TRANSCRIPTION :

 The process of copying genetic information from one strand of

the DNA into RNA is termed as transcription.
 In transcription only a segment of DNA and only one of the
strands is copied into RNA because
A. If both strands act a template, they would code for RNA
molecule with different sequences and the sequences of
amino acids in the coded protein would be different i.e they
will code for entirely different protein. Hence, one segment
of the DNA would be coding for two different proteins, and
this would complicate the genetic information transfer
machinery.
B. Second, the two RNA molecules if produced simultaneously
would be complementary to each other, hence would form
a double stranded RNA .This would prevent RNA from being
translated into protein and the exercise of transcription
would become a futile one..
 The Principle of COMPLIMENTARY Follows but URACIL comes in
place of THYMINE
 Only one small segment of DNA is copied into mRNA
TRANSCRIPTION UNIT :
 TRANSCRIPTION UNIT is the region from where the RNA is
transcribed from DNA.
 Transcription unit in DNA is defined primarily by the 3
regions in the DNA.
 A  transcription unit consists of
A. A Promoter
B. The Structural gene
C. A Terminator

In prokaryotes, control of the rate of transcriptional initiation is the predominant site for control
of gene expression. In a transcription unit, the activity of RNA polymerase at a given promoter is
in turn regulated by interaction with accessory proteins, which affect its ability to recognise start
sites. These regulatory proteins can act both positively (activators) and negatively (repressors).
The accessibility of promoter regions of prokaryotic DNA is in many cases regulated by the
interaction of proteins with sequences termed operators. The operator region is adjacent to the
promoter elements in most operons and in most cases the sequences of the operator bind a
repressor protein. Each operon has its specific operator and specific repressor.

<-------UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM---- 

 All the reference point in while defining a transcription unit is

made with CODING STRAND.
 When considering double-stranded DNA, upstream is toward
the 5' end of the coding strand for the gene in question and
downstream is toward the 3' end.

TEMPLATE STRAND CODING STRAND

It is a DNA strand with DNA Strand with 5′ →→ 3′
3′→→ 5′ Polarity. Polarity

Acts as template for

Does not code for any region of
transcription and codes for
RNA during transcription.
RNA
 There is a convention in defining the two strands of the DNA
in the structural gene of a transcription unit.
 Since the two strands have opposite polarity and the DNA-
dependent RNA polymerase also catalyse the
polymerisation in only one direction, that is, 5'→3', the
strand that has the polarity 3'→5' acts as a TEMPLATE, and is
also referred to as TEMPLATE STRAND.
 The other strand which has the polarity (5'→3') and the
sequence same as RNA (except thymine at the place of
uracil), is displaced during transcription.
 This strand (which does not code for anything) is referred to
as CODING STRAND.
 All the reference point while defining a transcription unit is
made with coding strand.
 The promoter and terminator flank the structural gene in a
transcription unit.
 The promoter is said to be located towards 5' -end
(upstream) of the structural gene (the reference is made
with respect to the polarity of coding strand).
 It is a DNA sequence that provides binding site for RNA
polymerase, and it is the presence of a promoter in a
transcription unit that also defines the template and coding
strands.
 By switching its position with terminator, the definition of
coding and template strands could be reversed.
  The terminator is located towards 3' -end (downstream) of
the coding strand and it usually defines the end of the
process of transcription .
 There are additional regulatory sequences that may be
present further upstream or downstream to the promoter.
TRANSCRIPTION UNIT AND GENES
 A GENE is defined as the FUNCTIONAL unit of
inheritance.
 It is a segment of DNA which can code for mRNA (protein) as
well as tRNA and rRNA .
 Gene doesn’t always form a protein like genes for tRNA &
mRNA doesn’t form protein.
 A segment of DNA which codes for a polypeptide is called a
CISTRON or a cistron denotes a structural gene; in other words,
a coding sequence or segment of DNA encoding a polypeptide.
 Monocistronic mRNA is a mRNA that encodes only one protein
and all eukaryotic mRNAs are monocistronic. It means ONE
gene ONE protein concept i.e one DNA segment codes for only
one polypeptide have individual PROMOTER & TERMINATOR .
 PROKARYOTES – most of genes
More than ONE genes -> More than ONE protein
Ex. Gene A, B and C – have common -> PROMOTER & common
TERMINATOR…. They make common mRNA -> translate to make 3
separate proteins A , B and C.- POLYCISTRONIC
--- and a single TERMINATOR and form more than one Proteins.
More than one Gene are present which are controlled by a single
PROMOTER
 The main difference between mono cistronic and poly cistronic
mRNA is that the monocistronic mRNA produces a single
 protein while polycistronic mRNA produces several proteins
that are functionally-related.
 Furthermore, eukaryotes have monocistronic mRNA while
prokaryotes have polycistronic mRNA.

 In Eukaryotes , the monocistronic structural genes have

interrupted coding sequences – The Genes in Eukaryotes are
split.
 EXONS are the coding sequences or expressed sequences
that appear in mature or processed RNA.
 INTRONS are the intervening sequences which interrupt
exons and do not appear in mature or processed RNA.

TRANSCRIPTION IN PROKARYOTES
In Bacteria there are 3 types of RNA.
 RNA mRNA (messenger) - provides templates for Translation.
 rRNA (ribosomal RNA )  Play Structural and catalytic role
during Translation.
Structural – help in making ribosomes (Protein Factory of the cell)
 Catalytic – Act as an Enzyme at the time of TRANSLATION.
tRNA( transfer RNA ) :  Brings amino acids and reads the
genetic code.
 DNA depended RNA Polymerase enzyme is present which
transcribes all 3 types of RNA in Bacteria.
This enzyme need TEMPLATE of DNA for TRANSCRIPTION so we
call it DNA dependent RNA polymerase.
It will make all the 3 RNA .
IN PROKARYOTES

Transcription takes place in three steps

 Initiation
 Elongation
 Termination

A.INITIATION :
 INITIATION is the beginning of TRANSCRIPTION.
  It occurs when the DNA dependent RNA Polymerase binds to a
region of a gene called the PROMOTER, upstream from the
gene that will be transcribed, called a promoter
site and then unwinds the DNA locally.
 RNA Polymerase can only perform elongation
and cannot alone binds to the Promoter, so a
protein SIGMA FACTOR – helper will come and
binds with this enzyme .
 A sigma factor (σ factor or specificity factor) is a protein needed
for initiation of transcription in bacteria.
 The sigma factor, together with RNA polymerase, is known as
the RNA polymerase holoenzyme.
 This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme DNA dependent
RNA Polymerase can reads the bases in one of the DNA
strands.
 RNA polymerase facilitates opening of the helix and continues
elongation only .
 It can initiate transcription by itself, it does not require primase
 It uses nucleoside triphosphates as substrate

B.ELONGATION :
 INITIATION FACTOR( sigma factor) falls off.
 DNA dependent RNA Polymerase follows the rule of
complimentarity and form RNA from the template strand of
DNA.
C. TERMINATION :
 Once the POLYMERASE reaches the TERMINATION region ,
Termination factor , Rho (ρ) protein binds on Polymerase enzyme
 Rho factor separate the newly formed RNA
 Association of sigma and Rho FACTOR alter the specifity of
the RNA polymerase to either initiate or terminate the RNA
Transcription .
 IN EUKARYOTES THERE ARE TWO ADDITIONAL
COMPLEXITIES---
1 There are atleast three RNA polymerase in the nucleus( in
addition to the RNA polymerase found in the organelles).
a. The RNA Polymerase – I transcribes rRNA(28S , 18S and
5.8S)
b. The RNA Polymerase – II transcribes mRNA and hnRNA
c. The RNA Polymerase –III transcribes tRNA ,5srRNA and
snRNAs(small nuclear RNAs)
2. Primary Transcript (hnRNA) contains both the EXONS and
the INTRONS and are non functional.
3. INTRONS are removed by SPLISEOSOMES, these enzymes
SPLISEOSOMES come and binds to the junctions of EXONS and
INTRONS and remove the non functional INTRONS and help to
join the EXONS together.
4. EXONS combines together.
5. Now mRNA formed in the Nucleus will come out for
Translation in the Cytoplasm but the enzyme RNAse present
there will degrade the mRNA , so to prevent & protect it
Capping occurs.
6. Capping by Methylated Guanosine tri phosphate at the 5’
end and Tailing by Polyadenylate addition at the 3’ end.
 mRNA is transported out of the nucleus for translation.
 The process of removing the introns and rejoining the
coding sections or exons, of the mrna, is called splicing.
Once the mrna has been capped, spliced and had a
polya tail added, it is sent from the nucleus into the
cytoplasm for translation.
 The 5′ cap protects the nascent mrna from degradation
and assists in ribosome binding during translation. A poly
(A) tail is added to the 3′ end of the pre-mRNA once
elongation is complete.

In eukaryotic cells, pre-mRNAs undergo three main

processing steps:

 Capping at the 5' end

 Addition of a polyA tail at the 3' end. and
 Splicing to remove introns