a Constitution was
recognized.
• Dominion Status was mentioned explicitly for the first time.
Result: • Viceroy Executive Council was expanded with 8 out of 12 members being
Indians.
• National Defense Council was set up with its role being advisory in nature.
• Defense, Finance, Home was in charge of the British.
INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA (1941)
• To give another chance to the Government to accept demands of Congress peacefully.
• To show that they were not interested in the war and the Nationalist don’t differentiate between Nazism rule
and Double Autocracy.
• The nationalist patience was not due to weakness.
• Delhi Chalo Movement to march towards Delhi if the Government doesn’t stop the Satyagrahi.
• To seek Freedom of Press through propagation of Anti-War Declaration.
• Vinobha Bhave was the First one to start Individual Satyagraha from Panvar, near Wardha in Maharastra.
He was followed by Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru.
• Congress Working committee (CWC) members along with 25000 people were arrested in May 1941 and
arrested in December 1941. They wanted to defend Indian territories from Japanese aggression.
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• CWC had following demands for cooperation in the war:
Ø Full independence after the war
Ø Substance of Power to be transferred immediately.
NOTE: Gandhi ji declared Pt Nehru as his successor after this rather than the much-speculated C. Rajagopalachari.
CRIPP’S MISSION (1942)
Why? • CWC willing to support the Government subject to its above demands
• In May 1942 Japan invaded Rangoon and hence threat of invading India seemed
eminent.
• There was pressure on U.K from Allies like U.S.A, U.S.S.R, and China for India’s
cooperation.
• Indian union with a Dominion status would be set up and it would be free to
decide its relation with the UN and the Commonwealth.
• After the war Constituent Assembly would be formed with members from
Provisions: Provinces (elected through proportional representation) and Princely states
(nominated).
• Conditions of accepting New Constitution:
Ø Any Province not willing to join the Union can have a separate Constitution
and a form a Separate union.
Ø New Constitution making Body and the Government would negotiate a treaty
for Transfer of Power.
Reasons for failure of Cripps Mission: It was a mere Propaganda to satisfy Allies Power.
SIGNIFICANCE:
AUGUST OFFER 1940 CRIPP’S MISSION 1942
• First time demand for Constituent Assembly • After war Constituent Assembly with Members from
agreed upon. No talks upon provision of Provinces to be elected and Princely states to be
selecting members. nominated.
• First time Dominion Status was discussed • Gave an option to form separate Union. Thus, laying
explicitly. No talks of forming separate Union. Framework of Partition.
• Free India could draw away from the
Commonwealth.
• Viceroy Executive Council expanded with 8/12 • Larger share of Indians in Administration during
majority of Indians. Interim Period.
OBJECTIONS:
• It wanted complete Independence
• It had Objection against representation of States by nominees rather than
Elected Representatives.
CONGRESS: • Right of secession was against the Principle of National unity.
• No immediate Transfer of Power and absence of Real share in defense.
• Demand for Governor General to be Constitutional Head was not
acknowledged à Governor General’s supremacy retained.
• It was against the Idea of Single Indian union
• It was unsatisfied as the Provisions denied Muslims Right of Self
MUSLIM LEAGUE: Determination.
• It did not approve of the machinery for creation of Constituent Assembly.
• It also did not approve of procedure for accession of Provinces to the Union.
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT/ AUGUST REVOLUTION (1942)
• After failure of Cripps’s Mission, a Resolution was framed by Gandhi ji for British withdrawal and non-violent
GENERAL ELECTIONS, 1945
Labour party under Clement Atlee came to Power. Sir Patrick Lawrence was the new Secretary of State for
India.
• Announcement of General Elections in India after 10 years. Last one held in
1936.
Major steps taken: • 91% non-Muslims seats were won by Congress à In Madras, United
Province, Bihar, Orissa, Central Province it had absolute majority.
• Muslim League secured all Muslim seats à It had absolute majority in Sindh
and Bengal.
• Muslim League established as a dominant Muslim party unlike in Elections of
Significance: 1935.
• Separate Electorate and Limited franchise contributed to the communal
voting in the elections. E.g.; For Provinces <10% people could vote. For
Central Assembly <1% were eligible.
Wavell Breakdown Plan: He planned of withdrawing British Army and Officers to 6 Muslim Provinces of
North East and North West. It was superseded by the Cabinet Mission Plan
RIN MUTINY (1946)
• Due to poor Pay, Food and Racial Discrimination a mutiny under Ratings of HMIS Talwar was started.
• Flags of Congress, Muslim League and Red flag of CPI were hoisted.
• Mutiny was ended by the intervention of Sardar Patel. Despite assurances the mutineers faced trials.
• This led to Violence in Bombay, with loss of 200 lives.
• Significance: Cabinet Mission was sent on 19th February 1946 to India.
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CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946)
• Composition: Sir Patrick Lawrence (Secretary of State for India) + Sir Stafford Cripps (President of Board of
Trade) + V. Alexander (the first lord of Admiralty)
• Objectives were:
Ø To make arrangements for Interim Government.
Ø Devise mechanism for the Formation of Constitution of Free India.
• The congress and the League could not come to a consensus. Therefore, the Mission furthered with its
own Plans.
The Plan:
• Common Centre with control of Defense, Communication and External Affairs was proposed. It gave limited
Powers to the Centre, thus proposing a Weak Centre.
• All members of the Interim Government to be India and minimum interference from the Viceroy. Interim
Government to be formed from the Constituent Assembly.
• Formation of the Constituent Assembly on Democratic principles, with:
Ø Voting in 3 groups of General, Muslims and Sikhs through Proportional Representation.
Ø 389 members were to be in Constituent Assembly: 292 from Provinces, $ chief Commissioner
Province and the Princely states sending 93 members.
• All subjects (except Union and Residuary) were to be allocated to the Provinces.
• Princely states were to retain all Subjects and Residuary Subjects. They were no longer under British
paramountcy and free to join either India or Pakistan.
• Three tier executive, legislature at Provincial, Section and Union level.
• Grouping of the existing Provinces under three Sections:
Ø Section A: Madras, Bombay, Central Province, United Province, Bihar, Orissa (Hindu majority Provinces).
Ø Section B: Punjab, North West Frontier Province and Sindh (Muslim Majority provinces).
Ø Section C: Bengal and Punjab (Muslim Majority Provinces)
• Members of Groups to decide constitution of the Provinces separately. Constitution of the Union was to be
devised by the whole Constituent Assembly.
• After first General Elections, a Province would be Free to Come out of the Grouping.
• After 10 years, Province would be free to call for Reconsideration of the Group or the Union.
Interpretations by Congress: Cabinet Mission is against Pakistan. One Constituent Assembly is the vision.
League's Veto Power was gone.
Interpretations by ML: It represented Muslim Majority provinces in Section B and C. Therefore, Grouping
indicated towards Formation of Pakistan
OBJECTIONS:
Congress • Compulsory Grouping was opposite to the request of Provincial Autonomy.
• Provinces must be allowed to not join the Grouping (it was taking into
consideration Congress ruled Provinces of NWFP and Assam).
• Nominated members from the Princely states were not accepted.
Muslim League • The Muslim league wanted Compulsory Grouping.
• It wanted stronger Section of B and C (Muslim Majority provinces) for Stronger
Pakistan after the Partition.
• In June, Muslim League accepted the Plan.
• 24th June: Congress accepted the Long-term Plan.
• July 1946: Elections held in Provincial Assembly for Constituent Assembly.
• July 10, 1946: Nehru implied Constituent Assembly as Sovereign and would decide on Rules of Procedure
on its own.
• July 29, 1946: League rejected the Plan in response to Nehru’s statement. Direct Action day from August 16,
1946 to achieve Independent Pakistan.
DIRECT ACTION DAY, AUGUST 16 1946
• August 16, 1946 was fixed as Direct-Action day. Under the leadership of the Prime Minister of Bengal,
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Husseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Khwaja Nizamuddin fiery speeches were given to the already enraged ()
communal masses. 5000 people were killed in the violence that followed.
• From August 16 communal riots started in India in unprecedented level.
• Garmukteshwar (U.P), Calcutta, Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar were the most affected areas.
INTERIM GOVERNMENT
• Interim Government headed by Jawahar Lal Nehru was formed on 2nd September 1946.
• It was more or less the continuation of Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• It was formed without Muslim League but later was allowed to join on October 26th:
Ø Without giving up on Direct Action Demand.
Ø Even after the rejection of Short Term-Long term demands of Cabinet Mission
Ø Despite being adamant on Compulsory Grouping with decision to be taken by the whole population.
(Thus, making the opponents of Pakistan into a minority).
CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
• It met for the first time on December 9, 1946. It had 389 members (292 were representatives of state,
93 from Princely states, 4 from Chief Commissioner Provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Mewar, Coorg and British
Baluchistan).
• Congress won 208 seats and Muslim League won 73 seats. After the election Muslim League refused to
cooperate with the Congress. The British declared decisions of Constituent Assembly won’t be valid on
Muslim Majority area.
• Constituent Assembly was the first Parliament of independent India.
• Dr. Sachidanand Sinha was its First President when it met on December 9, 1946.
Objective Resolution: It was moved on 13th December 1947 and adopted on 22nd January 1947. It was drafted
by Jawaharlal Nehru and stated the ideals of an Independent Republic with autonomous units, Minority
safeguards and Social, Political and Economic Democracy.
Congress’s Stand: It accepted more than one Centre to have Transfer of Power. Transfer of Power would allow
Congress to frame a Constitution.
ATLEE’S STATEMENT (1947)
• On 20th February 1947, Prime Minister Clement Atlee released a statement. It declared a deadline of June
30, 1948 for Transfer of Power.
• Transfer of Power to be made to:
Ø Either to some form of Central Government.
Ø If Constitutional Assembly was not fully Representative it would transfer the Powers to the
existing Provincial Government in some area (if the Muslim majority provinces did not join the
Union.)
Ø This Transfer of Power would end British’s power and obligation w.r.t Princely States. The Power would
also not be transferred to successive states automatically.
Ø Lord Mountbatten to be the new Viceroy of India replacing Lord Wavell. He was the Last Viceroy of
British India.
• Muslim ‘league launched Civil Mass Disobedience after this.
Ø To prevent the growing Constitutional Crises.
Fixed date was set to: Ø So the concerned parties come into agreement on major issues.
Ø To convince Indians of British's Sincerity
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN, JUNE 3 1947
Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of British India. First Viceroy of Independent India being C. Rajagopalachari.
He was sent in India with a task of exploring options of Unity. But M.A. Jinnah was adamant about Sovereign
Pakistan. Congress gave consent to the Partition in June subsequently June 3 plan was tabled in House of
Commons by Clement Atlee.
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The Plan:
• The Provincial Assemblies of Bengal and Punjab would meet separately, one representing Muslim Majority
districts and another Hindu Majority districts to decide on the Partition by Voting.
• Referendum to be commenced in case of NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal.
• Sindh was free to take its own decisions.
• In case of Partition two Dominion and two Constituent assemblies to be formed.
• Since Congress gave demands a unified India, all its demands were to be met:
Ø Independence of princely states ruled out. Could join Indian or Pakistan dominion.
Ø No independence to Bengal.
Ø Accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan was negated.
• Freedom would be given on 15th August 1947.
• Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe to be set up in case of Partition.
Leagues demand of Separate Pakistan was agreed upon. So was the Congress’s demand. Idea was to retain
maximum Unity. Congress accepted Dominion Status for Quick Transfer of Power, army and bureaucratic
continuity and checks in the violent situation in the Country.
INDIA INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947
Mountbatten Plan was ratified as India Independence Act of 1947 by British Government. It was implemented
on 15th August 1947.
• Independent dominion of India and Pakistan to be formed.
• Each Dominion to have Governor General for overseeing implementation of the Act. Mountbatten was for
Indian Dominion and M.A. Jinnah for Pakistan.
• Constituent Assembly of Each Dominion to exercise powers of Legislature. Existing Assemblies to dissolve.
• Till New Constitution was adopted, Governance to be carried in Accordance with Government of India Act,
1935.
INTEGRATION OF STATES
Integration of States was done in two phases. Nehru presided over the All-India States People’s Conference
sessions. He declared that the States refusing to join the Constituent Assembly would be considered hostile. July
1947, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel took charge of New States Department.
Phase I • All states except Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagarh signed “Instrument of
Accession” with India. They acknowledged central authority over Defense
Communication and External Affairs.
• Reasons for acceptance:
Ø No changes in Political Structure.
Ø Giving up of powers which were never possessed.
Phase II • Integration of states into nearby province or into New regions (Himanchal Pradesh,
Kathiawar region, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh).
• Internal Constitutional changes in states which retained their old boundaries for
some years (Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore- Cochin.) Privy Purse was given or some
kings were made Governors/ Rajpramukh.
STUDENT NOTES:
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Home Charges formed an important component of the Drain of Wealth from India. It comprised of:
• Funds to support the Indian offices in London.
• Funds used to pay salaries and pensions of British personnel engaged in India.
• Interest on debts and other capital investments like railways.
STUDENT NOTES:
REGULATING ACT OF 1773:
• This is the first Act passed by the British Parliament to control and regulate the affairs of the East
India Company in India.
• Governor of Bengal became “Governor General of Bengal”. Warren Hastings was the First Governor
General of Bengal.
• An Executive Council with Four members was created for his assistance.
• Regulating Act made the independent Presidencies of Bombay and Madras subordinate to the
Presidency of Bengal.
• Supreme Court in Calcutta to be established in 1774 under the Act. (Structure: One Chief Justice and Two
Judges).
• The EIC was required to form a Court of Directors (COD) for reporting its Revenue, Civil, Military affairs to
the British Government. This Strengthened control of British Government over the Company’s affair in India.
Significance: It was implemented by British Government to control the working of East India Company in
India. It was their first step in setting up Central administration in India. It was also the first time the British
Government realized Administrative and Political functions of the Company.
ACT OF SETTLEMENT OF 1781:
• Also called as Act of Settlement. It was brought to amend the previous ac t.
• Governor General and his Council of Four members; along with Servants of the Company were exempted
from Jurisdiction (Control) of the Supreme Court for acts done under Official Capacity.
• Revenue matters and issues in Revenue collection were also exempted from the control of Supreme Court.
• Personal Laws were required to be used for trials of people from specific religion. (Hindu Personal Laws
for Hindus and Muslim Personal Laws for Muslims.)
• The population of Calcutta came under the Jurisdiction (control) of Supreme Court.
• It empowered the Governor General and his Council to frame Rules for the Provincial Courts and
Provincial Councils. It also laid provisions stating appeals from Provincial courts could be taken to Governor
General and his council. (Governor-General-in-Council).
PITT’S INDIA ACT OF 1784:
• The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay became subordinate to the Bengal Presidency. In effect,
Calcutta became the capital of the British possessions in India.
• Governors Councils were established in Bombay and Madras.
• This act made a distinction between the commercial and political activities of the East India Company.
• Company Administration was divided in:
1. Court of Directors was mandated to handle Commercial affairs. System of Double Government was
introduced.
2. Board of Control was established to manage Political affairs of India. It also supervised all operations of
Civil and military affairs. It regulated Revenues of British possession in India.
Act of 1786 placed these provisions in place and Lord Cornwallis became the Governor General of Bengal.
CHARTER ACT OF 1793:
It accorded;
• Commander in Chief would not be the member of the Governor General Council until appointed.
• It extended the overriding power given to Cornwallis to all future Governor Generals.
• Governor General was given more powers over subordinate provinces of Bombay and Madras.
• Trade monopoly of Company was extended to 20 more years.
CHARTER ACT OF 1813:
• Company’s territories in India came under the Sovereignty of British Government.
• Local Government was allowed to impose taxes on people. They could punish people on not paying taxes.
• It brought an end to the monopoly of East India Company, over trade with India.
• The company’s rule was extended to another 20 years. Their trade monopoly was ended except for the
trade in tea, opium, and with China.
• One of the important features of this act was to grant permission to the missionaries to come to India.
CHARTER ACT OF 1833:
• Governor General of Bengal was made “Governor General of India”.
• The Governor-General was given full control over revenue, civil and military for administering British
possessions in India. The ending of the East India Company’s commercial activities and making it into the
British Crown’s trustee in administering India.
• William Bentinck was the First Governor General of India. Governor General of India had legislative
powers over entire India. Laws made under the Act were called Acts, whereas previously they were
called Regulations.
• East India Company became an administrative body. This ending its Commercial functions in India.
• The company’s trade links with China were also closed down. This act permitted the English to settle freely
in India.
• Charter Act of 1833 was the final step in the Process of Centralization in India, a process that began with
the Regulating Act of 1773.
CHARTER ACT OF 1853:
• It separated Governor’s Legislative Functions from the Administrative Functions.
• Six members called as Legislative Councilors were added to the Governor General Council. It was called
Indian Legislative Council was to function as mini-Parliament on the lines of British Parliament.
• It extended Company’s rule in India without mentioning a time frame.
• For the First time, it introduced Local representation in Indian Legislative council.
• 4/6 members were elected from the province of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Agra new Governor General
Legislative Council.
• It made civil services open to all including Indians. This ended the system of appointments by
recommendation and started a system of open and fair competition.
• For the first time, local representation was introduced into the legislative council in the form of four
members from the local governments of Bengal, Bombay, Madras and North Western Provinces.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1858:
• Known as Act of Good Government of India. It abolished the East India Company and transferred powers
to the Crown.
• The rule of the Company ended and Viceroy was the new Designation of the “Governor General of
India”; who was direct representative of British Crown in India.
• It abolished Board of Control and Court of Directors thus ending Double Government.
• An Office of “Secretary of State” (SoS) for India was made. He was a member of British Cabinet responsible
to the British Government.
• Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council of India of 15 members. It was an advisory body with SoS
being the Chairman of the Council.
Significance: It focused on improving Administrative machinery (Governor General of India replaced by Viceroy
under the Crown etc.) of India.
INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1861:
• It provided for Viceroy to nominate some ‘Nominated’ Indians in the extended Legislative Council. (1862,
Viceroy Canning nominated three Indians in the Legislative council)
• Legislative Powers of Bombay and Madras Presidencies were restored.
• It gave provisions of Formation of New Legislative Council (Upper House) Bengal (formed in 1862), North
Western Province (1886), and Punjab (1897). Presidencies of Bombay, Madras and Bengal had more power
than this.
• Viceroy was empowered to issue Ordinance without the consent of Legislative Council in case of
emergency. This Ordinance was valid till 6 months from the date of issue.
• It recognized the Portfolio system which was started by Lord Canning in 1859.
Portfolio System: In it, a member of Viceroy Council was made in charge of one or more Departments and
could independently take decision and issue orders on the behalf of the Council.
INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1892:
• Additional non official members increased in Central and Provincial Legislative Councils. Official majority
was maintained.
• Increase in Functions of Legislative Councils: power of discussing Budget and addressing the Questions to
the Executive.
• It provided for the nomination of some Non-Official members of:
Ø Central Legislative Council by the Viceroy on the Recommendation of the Provincial Legislative Council
and Bengal Chamber of Commerce.
Ø Provincial Legislative Council by the Governor on the advice of District Board, Municipalities,
Universities, Trade Associations, Zamindars and Chambers.
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Significance: The Word ‘Election’ was nowhere mentioned but a limited and indirect election for the
Nominated members was introduced in this Act.
INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1909 (MORLEY MINTO REFORMS):
• Legislative Council was enlarged. In Central Legislative Council members were increased from 16 60. In
Provincial Councils number were not uniform.
• Central Legislative Council continued to have Official majority; whereas Non-Official Majority was
allowed in the Provincial Legislative Council.
• More powers were given to the Legislative Councils:
Ø Members were allowed to ask supplementary questions.
Ø Voting of separate items on the Budget allowed. Budget as a whole could still not be voted upon.
• Separate Electorate for Muslims Introduced. Only Muslims could vote for the Muslim Candidates. Lord
Minto became the “Father of Communal Electorate”
• Indians were allowed in the Executive Council of the Viceroy for the First time. Satyendra Prasad
Sinha was appointed as a Law member in the VEC.
• Separate representation for Presidency Corporations, Chamber of Commerce, Universities etc.
Significance: It was the first attempt to introduce “Representative and Popular Elements” in the Council.
Councils were referred to as Legislative Councils for the first time.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1919: MONTAGU CHELMSFORD REFORMS: MONTFORD REFORMS:
• Central and Provincial Subjects were separated with the power to make Laws on their respective subjects.
• Element of Dyarchy was introduced (Dual Rule/ Double Government: Division of the Subjects allocated to
the states into Two Categories, one managed by Executive Branch, Second by Popular ministers who were
Indians) in the Provinces.
• Provincial Subjects were divided into two parts: Reserved and Transferred:
Ø Reserved Subjects: They were to be administered by the Governor General and his executive Council.
They were not responsible to the Legislative council.
Ø Transferred Subjects: They were to be administered by Governor General with the help of his council.
They were responsible to the legislative council for these subjects.
• For the First time, Indian Legislative Council to be replaced by the Upper and Lower House of the
Parliament (Bicameralism). Majority members were to be chosen by Direct Elections.
• Three of the six members of the Viceroy Executive Council to be Indians. (Excluding Commander in Chief).
• Separate electorate for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Europeans, Europeans (Element of Communal
Representation).
• Franchise given to limited number of people on the basis of property, Tax, Education.
• Provincial Budget was separated from Central Budget and Provinces were allowed to enact their own
Budget.
• Provided for setting up of a Commission to see the working after 10 years of these provisions coming
into force. Simon Commission was appointed in 1927 for this purpose.
Significance: It was the first time the British Government declared its intention of introducing Responsible
Government in the Country.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1935:
• All India Federation consisting of Provinces and Princely states. It provided for division of Subjects based on
Centre, Provincial and Concurrent List.
• Residuary powers were with the Governor General.
• Princely States did not join the Federation.
• Diarchy was abolished and Provincial autonomy was introduced. Diarchy provision in the Centre was
introduced. Federal Subjects were divided into Reserved and Transferred. (This provision never came to
being.)
• Provinces were allowed to act as independent units of administration.
• The Governor was required to act under the advice of the ministers responsible to the provincial legislature.
T
• This provision came into force in 1937 and repealed in 1939.
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• Bicameralism (Upper House-Lower House): It came into being in six out of 11 provinces. Bengal, Bombay,
Madras, United Province, Bihar and Assam. Upper House: Legislative Council; Lower House: Legislative
Assembly.
• Separate Electorate: It was introduced for the depressed classes and Women. (Provision of Separate
electorate extended)
• Secretary of States was provided with team of Advisors. Council of India was abolished.
• Extended Franchise: 10% of people got the voting rights.
• Reserve Bank of India to be established for controlling currency and credit,
• Establishment of a Federal Court. Was established in 1937.
Significance: It was another important step introduction of Responsible Government.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1947:
It was brought in response to the Mountbatten Plan.
• It gave the provisions of Partition of India with the creation of two independent Dominion; India,
Pakistan. These Dominions had the Right to secede from the British Commonwealth.
• Governor Generals was to be appointed in both the Dominion of India and Pakistan by the King of Britain.
Office of the Viceroy came to an end. Hereafter British king would not have any responsibility w.r.t the
Government of India.
• It gave the authority to the Dominions to govern as per the provision of the Act of 1935 or make modifications
if need be.
• Constituent assemblies of the Dominions were empowered to frame and enact the Constitution. They could
also repeal any Act including the Independence of India Act. Constituent Assembly could legislate over
their territories till the drafting and enactment of the New Constitution.
• Governor General of India and Provincial Governors were designated as Head of the State respectively. They
were to work on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
• Right to Veto Bills or ask for Reservation of Bills of the Governor were reserved but were taken away
from the British Monarch.
• The office of Secretary of State was abolished and functions were transferred to Secretary of States for
Commonwealth.
• British paramountcy over princely states came to an end. They were allowed to be independent or join
any dominion.
Significance: British rule came to an end by this Act. India became Independent on 15th August 1947.
EVOLUTION OF JUDICIARY
Under Warren Hastings Under Cornwallis Under William Bentinck
REFORMS UNDER WARREN HASTINGS (1772-85):
For Criminal • Sadar Nizamat Adalat was in Murshidabad. It was headed by Deputy Nizam and
Disputes assisted by Chief Qazi and Chief Mufti. It was for Capital Punishment and for
Acquisition of Property.
• District Fauzdari Adalats, under an Indian officer assisted by a Qazi and a Mufti. It
was also under General Supervision of a Collector.
For Civil • Sadar Diwani Adalat under President and 2 members of the Supreme Council.
Disputes • District Diwani Adalat under Collector: Hindu law for Hindus and Muslim Laws for
Muslims.
REFORMS UNDER CORNWALLIS (1786-93):
• District Fauzdari Adalats were abolished and were replaced by Circuit Courts.
Ø Circuit Courts were established in Patna, Dacca, Murshidabad, and Calcutta.
Ø It had European Judges and acted as a Court of Appeal for both Civil and criminal Cases.
• Sadar Nizamat Adalat was under Governor General and members of Supreme Council. It was shifted to
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Calcutta.
• District Diwani Adalat: It was designated as District, Zila or City court. It was placed under a District
Magistrate. Collector was freed from his earlier magisterial function; he now had responsibility of Revenue
Collection.
• Sadar Diwani Adalat established at Calcutta.
CORNWALLIS CODE
• There was a Separation of Revenue and Justice Administration.
• Government Servants are answerable to Civil Court for their actions done in official Capacity.
• Europeans Subjects were thus brought under the Jurisdiction of the court.
• Principle of Sovereignty of the Law was established.
REFORMS UNDER WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1833):
• Circuit courts were abolished
• Functions were transferred to the Collector under the Supervision of Commissioner of Revenue/ Circuit.
• Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were set up in Allahabad for the Convenience of People of
Upper Province
• Suitor had the Option to Use Persian or Vernacular. In Supreme Court, English Language Replaced Persian.
1833 Law Commission under Macaulay was formed for Codification of Indian Laws:
1. Civil Procedure Code was Prepared in 1859.
2. Indian Penal Code was prepared in 1860.
3. Criminal Procedure Code was prepared in 1861.
1860 • Europeans could claim special privileges except in Case of Criminal Proceedings.
• No Judge of an Indian Origin could try them.
1865 Sadar Adalat and SC were merged into three High Courts of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
1935 Government of India Act provided for the formation of a Federal Court (was set up in 1937). It
could settle disputes between Governments and hear limited appeals from the High Courts.
EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES
Warren Hastings laid the Foundation of Civil Services in India. Charles Cornwallis reformed, Organized and
modernized it. Hence, he is called the “Father of Civil Services in India”.
• Charter Act of 1793: All posts worth 500 Pound annually were reserved for Covenanted Servants of the
company.
• Charter Act of 1833: It opened Civil Services for all. Its
provisions were never implemented.
• Proclamation of 1858: It declared the British
intentions of including more Indians freely and
impartially in offices under Civil Services.
• Indian Civil Services Act, 1861:
Ø This Act reserved certain Offices for Covenanted
Civil Servants.
Ø Examinations to be held in England in English. Classical learning of Greek and Latin was required.
Ø Maximum permissible age reduced à 23 (1859) à 22 (1860) à 21 (1866) à 19 (1878).
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NOTE: Satyendra Nath became the First Indian ICS officer in 1863.
SOME INITIAL DEVELOPMENTS
• 1800: Wellesley had set up Fort Williams College in for training of New Recruits.
• 1806: The above college was disapproved by Court of Directors. East India College was set up in
Haileybury (England) for two years training of new recruits.
Statutory Civil Services Commission under Lytton (1878-79): It recommended;
• 1/6th of Covenanted posts to be filled by Indians of Higher family through nominations from Local
Government.
• Approval of Viceroy and Secretary of State were needed.
• This system was abolished.
Indian National Congress 1. For holding elections in India and England.
Demanded 2. Increase in the age Limit
ATCHISON COMMISSION ON PUBLIC SERVICES (1886):
• It was set up by Lord Dufferin; it recommended not using Covenanted - Non-Covenanted.
• Classified Civil Services into:
1. Imperial Indian Civil Services (England)
2. Provincial Civil Services (India)
3. Subordinate Civil Services (India)
• Increase in minimum age to 23 years from 19 (1878).
MONTFORD REFORMS (1919):
• Recommended simultaneous Examination in London and India.
• 1/3rd of recruitment to be made in India with raise by 1.5% annually.
• It provided for setting up a Public Service Commission. Central Public Service Commission was set up on
1926.
• Montford stated a realistic approach of more Indians to be commissioned in Public Services.
• Reason à for introducing responsible Government in future.
LEE COMMISSION (1924):
• A Public Commission to be immediately established (as envisioned in Government of India Act 1919)
• The Secretary of State should continue recruiting Indian Covenanted Services, the Irrigation/ branch of the
Services of Engineers. The IFS et al.
• Recruitments for the transferrable subjects like Education, Civil Medical Services to be made by Provincial
Government.
• Direct recruitment to the Indian Covenanted Services and a parity of 50:50 (ratio of European: Indians) to
be reached in 15 years.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT (1935):
• It recommended formation Federal Public Services and Provincial Public Services and Joint Public
Services for two or more provinces.
CORNWALLIS TRIED TO CHECK CORRUPTION IN CIVIL SERVICES BY:
• Raising salaries of the Officers.
• Strict rules were enforced against Private trade.
• Deterring Civil Servants against Bribes, Present.
• Enforcing Promotions through seniority.
EVOLUTION OF POLICE
• 1791:
Ø Cornwallis organized police force through Modernization.
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Ø Darogas (Indians) were appointed in Old Thanas (circles) in a district. A SP was appointed as the head of
the district.
Ø Earlier Zamindars did the policing duty and Cornwallis relieved them from it.
• 1808: Lord Mayo appointed SP in each Division and number of Spies (Goyendas).
• 1814: Court of Directors ordered to abolish Darogas and Subordinates except in Bengal.
NOTE: The above system led to poorly organized policing system with added burden of policing on the
magistrate. Presidency towns were the first to have these duties of magistrate separated from administrative
duties.
POLICE COMMISSION OF 1860:
• It recommended the formation of Indian Police Act of 1861 which gave guidelines for setting up Policing
system in the provinces.
• It recommended a system of Civil Constabulary: Village to be guarded by the Watchman but will be in
indirect contact with the Constabulary.
Ø Inspector General as Head in Province
Ø Deputy Inspector General as Head in a range
Ø SP as the Head in a District.
1902: Establishment of Criminal Investigation Department in the Provinces and Central Intelligence Bureau at
the Centre.
NOTE: William Bentinck’s contribution in controlling Thugee system is commendable of all.
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